GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF MUD VOLCANOES

AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE IN PETROLEUM

EXPLORATION AS A SOURCE OF METHANE IN
THE ATMOSPHERE AND HYDROSPHERE AND
AS A GEOHAZARD

Alexei V. Milkov
Exploration and Production Technology Group, BP America, 501 Westlake Blvd, Houston, TX
77079 USA

Abstract: Mud volcanoes occur worldwide in areas of rapid sedimentation, lateral tectonic
compression, and geologically recent magmatic activity. The total number
of individual mud volcanoes on the Earth exceeds 2,000 and this number is
growing as the exploration of deep oceans continues. Sediments and fluids
expelled from mud volcanoes provide useful information on the geology and
petroleum potential of deep sedimentary basins. Mud volcanoes are considered
to be a minor but yet not fully recognized and properly quantified source of
greenhouse gases (mainly methane) in the atmosphere. A significant (but still
uncertain) amount of methane may escape into the ocean and affect the size
and characteristics of the ocean carbon pool. Finally, mud volcanoes represent
a recognized geohazard that affects life forms and petroleum exploitation. This
paper reviews the results of recent studies into worldwide mud volcanism.

Key words: mud volcanoes, petroleum systems, methane, atmosphere, geohazards

1. INTRODUCTION
Onshore mud volcanism has attracted the attention of geologists for over
two centuries (Goubkin and Fedorov, 1938; Yakubov et al., 1971; Higgins
and Saunders, 1973; Hedberg, 1980; Barber et al., 1986; Rakhmanov, 1987;
Kopf, 2002). A wide distribution of offshore mud volcanism has only been
discovered in the past few decades as a result of an extensive exploration of
deep oceans (Milkov, 2000). New mud volcanoes are being discovered every
year as ocean exploration continues (Holland et al., 2003). This paper provides
a concise review of the global distribution of mud volcanoes worldwide and
highlights the main directions of mud volcano research.

2. GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF MUD VOLCANOES

Mud volcanoes occur worldwide and represent constructional features

29
G. Martinelli and B. Panahi (eds.), Mud Volcanoes, Geodynamics and Seismicity, 29–34
© 2005 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
30 Global distribution of mud

(diameter up to 10 km, relief up to 700 m) from which sediments and fluids

(water, dissolved salts, gas, and oil) flow or erupt (Milkov, 2000; Kopf, 2002;
Dimitrov, 2002). The main morphological features of mud volcanoes include
the edifice created by mud volcano products, the crater which is the area
of ongoing mud volcano activity (often populated by gryphons (vents) and
salsas (small lakes)), and mud flows coming from the crater to the base of
the edifice.

Figure 1. Worldwide distribution of MVs (modified from Milkov, 2000).

Mud volcanoes are documented in 44 onshore and 21 offshore areas,

and there is indirect geological and geophysical evidence of offshore mud
volcanoes in 25 areas (Fig. 1) Approximately 1,100 mud volcanoes are
documented onshore and in shallow water on continental shelves (Dimitrov,
2002), and 1,000-100,000 mud volcanoes may exist on continental slopes
and abyssal plains (Milkov, 2000). These features are most common in areas
of rapid deposition and lateral tectonic compression with overpressure.
Approximately 80% of all mud volcanoes may occur on convergent and
transform continental margins.

3. DRIVING FORCES AND MECHANISMS IN THE

FORMATION OF MUD VOLCANOES
There are many driving forces for mud volcanism identified in various
areas. They can be divided into geological, tectonic, geochemical, and
hydrogeological reasons, most of which are interrelated (Milkov, 2000). For
example, if there is a lateral tectonic compression in the area, it is likely that
abnormally high pressures and fluid flow would also be present. The reasons
for mud volcanism can be summarized as two key reasons, namely the
Alexei V. Milkov 31

lateral tectonic compression at convergent and transform margins, and high

sedimentation rates at divergent margins and in the abyssal parts of inland
seas and lakes. All the other reasons listed in regional and local works (e.g.,
Goubkin and Fedorov, 1938; Yakubov et al., 1971; Higgins and Saunders,
1973; Hedberg, 1980; Barber et al., 1986; Rakhmanov, 1987) follow from
these two key reasons.

Figure 2. Picture showing submarine mud volcanoes formed by two basic mechanisms
(modified from Milkov, 2000).

It is suggested that mud volcanoes are formed by two basic mechanisms

(Fig. 2). The first mechanism is the formation of a mud volcano directly on top
of a seafloor/surface-piercing shale diapir as a consequence of fluid migration
along the body of the diapir. If the fluids do not migrate along the diapir, a
mud volcano would not be formed and only a seafloor/surface-piercing shale
diapir would occur. A mud volcano may or may not eventually develop on
top of such a diapir. The second, and probably most common mechanism is
the formation of a mud volcano as a result of the rise of fluidized mud along
faults and fractures. In this case, sediments with a high fluid content reach the
seafloor and form a mud volcanic edifice. This mud volcano may be connected
to shale diapirs located at some depth beneath the seafloor. However, in many
cases diapiric folds below mud volcanoes are not observed, and mud volcanic
channels penetrate directly into the source layers. Fluid migration plays the
primary role in both mechanisms (Fig. 2; Milkov, 2000).

4. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MUD VOLCANOES

IN PETROLEUM EXPLORATION

Mud volcanoes eject and erupt sediments and rocks of various shapes,
composition and age that may come from a depth of 2-15 km. Therefore,
32 Global distribution of mud

sampling and studying of these products may help to better understand the
deep lithosphere, especially in the frontier petroleum exploration areas.
Basically, mud volcanoes may be considered as free deep wells.
The study of fluids expelled by the mud volcanoes may have even greater
importance. Mud volcanoes are often associated with large actively producing
petroleum basins (for example, Azerbaijan, the Gulf of Mexico, deepwater
Nigeria) where they expel thermogenic hydrocarbons enriched in C2+ gases
(Fig. 3). Therefore, mud volcanoes in frontier areas (for example, in the Gulf
of Cadiz) may indicate an active petroleum system. However, there are some
mud volcanoes that only emit bacterial methane, largely emit CO2 or N2, (Fig.
3) occur in areas with thin sedimentary cover (e.g., ~2 km) and in areas of
recent magmatic activity (Milkov et al., 2003). These mud volcanoes may not
indicate an active petroleum system. The expelled fluids should be carefully
studied to evaluate the hydrocarbon potential of mud volcanic areas.
Gas hydrates associated with deep-water mud volcanoes may be
considered as a potential energy resource (Hovland, 2000). However, many
mud volcanoes are likely to provide only sub-economic gas hydrate resources
because the volume of hydrate-bound gas in such accumulations may be
insignificant (Milkov and Sassen, 2002).

Figure 3. Box plots illustrating composition of gas flux from 161 onshore and offshore MVs.
The 25th to 75th percentiles (interquartile range) of the data set values are represented by the
box. The line inside the box corresponds to the median. The dashed line corresponds to the
mean. The horizontal lines (whiskers) that extend to the right and left of the boxes stop at the
last data point within a distance of 1.5 of the interquartile range. Closed circles correspond to
the mild outliers (1.5-3 interquartile ranges). Open circles correspond to the extreme outliers
(>3 interquartile ranges) (Milkov et al., 2003).

5. MUD VOLCANOES AS A SOURCE OF METHANE

IN THE ATMOSPHERE AND HYDROSPHERE

Methane is the dominant gas in most mud volcanoes (Fig. 3). It is

important to estimate how much gas escapes from mud volcanoes into the
Alexei V. Milkov 33

atmosphere and the ocean because methane is an important greenhouse gas.

Mud volcanoes emit gases during eruptive and quiescent periods. Eruptions
are rather catastrophic events often associated with flame, and therefore it is
difficult to make direct measurements. It is much easier to estimate gas flux
during quiescent periods. Such estimates vary from 100 m3 to more than 10
million m3 of gas per year, the estimates are log-normally distributed and the
mean gas flux may be about 3-4 million m3 (Milkov et al., 2003).
Approximately 600 Tg of methane is emitted into the atmosphere every
year by all sources. Approximately 65 Tg of emitted methane is fossil
(radiocarbon-free) and its sources are not well constrained. Using the mean
gas flux from the individual mud volcanoes, it is possible to estimate the
global gas flux from these features if their total number is known. Milkov
et al. (2003) have suggested that mud volcanoes may emit ~6 Tg of gases
(mainly methane) directly into the atmosphere. This amount accounts for ~1%
of the total methane source, which is not very significant. However, almost all
methane coming from mud volcanoes should be fossil. This source of fossil
methane may be on the order of 10% of the total fossil sources. The gas flux
from mud volcanoes to the ocean is much more badly constrained because
the number of deep-water mud volcanoes is unknown. Assuming that there
are 5,000 mud volcanoes in deep-water areas, Milkov et al. (2003) estimated
that ~27 Tg of gases may escape into the ocean on continental slopes every
year suggesting that the total hydrocarbon seepage from deep-water areas
(currently estimated at 18-50 Tg per year) may be underestimated.

6. MUD VOLCANOES AS A GEOHAZARD

Eruptions of mud volcanoes often associated with flames (Aliyev et

al., 2002) represent an apparent geohazard for surrounding life forms and
constructions. From the perspective of the petroleum industry, mud volcanoes
are a major geohazard. Mud volcanoes often occur in active petroleum-
producing areas such as the Gulf of Mexico and deep-water Nigeria. The
mud volcanoes are composed of relatively unconsolidated sediments, they
produce numerous mud flows and may erupt, and they may host gas hydrates.
These characteristics may lead to major slope instabilities. It is obvious that
mud volcanoes should be avoided during the building of pipelines and other
facilities.

7. CONCLUSIONS

Mud volcanoes occur both onshore and offshore, usually in areas having a
high sedimentation rate, lateral tectonic compression and their combination.
They are a result of diapirism and sediment/fluid migration along faults/
34 Global distribution of mud

conduits. Mud volcanoes emit gases into the atmosphere and hydrosphere
affecting the size and budget of carbon reservoirs. They represent a geohazard
and may indicate active petroleum systems but the products (especially fluids)
should be carefully studied.

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