Submarine

A submarine (or simply sub) is a watercraft capable of independent

operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more
limited underwater capability. It is also sometimes used historically
or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as
well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget
submarine and the wet sub.

Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine

design took off during the 19th century, and they were adopted by
several navies. Submarines were first widely used during World War
I (1914–1918), and are now used in many navies large and small.
Military uses include attacking enemy surface ships (merchant and
military), attacking other submarines, aircraft carrier protection,
Virginia-class submarine underway in Groton,
blockade running, ballistic missile submarines as part of a nuclear
Connecticut, July 2004
strike force, reconnaissance, conventional land attack (for example
using a cruise missile), and covert insertion ofspecial forces. Civilian
uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection and maintenance. Submarines can also be
modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also
used in tourism, and forundersea archaeology.

Most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical (or conical) ends and a vertical structure, usually located
amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well asperiscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the s"ail"
in American usage and "fin" in European usage. A "conning tower" was a feature of earlier designs: a separate pressure hull above
the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller (or pump jet) at the rear, and various
hydrodynamic control fins. Smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout.
Submarines use diving planes and also change the amount of water and air in ballast tanks to change buoyancy for submerging and
surfacing.

Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. They range from small autonomous examples and
one- or two-person vessels that operate for a few hours, to vessels that can remain submerged for six months—such as the Russian
Typhoon class, the biggest submarines ever built. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human
divers.[1] Modern deep-diving submarines derive from thebathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from thediving bell.

Contents
History
Etymology
Early submersibles
18th century
19th century
Mechanical power
20th century
World War I
World War II
Cold-War military models
21st century
 Usage
Military
Civilian
Polar operations
Technology
Submersion and trimming
Hull
Overview
Single and double hulls
Pressure hull
Propulsion
Diesel-electric
Air-independent
Nuclear power
Alternative
Armament
Sensors
Navigation
Communication
Life support systems
Crew
Women
Abandoning the vessel
See also
By country
References
Bibliography
External links

History

Etymology
Whereas the principal meaning of "submarine" is an armed, submersible warship, the more general meaning is for any type of
submersible craft.[2] The definition as of 1899 was for any type of "submarine boat".[3] By naval tradition, submarines are still
usually referred to as "boats" rather than as "ships", regardless of their size.[4] In other navies with a history of large submarine fleets
they are also "boats"; in German it is an Unterseeboot[5] or U-Boot (under-sea boat)[6] and in Russian it is a подводная лодка
(underwater boat).[7]

Early submersibles
According to a report inOpusculum Taisnieri published in 1562:[8]

Two Greeks submerged and surfaced in the river Tagus near the City of Toledo several times in the presence of The
[9]
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, without getting wet and with the flame they carried in their hands still alight.

In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an
underwater navigation vehicle. A few years later the Scottish mathematician and theologian John Napier wrote in his Secret
Inventions (1596) the following: "These inventions besides devises of sayling under water with divers, other devises and strategems
for harming of the enemyes by the Grace of God and worke of expert Craftsmen I
[10]
hope to perform." It's unclear whether he ever carried out his idea.

The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was
designed and built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel, a Dutchman in the service of James
I of England. It was propelled by means of oars.[10]

18th century
Drebbel, an early submersible craft,
By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersibleboats had propelled by oars.
been granted in England. In 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first
known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used
leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft. A mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the
boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemen's Magazine reported that a similar design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli
in 1680. Further design improvement stagnated for over a century, until application of new technologies for propulsion and
stability.[11]

The first military submarine was the Turtle (1775), a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell
to accommodate a single person.[12] It was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement,
and the first to use screws for propulsion.[13]

19th century
In 1800, France built a human-powered submarine designed by American Robert
Fulton, the Nautilus. The French eventually gave up on the experiment in 1804, as
did the British when they later considered Fulton's submarine design.

In 1864, late in the American Civil War, the Confederate navy's H. L. Hunley
became the first military submarine to sink an enemy vessel, the Union sloop-of-war
USS Housatonic. In the aftermath of its successful attack against the ship, the
Hunley also sank, possibly because it was too close to its own exploding torpedo.

In 1866, the Sub Marine Explorer was the first submarine to successfully dive,
1806 illustration by Robert Fulton
cruise underwater, and resurface under the control of the crew. The design by
showing a "plunging boat"
German American Julius H. Kroehl (in German, Kröhl) incorporated elements that
are still used in modern submarines.[14]

In 1866, the Flach was built at the request of the Chilean government, by Karl Flach, a German engineer and immigrant. It was the
fifth submarine built in the world[15] and, along with a second submarine, was intended to defend the port of Valparaiso against
attack by the Spanish navy during the Chincha Islands War.

