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Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

www.jmrt.com.br

Review Article

Effects of fibre treatment on mechanical properties

of kenaf fibre reinforced composites: a review

Muhammad.H. Hamidon a , Mohamedb T.H. Sultan a,b,∗ , Ahmad H. Ariffin a,b ,

Ain U.M. Shah a,b
a Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan,
Malaysia
b Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400

UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: There have been review on kenaf fibre (KF) production and mechanical properties but lacks
Received 27 August 2018 review on the treatment and surface modification on kenaf fibre. Therefore, this study is
Accepted 1 April 2019 to show the type of treatment that have been done by previous researcher. A lot of meth-
Available online xxx ods have been investigated to find the optimum method to obtain better condition and
properties for kenaf fibre. The present review describes those applied to kenaf fibre. The
Keywords: most widely used chemical treatment is the alkaline treatment using a sodium hydrox-
Natural fibre ide (NaOH) solution, followed by a silane treatment. Variety of chemical concentration for
Kenaf fibre NaOH solution and silane solution are investigated and a few combined treatments such
Fibre treatment as alkaline-silane, alkaline-steam, alkaline-radiation and alkaline-bleaching are also dis-
Material properties cussed. Thus, this paper presents an overview of investigated treatment methods with
Composite materials application to kenaf fibre and what are the effects of chemical treatment to the surface
of kenaf fibre and the mechanical properties of the composites developed based on treated
kenaf fibre.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Assoc. Prof. Ir. Ts. Dr. Mohamed Thariq Bin Haji Hameed UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. Being the Head of Bio-
Sultan whom is a Professional Engineer (PEng) registered composite Technology Laboratory, he is also appointed as an
under the Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM), Professional Independent Scientific Advisor to Aerospace Malaysia Innova-
Technologist (PTech) registered under the Malaysian Board of tion Centre (AMIC) based in Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia. He
Technologists and also a Charted Engineer (CEng) registered received his Ph.D. from University of Sheffield, United King-
with the Institution of Mechanical Engineers United Kingdom, dom. He has about 10 years of experience in teaching as well
currently attached with Universiti Putra Malaysia as the Head as in research. His area of research interests includes Hybrid
of Biocomposite Technology Laboratory (BIOCOMPOSITE) Composites, Advance Materials, Structural Health Monitoring
Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), and Impact Studies. So far he has published more than 100
International journal papers, published 5 books internation-
ally and received many awards locally and internationally.
∗ In December 2017, he was awarded as Leaders in Innovation
Corresponding author.
Fellowship (LIF) by the Royal Academy of Engineering (Raeng),
E-mail: thariq@upm.edu.my (M.T. Sultan).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.04.012
2238-7854/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

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Fig. 1 – Classification of natural fibres (from Akil et al. [16]).

Table 1 – mechanical properties for synthetic and natural fibre.

Fibre Density (g/cm3 ) Elongation (%) Tensile strength (MPa) Young’s modulus (GPa)

Kenaf 1.50 1.6 930 53

Ramie 1.5 2.0–3.8 220–938 44–128
Flax 1.4–1.5 1.2–3.2 345–1500 27.6–80
Hemp 1.48 1.6 550–900 70
Jute 1.3–1.46 1.5–1.8 393–800 10–30
Sisal 1.33–1.5 2.0–14 400–700 9.0–38.0
Coir 1.2 15.0–30.0 175–220 4.0–6.0
Cotton 1.5–1.6 3.0–10.0 287–597 5.5–12.6
Softwood kraft 1.5 – 1000 40.0
E-glass 2.5 2.5–3.0 2000–3500 70.0
S-glass 2.5 2.8 4570 86.0

Table 2 – composition for natural fibres.

Type of fibre Cellulose (%) Lignin (%) Hemicellulose (or Pentosan) (%) Pectin (%) Ash (%)

1. Bast fibre
Kenaf 31–57 15–19 21.5–23 – 2–5
Seed flax 43–47 21–23 24–26 – 5
Fibre flax 71 2.2 18.6–20.6 2.3 –
Jute 45–71.5 12–26 13.6–21 0.2 0.5–2
Hemp 57–77 3.7–13 14–22.4 0.9 0.8
Ramie 68.6–91 0.6–0.7 5–16.7 1.9 –

2. Core fibre
Kenaf 37–49 15–21 18–24 – 2–4
Jute 41–48 21–24 18–22 – 0.8

3. Leaf fibre
Abaca 56–63 7–9 15–17 – 3
Sisal 47–78 7–11 10–24 10 0.6–1
Henequen 77.6 13.1 4–8 – –

United Kingdom. He is also the Honourable Secretary of the Chairman in the Engineering Education Technical Division
Malaysian Society of Structural Health Monitoring (MSSHM) (E2TD). He also appointed as Panel Evaluator for Engineer-
based in UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. Currently, he is ing Accreditation Council Malaysia (EAC) and Engineering
also attached to the Institution of Engineers Malaysia (IEM) as Technology Accreditation Council (ETAC).

