FORM 4 INTEGRATED SCIENCE NOTES 2010/2011

RESPIRATION
Respiration is defined as he chemical process by which energy is released from food molecules. It can
also be described as the oxidation of glucose in a series of steps. It occurs in all living organisms. The
energy released is used for cellular processes. NB: respiration occurs in the mitochondrion of cells. The
main organ is the lungs.

Energy contained in glucose is released slowly because if it were released at once the following could
happen:

 Cells could be damaged by overheating.

 Energy would be wasted because too much is released for the small chemical
jobs in the cell.

There are two types of respiration. They are Aerobic (with oxygen) and Anaerobic (without oxygen).

Anaerobic Respiration

In this process food is broken down without the presence of oxygen. In this case glucose is not completely
broken down, hence less energy is released. This occurs in conditions where there is a severe lack of
oxygen for example the muddy bottom of rivers, the muscles of the body, some bacteria respire
anaerobically e.g yeast. Once oxygen becomes present anaerobic organisms would respire aerobically. It
is often found in sports and industries (production of milk, butter cheese yogurt, vinegar, soy sauce. Etc)

There are two processes of this respiration:

 Alcoholic Fermentation: where the Glucose gets broken down and produces Energy
(ATP), Ethanol and Carbon Dioxide. (occurs in plants and some bacteria)
E.g making bread, beer and wine. In bread making the yeast in the dough is in anaerobic
conditions and it converts the sugar in the dough into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The
carbon dioxide causes the dough to expand making the bread rise. Because the bread
fermentation takes a short period, only small amounts of alcohol are formed, most of
which will evaporate when the bread is baked. Therefore, you won't get drunk by eating
bread.

glucose = carbon dioxide + ethanol (alcohol) + ENERGY(210kJ)

C6H12O6 = 2CO2 +
2C2H5OH + ENERGY

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 Lactate fermentation where Glucose breaks itself into Energy and Lactic Acid. (in
animals).
E.g it occurs in thee muscles at the beginning of vigorous exercise and where they do not
receive sufficient oxygen as exercise continues. Lactic acid provides emergency energy
for the muscles. On the other hand it is a poisonous substance which causes muscle pains
as it builds up like during a long race (oxygen debt). Lactic acid requires oxygen to break
down safely hence why athletes take deep refreshing breathes after a race.

glucose = lactic acid + ENERGY(150kJ)

C6H12O6 = 2C3H6O3 + ENERGY
Aerobic Respiration

In this type of respiration oxygen is required, hence the correlation between respiration and breathing.
Breathing however is NOT respiration. It is the process by which air id drawn into and out of the lungs
(inhalation and exhalation). Unlike in anaerobic respiration, the glucose in aerobic respiration is
completely broken down hence maximum energy is released. Carbon dioxide and water are released as
waste products

glucose + oxygen -----> energy(2880kJ) + water + carbon dioxide

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ----------> energy + 6H2O + 6CO2

Fig1. Diagram of the respiratory system.

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Gas exchange and breathing in animals

The Nose:

 Air is taken in through the nostrils and into the nasal cavity, which is divided by thin
bony plates. This gives the nasal cavity a larger surface area.
 As the air passes over the tissues it warms and moistens the air. This helps to protect the
delicate lungs. The nasal cavity is covered in mucus which helps to trap dust.
 The nasal cavity contains sensory cells which detect smell (soluble chemical in the air).
This helps us to test the air to see if it is fit to breathe.

The Throat:

 Also known as the pharynx, it is a shared passage way for food and air. The nasal cavity is joined
to the pharynx at the back of the throat.
 The entrance to the windpipe is called the glottis and is closed by a flap of skin called the
epiglottis. When we swallow food the epiglottis closes the windpipe.

The Larynx:

 Also known as the voice box. Thin membranes are stretched across the larynx which vibrate as
air passes over them, these membranes are called vocal chords. When the vibrate the form basic
speech.
 The front of the larynx is protected by cartilage called the Adam’s apples. It is usually bigger in
males.

The Trachea:

 Also known as the windpipe. It is a large, straight tube which leads from the larynx to the
bronchus.
 It is strengthened with c-shaped rings of cartilage which prevent the windpipe from closing in on
itself when we inhale.
 The trachea divides into two tubes called the bronchi. One bronchus goes to each lung. The
bronchi have a similar structure to the trachea.
 The trachea is lined with cilia (microscopic hair like structures). The cilia beat rhythmically
moving dust trapped in the mucus on the trachea lining upwards.