Mechanical power
The first submarine not relying on human power for propulsion was the French
Plongeur (Diver), launched in 1863, which used compressed air at 180 psi (1241
kPa).[16] Narcís Monturiol designed the first air–independent and combustion–
powered submarine, Ictineo II, which was launched inBarcelona, Spain in 1864.

The submarine became a potentially viable weapon with the development of the
The French submarinePlongeur
Whitehead torpedo, designed in 1866 by British engineerRobert Whitehead, the first
practical self-propelled or 'locomotive' torpedo.[17] The spar torpedo that had been
developed earlier by the Confederate navy was considered to be impracticable, as it was believed to have sunk both its intended
target, and probably H. L. Hunley, the submarine that deployed it.

Discussions between the English clergyman and inventor George Garrett and the Swedish industrialist Thorsten Nordenfelt led to the
first practical steam-powered submarines, armed with torpedoes and ready for military use. The first was Nordenfelt I, a 56-tonne,
19.5-metre (64 ft) vessel similar to Garrett's ill-fatedResurgam (1879), with a range of 240 kilometres (130 nmi; 150 mi), armed with
a single torpedo, in 1885.

A reliable means of propulsion for the submerged vessel was only made possible in the 1880s with the advent of the necessary
electric battery technology. The first electrically powered boats were built by Isaac Peral y Caballero in Spain (who built the Peral),
Dupuy de Lôme (who built the Gymnote) and Gustave Zédé (who built the Sirène) in France, and James Franklin Waddington (who
built the Porpoise) in England.[18] Peral's design featured torpedoes and other systems that later became standard in
submarines.[19][20]

20th century
Submarines were not put into service for any widespread or routine use by navies
until the early 1900s. This era marked a pivotal time in submarine development, and
several important technologies appeared. A number of nations built and used
submarines. Diesel electric propulsion became the dominant power system and
equipment such as the periscope became standardized. Countries conducted many
experiments on effective tactics and weapons for submarines, which led to their
large impact in World War I.

The Irish inventor John Philip Holland built a model submarine in 1876 and a full-
scale version in 1878, which were followed by a number of unsuccessful ones. In USS Plunger, launched in 1902
1896 he designed the Holland Type VI submarine, which used internal combustion
engine power on the surface and electric battery power underwater. Launched on 17
May 1897 at Navy Lt. Lewis Nixon's Crescent Shipyard in Elizabeth, New Jersey,
Holland VI was purchased by the United States Navy on 11 April 1900, becoming
the Navy's first commissioned submarine, christenedUSS Holland.[21]

Commissioned in June 1900, the French steam and electric Narval employed the
now typical double-hull design, with a pressure hull inside the outer shell. These
200-ton ships had a range of over 100 miles (161 km) underwater. The French
submarine Aigrette in 1904 further improved the concept by using a diesel rather Akula (launched in 1907) was the
than a gasoline engine for surface power. Large numbers of these submarines were first Russian submarine able to
built, with seventy-six completed before 1914. cruise long distances.

The Royal Navy commissioned five Holland-class submarines from Vickers,

Barrow-in-Furness, under licence from theHolland Torpedo Boat Companyfrom 1901 to 1903. Construction of the boats took longer
than anticipated, with the first only ready for a diving trial at sea on 6 April 1902. Although the design had been purchased entirely
from the US company, the actual design used was an untested improvement to the original Holland design using a new 180
horsepower (130 kW) petrol engine.[22]

These types of submarines were first used during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. Due to the blockade at Port Arthur, the
Russians sent their submarines to Vladivostok, where by 1 January 1905 there were seven boats, enough to create the world's first
"operational submarine fleet". The new submarine fleet began patrols on 14 February, usually lasting for about 24 hours each. The
first confrontation with Japanese warships occurred on 29 April 1905 when the Russian submarine Som was fired upon by Japanese
torpedo boats, but then withdrew.[23]