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the major factors that determine the mechanical properties

1. Introduction
Natural fibres have been used by humans from very early
times. In recent years, the usage of natural fibres in com-
posites has received significantly increasing attention [1–15].
Fibre-reinforced composites are based on a fibre used as rein-
forcement and a polymer as matrix. Natural fibres can be
basically divided into animal fibres, vegetable fibres and min-
eral fibres as shown in Fig. 1.
There is a wide variety of plant fibres that have been
investigated for the use as reinforcement in composites. The
production of natural fibres has been steadily increasing,
besides they are easy to handle and present great advantages
in terms of eco-friendliness [17]. The mechanical properties of
natural fibres are shown in Table 1.
Another important aspect for using natural fibres in various
applications is their chemical composition. The composi-
tion of some investigated natural fibres is shown in Table 2
[18,19]
The constituents of natural fibres include hemicelluloses,
cellulose, pectin, lignin, waxes and water-soluble substances.
The chemical composition of fibres may vary even within the
same plant species, as a function of the growth conditions
of the plant, geographical factors and the method of fibre
extraction. Most chemical treatments of fibres pertain surface
modifications as described by [2,7,20-23].
Currently, there is still quite a great discrepancy between
the strength of natural fibres and that of conventional rein-
forcing fibres, such as glass fibres. The difference in strength
is one of the main reasons why natural fibres cannot fully
replace the glass fibres. Thus, researchers started investi-
gating the hybridization of composites by combining two or
more types of fibres to produce a new material with improved
characteristics compared to those of the original materials.
Laminates composite structures consist of woven plies of
reinforcing fibre, and a matrix that bonds the plies together
and gives stiffness to the whole assembly. Their properties
differ from those of metallic alloys since each of the mate-
rials in a composite still maintains its original chemical,
physical and mechanical properties. The interfacial bonding
between the fibre surface and the polymer matrix is one of
of composites. Example of mechanical properties that can be
examine on a composites structure are by conducting tensile
test [24], thermal buckling analysis [25], post buckling analysis
[26,27], flexure analysis [28]and bending analysis [29,30]. After
testing have been done the structure can be further observe
to determine the structure that undergo tensile and thermal
testing have been totally damaged or still useable for certain
period of time as studied by Mustapha et al. [31].
Recently, composites have become widely employed in
the aerospace industry. Basically, there are two types of fibre
reinforced materials that have been used in the aerospace
industry, namely, carbon/epoxy and glass/phenolic com-
posites. Carbon/epoxy composites are mostly applied to
major-load bearing structures, while glass/phenolic ones are
intended for cabin furnishings. The composites started to be
applied in aircraft structures in the late 1960s, but at first, they
were used for manufacturing only military aircraft, as the mil-
itary has the privilege of funding for research on composite
materials [32]. Over time, the use of composite materials has
been extended and they steadily replaced older structures in
aircraft, which were mainly made from aluminium until then.
Currently, most parts of the aircraft are manufactured from
composite materials, as shown in Fig. 2.
1.1. Kenaf plant
Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L., Malvaceae) is an annual crop
that grows during the warm season and is almost similar
to the okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L., Malvaceae) and cotton
(Gossypium hirsutum L., Malvaceae) [33]. Kenaf originated from
Africa, but more than 75 percent of the worldwide kenaf pro-
duction is from India and China, which makes kenaf the major
bast fibre source in these countries. Intensive research on
kenaf started in the United States in 1957 [34]. An interest-
ing fact about kenaf is that up to 40% of the stalk obtained
is usable fibre, almost double that of jute, hemp or flax. This
yield percentage makes the fibre more economical compared
to that of other plants. In addition, the growth of kenaf plant
from seeds to heights of 3.6 m–4.3 m (12 ft–14 ft) only takes five
to six months [35].