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The Bronchioles:

 The tubes inside the lung are called bronchioles, they divide into many small branches like a tree.
 The bronchioles differ from the trachea because their walls are made of muscle which can
contract or relax to change the size of the airway.

GAS EXCHANGE AND THE ALVEOLI

Fig2. Diagram of a transverse sections of the alveoli Fig3. Tranverse section of alveoli

 Gas exchange is the exchange by diffusion of gas particularly oxygen and carbon dioxide across a
membrane called the gaseous exchange surface. Gas exchange takes place at the respiratory
surface (alveolus).
 The most important part of the respiratory system is the alveoli because gas exchange takes place
here. The alveoli are found at the very end of the bronchioles.
 The alveoli are very small sac like structures. They have very thin walls to assist in diffusion. The
alveoli always contain air.
 The oxygen diffuses across the alveolus wall, then diffuses across the capillary wall where it is
taken up by a red blood cell and carried to where it is required.
 Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the air spaces.

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A respiratory surface must be adapted for gas exchange and the alveoli is adapted in the following ways:

 They have a very large surface area for gas exchange

 They have a moist surface which allows gas to diffuse into it
 They are thin( once cell thick) which allows gas to diffuse quickly over it
 They are well supplied with blood vessels to carry gases to and from the respiratory surface

BREATHING

Is a set of muscular movements that give the respiratory surface a constant supply of fresh air. Breathing
in is called inspiration and breathing out is called expiration. These movements affect the diaphragm,
intercostals muscles ribs and sternum.

Breathing is important for the providing oxygen for respiration and for removing waste products.

 The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle which separates the thorax from the abdomen.
 The intercostals muscles are found between the ribs.
 The pleural membrane and the pleural fluid helps to reduce friction during breathing.

WHAT HAPPENS DURING BREATHING

LOCATION INSPIRATION EXHALATION

Intercostal Muscles Contract Relaxes
Diaphragm Contract/pulls flat Relaxes/bends upwards
Ribs Swing upwards Swings downwards
Sternum Moves outwards Moves inwards
Volume of thorax Increases (air is drawn in) Decreases (Air is drawn out)

COMPARING INHALED AND EXHALED AIR

COMPONENT % INHALED AIR % EXHALED AIR

Oxygen 20.93 16.4
Carbon Dioxide 0.03 4.1
Nitrogen 79.04 79.3
Water Vapour variable saturated
Heat variable Body temperature

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Smoking and health

Smoking is generally considered as bad to one’s health. It contains various things that are bad for
your health:

1. Nicotine
 a mild stimulant drug which speeds up the nervous system
 It is addictive, therefore many people find it hard to stop smoking

2. Carbon Monoxide
 Joins with haemoglobin in the blood and prevents it from carrying oxygen.
 This reduces the efficiency of the blood

3. Tar
 A black sticky substance.
 It is a hydrocarbon
 It is also a carcinogen (a substance which causes cancer)

DISEASES CAUSED BY SMOKING

1. Cancer
 Result of uncontrolled cell division
 A lump of cells called a tumor is produced. A tumor does not perform any useful function
and obstructs normal functioning of organs.
 Chemicals in tar cause cancer to develop especially in the mouth, throar and lungs.
 Lung cancer is ten times more common in smokers.

2. Bronchitis
 Inflammation of the bronchial tubes
 It is caused because the cilia in the trachea stop working when a person smokes cigarettes
 Dust, mucus and germs drain into the lungs and the bronchioles become infected
 People with bronchitis have a sever cough called smoker’s cough
3. Emphysema

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 Occurs in people who have been smoking or have bronchitis for many years
 Continuous coughing and the action of white blood cells result in the breakdown of the
alveoli walls
 This greatly reduces the surface area available for the uptake of oxygen
 People with emphysema cannot walk more than a few metres without becoming out of
breath

Smoking increases the risk of heart disease. Some reasons you should not smoke besides the fact that it
leads to a number of diseases are:

 It is an unattractive habit (yellow teeth, dark lips, bad breath,etc)

 It is expensive
 It is very anti social in that passive smokers (people who do not smoke but inhale cigarette
smoke) are also likely to get diseases even though they do not smoke

NB: to be discussed in class

 Gas exchange in amphibians

 Gas exchange in single cellular organisms
 Gas exchange in fishes
 Gas exchange in flowering plants

TO BE RESEARCHED AND HANDED IN:

 What is Air Pollution

 What are causes of air pollution
 Give practical examples of air pollution (note the affinity of carbon monoxide to haemoglobin)