World War I
Military submarines first made a significant impact in World War I. Forces such as
the U-boats of Germany saw action in the First Battle of the Atlantic, and were
responsible for sinking RMS Lusitania, which was sunk as a result of unrestricted
submarine warfare and is often cited among the reasons for the entry of the United
States into the war.[24]
The German submarineSM U-9,
At the outbreak of the war, Germany had only twenty submarines immediately
which sank three Britishcruisers in
available for combat, although these included vessels of the diesel-engined U-19 less than an hour in September 1914
class, which had a sufficient range of 5,000 miles (8,000 km) and speed of 8 knots
(15 km/h) to allow them to operate effectively around the entire British coast.[25] By
contrast the Royal Navy had a total of 74 submarines, though of mixed effectiveness. In August 1914, a flotilla of ten U-boats sailed
from their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in theNorth Sea in the first submarine war patrol in history.[26]

The U-boats' ability to function as practical war machines relied on new tactics, their numbers, and submarine technologies such as
combination diesel-electric power system developed in the preceding years. More submersibles than true submarines, U-boats
operated primarily on the surface using regular engines, submerging occasionally to attack under battery power. They were roughly
triangular in cross-section, with a distinct keel to control rolling while surfaced, and a distinct bow. During World War I more than
5,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-boats.[27]

The British tried to catch up to the Germans in terms of submarine technology with the creation of the K-class submarines. However,
.[28]
these were extremely large and often collided with each other forcing the British to scrap the K-class design shortly after the war

World War II
During World War II, Germany used submarines to devastating effect in the Battle of
the Atlantic, where it attempted to cut Britain's supply routes by sinking more
merchant ships than Britain could replace. (Shipping was vital to supply Britain's
population with food, industry with raw material, and armed forces with fuel and
armaments.) While U-boats destroyed a significant number of ships, the strategy
ultimately failed. Although the U-boats had been updated in the interwar years, the The Imperial Japanese Navy's I-400-
major innovation was improved communications, encrypted using the famous class submarine, the largest
Enigma cipher machine. This allowed for mass-attack naval tactics (Rudeltaktik, submarine type of WWII
commonly known as "wolfpack"), but was also ultimately the U-boats' downfall. By
the end of the war, almost 3,000 Allied ships (175 warships, 2,825 merchantmen)
had been sunk by U-boats.[29] Although successful early in the war, ultimately
Germany's U-boat fleet suffered heavy casualties, losing 793 U-boats and about
[30]
28,000 submariners out of 41,000, a casualty rate of about 70%.
A model of Günther Prien's U-47,
The Imperial Japanese Navy operated the most varied fleet of submarines of any German WWII Type VII diesel-
navy, including Kaiten crewed torpedoes, midget submarines (Type A Ko-hyoteki electric hunter
and Kairyu classes), medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines
and long-range fleet submarines. They also had submarines with the highest
submerged speeds during World War II (I-201-class submarines) and submarines that could carry multiple aircraft (I-400-class
submarines). They were also equipped with one of the most advanced torpedoes of the conflict, the oxygen-propelled Type 95.
Nevertheless, despite their technical prowess, Japan chose to use its submarines for fleet warfare, and consequently were relatively
unsuccessful, as warships were fast, maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships.

The submarine force was the most effective anti-ship weapon in the American arsenal. Submarines, though only about 2 percent of
the U.S. Navy, destroyed over 30 percent of the Japanese Navy, including 8 aircraft carriers, 1 battleship and 11 cruisers. US
submarines also destroyed over 60 percent of the Japanese merchant fleet, crippling Japan's ability to supply its military forces and
industrial war effort. Allied submarines in the Pacific War destroyed more Japanese shipping than all other weapons combined. This
feat was considerably aided by the Imperial Japanese Navy's failure to provide adequate escort forces for the nation's merchant fleet.
During World War II, 314 submarines served in the US Navy, of which nearly 260 were deployed to the Pacific.[31] When the
Japanese attacked Hawaii in December 1941, 111 boats were in commission; 203 submarines from the Gato, Balao, and Tench
classes were commissioned during the war. During the war, 52 US submarines were lost to all causes, with 48 directly due to
hostilities.[32] US submarines sank 1,560 enemy vessels,[31] a total tonnage of 5.3 million tons (55% of the total sunk).
[33]

The Royal Navy Submarine Service was used primarily in the classic Axis blockade. Its major operating areas were around Norway,
in the Mediterranean (against the Axis supply routes to North Africa), and in the Far East. In that war, British submarines sank
2 million tons of enemy shipping and 57 major warships, the latter including 35 submarines. Among these is the only documented
instance of a submarine sinking another submarine while both were submerged. This occurred when HMS Venturer engaged U-864;
the Venturer crew manually computed a successful firing solution against a three-dimensionally maneuvering target using techniques
which became the basis of modern torpedo computer targeting systems. Seventy-four British submarines were lost,[34] the majority,
forty-two, in the Mediterranean.