Fig. 2 – Materials in commercial aircraft [32].

Please cite this article in press as: Hamidon M, et al. Effects of fibre treatment on mechanical properties of kenaf fibre reinforced composites: a
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Fig. 3 – SEM micrograph of kenaf fibre (a) untreated fibre, (b) 2% NaOH, (c) 4%NaOH, (d) 6% NaOH and (e) 8% NaOH [65].
Table 3 – kenaf fibre properties.
Fibre Diameter (mm) Ultimate stress (MPa)
Kenaf 0.15–0.30 350–600
1.2. Kenaf fibre
Kenaf fibre (KF) is extracted from the bast of the plant and
has been extensively used as a jute-like material in the past.
In Asia, kenaf is cultivated predominantly for the fibre, the
extraction process involves soaking the stalks (the retting pro-
cess) and manual removal of the fibres. This method has been
found to give superior reinforcement quality. On the other
hand, the U. S. kenaf producers, for example, the Greene Nat-
ural Fibres (Snow Hill, N. C.) and Kenaf Industries of South
Texas (Raymondville, Texas) use the method of field retting
and mechanical separation. The use of kenaf core materials
as absorbents and animal bedding are more ready markets
[36]. Nishino et al. [37] stated that the shape, size and strength
of natural fibres mostly depend on the cultivation environ-
ment. Example of research that been done using kenaf fibre
involving different type of chemical treatment and different
matrix for composite structure [38-41]. These characteristics
will influence the mechanical properties of the fibre reinforced
composites produced. table 3 shows range of values for kenaf
fibre. (Table 3)
1.3. Kenaf fibre application
Kenaf is produced for various applications, including paper
products, absorbents, building materials, and livestock feed,
which is diverging from its historical role as a cordage crop
(twine, rope and sackcloth). The variety of kenaf end prod-
ucts will continue to extend, involving issues ranging from
the choice of general agricultural production methods to mar-
keting of kenaf products [33]. Studies on combining kenaf
with synthetic fibre as E-glass Kenaf is a versatile industrial
crop and has been proven as a good natural fibre for tex-
tiles and a variety of other industrial applications [42]. Vision
Paper, a company based in New Mexico, has managed to
produce kenaf-based papers. Ibrahim et al. [43] have carried
out research on the development of a new method to pro-
duce rayon grade dissolving pulp from Malaysian kenaf stalk.
Enhanced production of kenaf for dissolving pulp, which will
be subsequently used to produce rayon, is expected to help the
batik industry and kenaf planters on the east coast. Other than
that, the investigation done by Ali et al. [44] have concluded
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Density (kg/m3 ) Specific stress Water absorption (in %) for 24 h
1500 0.22–0.44 0.95
that the combination of kenaf core and bast fibre to reinforce
composite materials, including other fillers as well, to man-
ufacture automotive components will contribute to reducing
the pressure on the environment by storing more carbon in
the auto body. Also, this will give a superior industrial product
through the lifetime of the automobile, when the percentage
of fibre in the manufactured components is increased.
2. Chemical treatments for kenaf fibre
2.1. Alkaline treatment
Alkaline treatment is commonly used for chemical modifica-
tion of natural fibres. An important improvement achieved by
the alkaline treatment consists in altering or breaking down
the hydrogen bonding that holds together the entire system
structure, and in this way the surface roughness is increased.
The alkali treatment of KF has been thoroughly researched
[45-59]. Alkaline treatment also partially removes the lignin,
oils and wax covering the outer part of the fibre cell wall. The
treatment depolymerizes the cellulose in fibre and thus opens
up the short length crystallites [19]. Referring to Eq. (1) below,
the presence of aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) helps pro-
moting the process of ionization of the hydroxyl group into an
alkoxide [60]:
Fibre–OH + NaOH → Fibre–O–Na + H2 O (1)
Therefore, the alkaline treatment directly affects the cel-
lulosic fibrils, the extraction of lignin and hemicellulosic
compounds, as well as the level of polymerization [61]. A sim-
ple method of performing fibre treatment is by immersing the
fibre in a certain concentration of NaOH solution for a cer-
tain period of time. Most research has focused on the effect
of NaOH concentration percentage and treatment time on
the strength of the treated fibre, while there are also a few
studies that investigated the effect of the temperature used
during fibre treatment on mechanical properties. Table 4 is an
overview of the research that has been previously done on the
alkaline treatment of kenaf fibre.
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Table 4 – overview of previous research

Type Hybrid Matrix Treatment References

Chemical Concentration Time Temp.

Banana fibre Polyester NaOH 5%, 10%, 15% 2 h, 4 h, 6 h, 8 h [67]

Woven (plain, twill) Epoxy NaOH 3% 12 h [68]
Short MAPP/MAPE NaOH 3%, 6%, 9% 24 h [61]
Short TPU NaOH 2%, 4%, 6% [58]
Unidirectional mat Epoxy NaOH 6% 48 h, 144 h Room temp. [55]
Bast fibre Epoxy NaOH 6% 48 h, 144 h [56]
Bast fibre Starch NaOH 2% 1h 90 ◦ C [53]
Bast fibre NaOH 1–7% 1h 50 ◦ C [50]
Bast fibre NaOH 2%, 6%, 10% 0.5 h, 4 h, 8 h 27 ◦ C, 60 ◦ C, 100 ◦ C [54]
Plain-woven mat NaOH 6% 3h Room temp. [52]
Non-woven mat NaOH 6% 1 h, 2 h, 3 h, 4 h, 5 h Room temp. [69]
Short UPR NaOH 10% 3h Room temp. [63]

Table 5 – Tensile properties of single kenaf fibre [64].

Solution NaOH (%) Young modulus (GPa) Tensile strength (MPa) Fracture strain (%)

2 4.28 25.28 1.28

4 5.36 104.32 1.72
6 11.88 267.69 2.07
8 7.67 89.58 1.21
Untreated 9.02 129.10 1.35

Alavudeen et al. [62] used 5%, 10% and 15% concentration of
NaOH solution for 2 h, 4 h, 6 h and 8 h on two types of woven KF
at room temperature. Their study shows that 10% NaOH treat-
ment for 8 h gives the best effect on the mechanical properties
of KF. Smaller concentrations of NaOH, namely, 3%, 6% and 9%,
have been used by Edeerozey et al. to treat kenaf fibre for 3 h
at room temperature [22]. They found that 6% NaOH gives the
best result in terms of mechanical properties, and performed a
further experiment treating the KF using 6% NaOH at different
temperature (room temperature and 95 ◦ C). The researchers
found out that KF treated with 6% NaOH at 95 ◦ C presents bet-
ter mechanical properties than that treated with 6% NaOH at
room temperature.
Another research applied 3%, 6% and 9% concentrations
of the NaOH solution for 12 h and 24 h on long bast KF at
room temperature [9]. The authors reported that KF treated
with 6% NaOH for 12 h exhibits better mechanical properties.
Fiore et al. [63] carried out alkaline treatment of KF, varying
the duration of the treatment (48 h and 144 h), while main-
taining the concentration at 6% NaOH. Their research shows
that KF treated for 48 h presents better properties and all the
impurities have been removed. Meanwhile, the KF treated
for 144 h exhibits crack propagation, which indicates that the
fibre has been heavily damaged, resulting in lower tensile
strength.
In research done by Ikhwan Ibrahim et al. [64] which inves-
tigate the effect of 2%, 4%, 6% and 8% concentrations of the
NaOH solution on a single kenaf fibre found out that 6%
NaOH concentration give improvement of the young modu-
lus, tensile strength and percentage fracture strain compared
to untreated single kenaf fibre as shown in Table 5.
To observed the effect of untreated and 2%, 4%, 6% and 8%
concentration of NaOH solution is shown by Arbanah et al.[65]
Through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as shown in fig-
ure 3.
Overall, the alkaline treatment has been reported as mainly
involving the use of NaOH solution, and such a treatment has a
few major effects on the fibre. First, it changes the fibre struc-
ture, which increases surface roughness. Better mechanical
interlocking between fibre and matrix can be achieved when
the surface roughness or surface area is increased. Then, the
exposure of the cellulose on the fibre surface caused by the
alkaline treatment increases the number of possible reaction
sites [66]. Higher percentage of alkali concentration can cause
excess delignification of the natural fibre, which damages the
fibre or makes it weaker. Enhancing the NaOH concentration
beyond a certain percentage, the tensile strength of the com-
posite produced has been also found to drastically decrease.
2.2. Silane treatment
The chemical compound with the chemical formula of SiH4
is known as silane. Silanes are applied as coupling agents to
glass fibres in order to ensure that they effectively adhere to
a polymer matrix, which stabilizes the composite material.
There is still little research on using solely silane treatment on
KF [2,67,68]. As shown in Eq. (2), hydrolyzable alkoxy groups
will form the silanols, which will react with the hydroxyl
groups of the fibre under moisture conditions. Stable cova-
lent bonds at the cell wall are formed during the reaction and
silanols are chemically adsorbed onto the fibre surface [60].
Thus, the hydrocarbon chains available by applying the silane
will prevent the swelling of fibre, as illustrated by Equation 3.
Covalent bonding between the matrix and the fibre is the one
that enables the crosslinked network to occur. The chemical
reaction is given as follows [60]:
CH2 CHSi(OC2 H5 )3 → H2 OCH2 CHSi(OH)3 + 3C2 H5 OH (2)
CH2 CHSi(OH)3 + Fibre–OH → CH2 CHSi(OH)2 O–Fibre + H2 O(3)