Cold-War military models

The first launch of a cruise missile (SSM-N-8 Regulus) from a submarine occurred
in July 1953, from the deck of USS Tunny, a World War II fleet boat modified to
carry the missile with anuclear warhead. Tunny and its sister boat, Barbero, were the
United States' first nuclear deterrent patrol submarines. In the 1950s, nuclear power
partially replaced diesel-electric propulsion. Equipment was also developed to
extract oxygen from sea water. These two innovations gave submarines the ability to
remain submerged for weeks or months.[35][36] Most of the naval submarines built
since that time in the US, the Soviet Union/Russian Federation, Britain, and France HMAS Rankin, a Collins-class
have been powered by nuclear reactors. submarine at periscope depth

In 1959–1960, the firstballistic missile submarineswere put into service by both the
United States (George Washington class) and the Soviet Union (Golf class) as part of the Cold
War nuclear deterrent strategy.

During the Cold War, the US and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that
engaged in cat-and-mouse games. The Soviet Union lost at least four submarines during this
period: K-129 was lost in 1968 (a part of which the CIA retrieved from the ocean floor with
the Howard Hughes-designed ship Glomar Explorer), K-8 in 1970, K-219 in 1986, and
Komsomolets in 1989 (which held a depth record among military submarines—1,000 m
(3,300 ft)). Many other Soviet subs, such as K-19 (the first Soviet nuclear submarine, and the
first Soviet sub to reach the North Pole) were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The
US lost two nuclear submarines during this time: USS Thresher due to equipment failure
during a test dive while at its operational limit, andUSS Scorpion due to unknown causes.

During India's intervention in the Bangladesh Liberation War, the Pakistan Navy's Hangor USS Charlotte, a Los
sank the Indian frigateINS Khukri. This was the first sinking by a submarine since World War Angeles-class submarine
runs with submarines from
II.[37] During the same war, the Ghazi, a Tench-class submarine on loan to Pakistan from the
partner nations during
US, was sunk by the Indian Navy. It was the first submarine combat loss since World War
RIMPAC 2014.
II.[38] In 1982 during the Falklands War, the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano was sunk by
the British submarine HMS Conqueror, the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in
war.

21st century

Usage
Military
Before and during World War II, the primary role of the submarine was anti-surface
ship warfare. Submarines would attack either on the surface, using deck guns or
submerged, using torpedoes. They were particularly effective in sinking Allied
transatlantic shipping in both World Wars, and in disrupting Japanese supply routes
and naval operations in the Pacific in World War II.

Mine-laying submarines were developed in the early part of the 20th century. The
facility was used in both World Wars. Submarines were also used for inserting and German UC-1-class World War I
removing covert agents and military forces in special operations, for intelligence submarine. The wires running up
gathering, and to rescue aircrew during air attacks on islands, where the airmen from the bow to the conning tower
would be told of safe places to crash-land so the submarines could rescue them. are the Jumping wires
Submarines could carry cargo through hostile waters or act as supply vessels for
other submarines.

Submarines could usually locate and attack other submarines only on the surface,
although HMS Venturer managed to sink U-864 with a four torpedo spread while
both were submerged. The British developed a specialized anti-submarine submarine
in WWI, the R class. After WWII, with the development of the homing torpedo,
better sonar systems, and nuclear propulsion, submarines also became able to hunt
each other effectively.
EML Lembit in the Estonian Maritime
The development of submarine-launched ballistic missile and submarine-launched
Museum. The Lembit is the only
cruise missiles gave submarines a substantial and long-ranged ability to attack both minelayer submarine of its series left
land and sea targets with a variety of weapons ranging from cluster bombs to nuclear in the world.[39]
weapons.

The primary defense of a submarine lies in its ability to remain concealed in the depths of the ocean. Early submarines could be
detected by the sound they made. Water is an excellent conductor of sound (much better than air), and submarines can detect and
track comparatively noisy surface ships from long distances. Modern submarines are built with an emphasis on stealth. Advanced
propeller designs, extensive sound-reducing insulation, and special machinery help a submarine remain as quiet as ambient ocean
noise, making them difficult to detect. It takes specialized technology to find and attack modern submarines.

Active sonar uses the reflection of sound emitted from the search equipment to detect submarines. It has been used since WWII by
surface ships, submarines and aircraft (via dropped buoys and helicopter "dipping" arrays), but it reveals the emitter's position, and is
susceptible to counter-measures.