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Fig. 4 – SEM images of steam-alkali treated fibres (specimen ST10-S10) showing higher surface roughness in (b) than (a) .[73]

Table 6 – Silane treatment overview.

Type Hybrid Matrix Treatment References

Chemical Concentration Time Temp.

Phenolic Triethoxy(ethyl)silane 2% 3 h, Room temp. [2]

Chopped PP, UPE (GPS), (APS), (MPS) 0.1 wt% to 5 wt% [74]
Uni directional PLA APS 5 wt% 3h Room temp. [75]

Some researchers applied silane treatment to the KF

to improve the bonding between the fibre and the matrix
3. Treatment combinations
by increasing the degree of cross-linking in the interface
region. The silane treatment also contributes to stronger
3.1. Alkaline – silane treatment
bonding between the fibre and the matrix by increasing the
Tensile and flexural tests were conducted by Asumani et al.
fibre surface area [2,67,68]. The research by Cho et al. [67]
in order to study the effect of different treatments performed
investigated the effect of 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxy
on kenaf fibre [70]. The chemical treatment being conducted
silane (MPS), 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxy silane (GPS) and
is shown in Table 7. It has been found that both tensile
3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APS), which are three totally
and flexural properties were significantly improved when KF
different silane coupling agents, on the properties of the
was subjected to an alkali-silane treatment. The research
treated fibre. They found out that the treatment with 0.5 wt%
shows promising results, namely, 4% lower specific tensile and
GPS was the most effective in improving the mechanical
11% lower flexural strengths for 30% fibre mass fraction of
properties of KF. Furthermore, thermosetting unsaturated
alkali-silane treated kenaf composites, compared to the corre-
polyester (UPE) and Thermoplastic polypropylene (PP) were
sponding values of the composites made with glass fibre. The
used as matrix and combined with chopped KF to develop
improvement in the tensile and flexural properties was sup-
composites. By the compression moulding technique, com-
ported by the observation via Scanning electron microscopy
posites were produced with untreated KF or with treated one
(SEM), which confirmed better bonding between the fibres and
at different GPS concentrations, ranging from 0.1 wt% to 5 wt%.
the matrix.
The properties for the two kenaf/UPE and kenaf/PP compos-
The effectiveness of the treatment was compared in terms
ites were found to be highly dependable on the GPS treatments
of tensile, morphological, and structural properties, between
based on the results of the interfacial, flexural and tensile
pineapple leaf fibres (PALF) and KF. The objective of the
tests, as well as those of the dynamic mechanical analysis
research was to investigate techniques to improve natural
(DMA). The most significant improvement in the properties of
fibre compatibility with polymer matrices.
both thermosetting UPE and thermoplastic PP polymer com-
The removal of impurities from the fibre surfaces using
posites was found when using 0.5% silane treatment of the
fibre treatment as in Table 8 for PALF and KF was observed
fibre.
by using SEM and Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometry
Table 6 presents an overview of the silane treatments
(FTIR). The silane treated fibres were found to have fewer
investigated by three researchers. The silane coupling agents
impurities and less lignin and hemicelluloses removed than
were concluded as effective in improving the natural
those subjected to the other chemical treatments, as observed
fibre–polymer matrix interface, thus increasing the interfa-
cial strength. Stronger bonding in composites in the presence
of silane treated fibre, leading to higher tensile strength Table 7 – chemical treatment by Asumani et al. [70].
of the composite material, compared to that comprising Type Chemical treatment
alkaline-treated fibre, confirmed positive effect of the inter-
1 Untreated
action between the silane coupling agent and the fibre
2 Treated with NaOH
[69].
3 NaOH + three-aminopropyltriethoxysilane

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Table 8 – chemical treatment by Asim et al.
Type Chemical treatment
1 Silane
2 Alkali
3 Silane + alkali
in the SEM morphological study of treated PALF and KF. Fur-
thermore, the silane-treated PALF and KF display better tensile
strength, compared to the untreated, alkaline and NaOH-
silane treated fibres. Droplet tests showed that the silane
treated fibres display the highest Interfacial Stress Strength
(IFSS), those modified with the combined alkali and silane
treatment come second in terms of IFSS. Based on the result,
it can be concluded that fibre treatments have great potential
in developing high-performance KF and PALF reinforced poly-
mer composites, which are suitable for industrial applications
(Table 8).
Five variants of surface treatments have been performed
on three different fibres, namely, Kenaf, oil palm and abaca,
as shown in table 9 [72]table Untreated fibres were compared
with treated fibres to evaluate the difference in the mechanical
strength of the fibres. The best strength was recorded for the
fibres treated with NaOH, followed by those subjected to the
mixed treatments, and then by the fibres treated with silane.
Additionally, microdroplet pull-out tests were done to eval-
uate the bonding strength between the fibres and unsaturated
polyester resin. In this case, the best results were achieved
for the silane treatment, followed by the combined silane and
NaOH one. Also, with regard to the mixed treatments, it was
noted that the lowest treatment period of 6 h gave the best
IFSS results. This is probably explained by the alkali nature
of NaOH degrading the fibres in the presence of silane, which
as a consequence leads to dropping the ability of the fibre to
properly bond with the resin. The fibres treated with NaOH
were found to present a decreased diameter, due to the elimi-
nation of impurities and lignin, as observed by the analysis of
surface morphology by SEM. At the same time, as the silane
coats the fibre surface, the diameter of the fibre increases and
the aspect ratio decreases.
The study conducted by Huda et al. [68] was carried out with
the objective to investigate the thermal and mechanical prop-
erties of composites. Alkalization and silane treatments were
done to improve the characteristics of KF. Superior mechanical
properties were found for the silane-treated fibres (FIBSI) rein-
forced composite and alkali-treated fibre (FIBNA) reinforced
composite, as compared to the untreated fibre (FIB) reinforced
composite. Also, the composite reinforced with fibre subjected
to the combined alkali-silane-treatment (FIBNASI) exhib-
ited substantially advanced mechanical properties. DMA was
Table 9 – Chemical treatment.
Treatment Time (h)
NaOH 24
Glycidoxypropyltrimethoxy-silane 24
NaOH + silane 24 (each treatment)
NaOH + silane 12 (each treatment)
NaOH + silane 6 (each treatment)
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7
conducted to observe the effect of treatment temperature on
the viscoelastic properties of composites. Furthermore, higher
adhesion between the fibre and the matrix was confirmed
by morphological studies by means of scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). The studies highlighted the fact that com-
mon PLA resins make remarkable mixtures for manufacturing
KF reinforced laminated biocomposites with excellent engi-
neering properties.
3.2. Alkaline – steam/heat treatment
Surface modifications of kenaf bast fibres have been achieved
with steam, alkali and a combination of the steam-alkali treat-
ments [73]. To understand their effects, the tensile strength,
surface morphology and crystallinity of the treated fibres has
been evaluated and compared with those of the raw fibres. The
tensile strength of the fibres that underwent the steam-alkali
treatment was much improved in comparison with that of the
raw fibre. The tensile strength of the fibres was enhanced after
the steam treatment, and a quite similar effect was noted after
the alkali treatment, while it slightly decreased for the fibre
modified through steam treatment accompanied by alkaliza-
tion. Increasing the concentration of alkali is usually intended
to improve the tensile strength. The variations in the tensile
strength of treated fibres are explained by modifications in sur-
face morphology and crystallinity. Deeper understanding of
these relationships may trigger a step forward towards man-
ufacturing natural fibre reinforced composites with higher
overall performance. Fig. 4 show the SEM on the natural fibre
surface [73].
Gao et al. [74] stated that efficiently taking advantage of
available kenaf sources would help to fulfil the increasing
demand of natural fibre. The steam explosion (STEX) pre-
treatment, followed by alkali-oxygen treatment, was studied
as a suitable method to achieve the degumming of different
fibre materials. The characteristics of kenaf were studied as
a function of the duration of the STEX treatment and the
most advantageous degumming method was established.
By analyzing the STEX pretreatment, it is observed that it
successfully eliminates pectin and a certain percentage of
the hemicelluloses. The amount of carbohydrates (hemi-
celluloses and cellulose) can diminish through excessive
pressure treatment. After the alkali-oxygen treatment, it can
be ensured that there is sufficient content of residual gum
and the fineness of the KF is satisfying for fabric manufac-
turing. High pressure was proven as the main reason that
makes this degumming method unacceptable. Meanwhile,
conducting STEX at low pressure (0.5 MPa) with the addition
of alkali-oxygen treatment was demonstrated as a green
approach for degumming KF.
Ways to improve the mechanical properties of natural fibre,
specifically KF, when subjected to heat and alkali treatments,
were studied by Cao et al. [41]. Analysis of the impact of var-
ious heat treatment temperatures revealed that the tensile
strength of KF exhibited the most significant change at 140 ◦ C,
which might be attributed to the growth of the crystallinity
index of the fibres after the heat treatment. The results of
the tests confirmed enhanced fracture strain of the alkali
treated fibres. The alkali treatment brought about the removal
of hemicelluloses and, partially, of impurities, which led to a
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loose structure of the fibre, which resulted in better elongation