A concealed military submarine is a real threat, and because of its stealth, can force an enemy navy to waste resources searchingge
lar
areas of ocean and protecting ships against attack. This advantage was vividly demonstrated in the 1982 Falklands War when the
British nuclear-powered submarine HMS Conqueror sank the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano. After the sinking the Argentine
Navy recognized that they had no effective defense against submarine attack, and the Argentine surface fleet withdrew to port for the
remainder of the war, though an Argentine submarine remained at sea.[40]

Civilian
Although the majority of the world's submarines are military, there are some civilian submarines, which are used for tourism,
exploration, oil and gas platform inspections, and pipeline surveys. Some are also used in illegal activities.

The Submarine Voyage ride opened at Disneyland in 1959, but although it ran under water it was not a true submarine, as it ran on
tracks and was open to the atmosphere.[41] The first tourist submarine was Auguste Piccard, which went into service in 1964 at
Expo64.[42] By 1997 there were 45 tourist submarines operating around the world.[43] Submarines with a crush depth in the range of
400–500 feet (120–150 m) are operated in several areas worldwide, typically with bottom depths around 100 to 120 feet (30 to 37 m),
with a carrying capacity of 50 to 100 passengers.

In a typical operation a surface vessel carries passengers to an offshore operating area and loads them into the submarine. The
submarine then visits underwater points of interest such as natural or artificial reef structures. To surface safely without danger of
collision the location of the submarine is marked with an air release and movement to the surface is coordinated by an observer in a
support craft.

A recent development is the deployment of so-called narco submarines by South American drug smugglers to evade law enforcement
detection.[44] Although they occasionally deploy true submarines, most are self-propelled semi-submersibles, where a portion of the
craft remains above water at all times. In September 2011, Colombian authorities seized a 16-meter-long submersible that could hold
a crew of 5, costing about $2 million. The vessel belonged toFARC rebels and had the capacity to carry at least 7 tonnes of drugs.[45]

Civilian submarines

Model of the Mésoscaphe Auguste Interior of the tourist submarine

Piccard Atlantis whilst submerged

Tourist submarine Atlantis

Polar operations
1903 – Simon Lake submarine Protector surfaced through ice off Newport, Rhode Island.[46]
1930 – USS O-12 operated under ice nearSpitsbergen.[46]
1937 – Soviet submarineKrasnogvardeyets operated under ice in theDenmark Strait.[46]
1941–45 – German U-boats operated under ice from theBarents Sea to the Laptev Sea.[46]
1946 – USS Atule used upward-beamed fathometer inOperation Nanook in the Davis Strait.[46]
1946–47 – USS Sennet used under-ice sonar in Operation High Jump in the Antarctic.[46]
1947 – USS Boarfish used upward-beamed echo sounder under pack ice in theChukchi Sea.[46]
1948 – USS Carp developed techniques for making vertical ascents and descents through
polynyas in the Chukchi
Sea.[46]
1952 – USS Redfish used an expanded upward-beamed sounder array in theBeaufort Sea.[46]
1957 – USS Nautilus reached 87 degrees north near Spitsbergen.[46]
3 August 1958 – Nautilus used an inertial navigation systemto reach the North Pole.[46]
17 March 1959 – USS Skate surfaced through the ice at the north pole.[46]
 1960 – USS Sargo transited 900 miles (1,400 km) under ice over the
shallow (125 to 180 feet or 38 to 55 metres deep) Bering-Chukchi
shelf.[46]
1960 – USS Seadragon transited the Northwest Passage under ice.[46]
1962 – Soviet November-class submarine K-3 Leninsky Komsomol
reached the north pole.[46]
1970 – USS Queenfish carried out an extensive undersea mapping
survey of the Siberian continental shelf.[47]
1971 – HMS Dreadnought reached the North Pole.[46]
USS Gurnard conducted three Polar Exercises: 1976 (with US actor US Navy attack submarine
Charlton Heston aboard); 1984 joint operations withUSS Pintado; and USS Annapolis rests in the Arctic
1990 joint exercises withUSS Seahorse. [48] Ocean after surfacing through three
6 May 1986 – USS Ray, USS Archerfish and USS Hawkbill meet and feet of ice during Ice Exercise 2009
surface together at theGeographic North Pole. First three-submarine on 21 March 2009.
surfacing at the Pole.[49]
19 May 1987 – HMS Superb joined USS Billfish and USS Sea Devil at
the North Pole.[50]
March 2007 – USS Alexandria participated in the Joint US Navy/Royal Navy Ice Exercise 2007 (ICEX-2007) in the
Arctic Ocean with the Trafalgar-class submarine HMS Tireless.[51]
March 2009 – USS Annapolis took part in Ice Exercise 2009 to test submarine operability and war-fighting capability
in Arctic conditions.[52]