Table 10 – chemical treatment by Han et al. [38].
at break of the treated fibre.
Type Chemical treatment

3.3. Alkaline – bleaching treatment 1 100 kGy + (2, 5, 10 wt% NaOH)

2 200 kGy + (2, 5, 10 wt% NaOH)
Alkali treatment, hydrogen peroxide bleaching and alkali- 3 500 kGy + (2, 5, 10 wt% NaOH)
bleaching techniques were applied to raw kenaf and hemp
bast fibres done by Wang et al. [75] in order to investigate the as reinforcement in biocomposites primarily based on ␬-
effects of the treatments and dye affinities towards treated carrageenan. FTIR analysis revealed that the alkali treatment
fibres. Both kenaf and hemp fibres had proper substantivity accompanied by bleaching completely eliminated lignin and
for basic and direct dyes. Reactive dyes exhibited quite small hemicelluloses from the kenaf fibre. The optimum content of
exhaustion and k/S values. Dyeing properties were associated CNCs of 4%to reinforce the ␬-carrageenan biocomposite films
with the cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose content of the demonstrated excellent dispersion and endowed the films
fibres. As hemp fibres are chemically very similar to cotton with advanced mechanical properties and improved thermal
fibres, the dye exhaustion was quite comparable between the stability.
two, however, hemp fibres showed deeper colouration totally
based on k/S values. The outcome of dyeing kenaf was con-
3.4. Alkaline – electron beam irradiation treatment
siderably better than those of cotton. On average, kenaf had
higher k/S values for the dye classes evaluated than those of
Different concentrations of sodium chlorite solution were
hemp fibres. Such variations may be attributed to the optical
applied to KF to make the fibre suitable for being used as a
differences of bast fibres.
trunk polymer [79]. Treated KF was subjected to electron beam
Andreu et al. [76] reported on the primary utility of laccase-
irradiation viand then to a grafting reaction in a GMA/water
mediator systems (LMS) to kenaf pulp. The mediator used
emulsion machine. Grafting was investigated as a function
comprised five natural phenolic compounds (acetosyringone,
of response time, response temperature, absorbed dose and
syringaldehyde, p-coumaric acid, vanillin and acetovanillone)
concentration of monomer. The results confirmed that the
that were mixed with laccase. The combination was per-
content of lignin in the material was reduced from 14.3%
formed (L level), so as to elucidate the impact of the developed
to about 3% with increasing sodium chlorite concentration.
systems on delignification. Pulp samples were subjected to
The changes found were also demonstrated with the help of
two alkaline treatments (E or P level) after LMS treatment. The
SEM images, which displayed a much smoother surface of the
results acquired were compared with the ones obtained using
treated KF compared to that of the untreated one. In addition,
the laccase-1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HBT) system. Based on
XRD analysis showed that when the degree of grafting was
the observation, the use of natural mediators led to elevated
increased, the degree of crystallinity of the graft copolymers
kappa numbers, reduced brightness and additionally modi-
decreased.
fied optical properties of the pulp at the L level. Such changes
Another research was conducted by Han et al. with the
indicate that natural mediators have a tendency to bond to
objective to compare the impacts of natural fibre treatment
fibres at some point of the laccase-mediator treatment. The
by electron beam irradiation (EBI) and alkalization as shown in
best bleaching and delignification outcomes at the P level were
(Table 10)[38]. The researchers examined the thermal and DMA
determined for the use of syringaldehyde and acetosyringone,
properties of the kenaf fibre reinforced polypropylene (PP)
which proved to be very efficient in delignifying kenaf.
composites produced. Also, they investigated the alpha cellu-
A combined treatment consisting in the use of 4% sodium
lose contents, the surface functional groups and the thermal
hydroxide solution followed by bleaching with sodium chlo-
stability of the untreated and treated KF. KF/polypropylene
rite with the addition of an acidic buffer, was used for kenaf
(PP) biocomposites were fabricated using chopped KF by the
core fibre [77]. The ensuing white, bleached kenaf core was
compression moulding technique.
hydrolyzed in 64 wt% sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ) to acquire NCC.
Thermogravimetric analysis, DMA and fractographic obser-
The ensuing NCC suspension was characterized by various
vation were performed to investigate the thermal stability,
techniques, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scan-
the dynamic mechanical and the interfacial properties of the
ning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA),
untreated and treated kenaf/PP biocomposites. EBI was found
FTIR spectroscopy and scanning transmission electron
to have a positive impact on the KF and the resulting biocom-
microscopy (STEM). Hydrolysis with highly concentrated
posites.
H2 SO4 similarly improved the crystallinity of bleached kenaf
core cellulose and decreased the size of cellulose crystals to
the nanoscale. As confirmed by the FTIR analysis, with every 4. Conclusion
subsequent treatment, some amounts of hemicellulose and
lignin had been eliminated, while the chemical functional- KF is considered to have a huge potential to replace partially
ities of cellulose were maintained after the acid hydrolysis or fully man-made fibres in the field of composite materials.
treatment. Natural fibre, and specifically KF, has considerable advantages
A three-step treatment involving alkali treatment, bleach- over man-made fibres, for example, kenaf fibre is cheap due
ing, and sulfuric acid hydrolysis was conducted by Zarina to its low production cost. Other than that, KF has low den-
et al. on KF [78]. The study was intended to extract cel- sity, which makes the fibre lighter in weight. Despite its good
lulose nanocrystals (CNCs) from KF in order to use them properties, KF is not totally flawless. The researchers have

Please cite this article in press as: Hamidon M, et al. Effects of fibre treatment on mechanical properties of kenaf fibre reinforced composites: a
review. J Mater Res Technol. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.04.012
JMRTEC-641; No. of Pages 11
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put forward different methods to overcome its shortcomings,
for example by using surface treatments. The modifications
yielded great results in terms of better properties when KF was
integrated in composites, but the economic aspect should be
always kept in mind. Chemical treatments have been found
to increase the interface adhesion between the fibre and the
matrix. At the same time, such treatments lead to a reduction
of water absorption by the fibres. A few methods are already
known to promote adhesion within composites. For exam-
ple, this can be achieved by chemically bonding the adhesive
to the material, by applying sodium hydroxide, silane or
combined treatments, such as alkaline-silane, alkaline-heat,
alkaline-beam irradiation, alkaline – bleaching treatments etc.
There is a variety of treatments for KF, but the choice will
depend on the form of the KF. Further studies are necessary
to compare the combinations of treatment sequences as a
function of the form of KF. Overall, it can be said that each
of the treatments investigated is successful in improving the
mechanical properties of kenaf fibre reinforced composites.
However, the fibre modification methods that have been dis-
cussed are different in terms of their efficacy with regard to
improving the adhesion between the matrix and the fibre.
Overall, all the treatments show great potential in increas-
ing fibre strength, fibre suitability and fibre–matrix adhesion,
but further research should be done to compare the effects of
the treatments related to the fibre type of interest, in order
to find out the optimum treatment for each fibre type. Other
method such as fibre prestressed [80,81] while testing method
such as impact test [82,83] and compression after impact [84]
is an available studies that not yet been extensively investigate
involving kenaf fibre.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by UPM under GPB 9668200. The
authors would like to express their gratitude and sincere
appreciation to the Department of Aerospace Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia and Labora-
tory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry
and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia
(HiCOE) for the close collaboration in this work
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