Technology

Submersion and trimming

All surface ships, as well as surfaced
submarines, are in a positively buoyant
condition, weighing less than the volume
of water they would displace if fully
submerged. To submerge hydrostatically, a
ship must have negative buoyancy, either
by increasing its own weight or decreasing
its displacement of water. To control their
An illustration showing submarine controls
displacement, submarines have ballast
tanks, which can hold varying amounts of
water and air.

For general submersion or surfacing, submarines use the forward and aft tanks,
called Main Ballast Tanks (MBT), which are filled with water to submerge or with
air to surface. Submerged, MBTs generally remain flooded, which simplifies their
design, and on many submarines these tanks are a section of interhull space. For
more precise and quick control of depth, submarines use smaller Depth Control
Tanks (DCT) – also called hard tanks (due to their ability to withstand higher
USS Seawolf (SSN-21) Ship Control
pressure), or trim tanks. The amount of water in depth control tanks can be
Panel, with yokes for control surfaces
controlled to change depth or to maintain a constant depth as outside conditions (planes and rudder), and Ballast
(chiefly water density) change. Depth control tanks may be located either near the Control Panel (background), to
submarine's center of gravity, or separated along the submarine body to prevent control the water in tanks and ship's
affecting trim. trim

When submerged, the water pressure on a submarine's hull can reach 4 MPa
(580 psi) for steel submarines and up to 10 MPa (1,500 psi) for titanium submarines like K-278 Komsomolets, while interior pressure
remains relatively unchanged. This difference results in hull compression, which decreases displacement. Water density also
marginally increases with depth, as the salinity and pressure are higher.[53] This change in density incompletely compensates for hull
compression, so buoyancy decreases as depth increases. A submerged submarine is in an unstable equilibrium, having a tendency to
either sink or float to the surface. Keeping a constant depth requires continual operation of either the depth control tanks or control
surfaces.[54][55]

Submarines in a neutral buoyancy condition are not intrinsically trim-stable. To maintain desired trim, submarines use forward and
aft trim tanks. Pumps can move water between the tanks, changing weight distribution and pointing the sub up or down. A similar
system is sometimes used to maintain stability
.

The hydrostatic effect of variable ballast tanks is not the only way to control the
submarine underwater. Hydrodynamic maneuvering is done by several surfaces,
which can be moved to create hydrodynamic forces when a submarine moves at
sufficient speed. The stern planes (hydroplanes in UK), located near the propeller
and normally horizontal, serve the same purpose as the trim tanks, controlling the
trim, and are commonly used, while other control surfaces may not be present on all
submarines. The fairwater planes on the sail and/or bow planes on the main body,
both also horizontal, are closer to the center of gravity, and are used to control depth
Sail of the French nuclear submarine
with less effect on the trim.[56] Casabianca; note the diving planes,
camouflaged masts, periscope,
When a submarine performs an emergency surfacing, all depth and trim methods are
electronic warfare masts, hatch, and
used simultaneously, together with propelling the boat upwards. Such surfacing is deadlight.
very quick, so the sub may even partially jump out of the water, potentially
damaging submarine systems.

Hull

Overview
Modern submarines are cigar-shaped. This design, visible in early submarines, is
sometimes called a "teardrop hull". It reduces the hydrodynamic drag when
submerged, but decreases the sea-keeping capabilities and increases drag while
surfaced. Since the limitations of the propulsion systems of early submarines forced
them to operate surfaced most of the time, their hull designs were a compromise.
Because of the slow submerged speeds of those subs, usually well below 10 kt
(18 km/h), the increased drag for underwater travel was acceptable. Late in World
War II, when technology allowed faster and longer submerged operation and
The US Navy Los Angeles-class
increased aircraft surveillance forced submarines to stay submerged, hull designs USS Greeneville in dry dock,
became teardrop shaped again to reduce drag and noise. USS Albacore (AGSS-569) showing cigar-shaped hull
was a unique research submarine that pioneered the American version of the
teardrop hull form (sometimes referred to as an "Albacore hull") of modern
submarines. On modern military submarines the outer hull is covered with a layer of sound-absorbing rubber, or anechoic plating, to
reduce detection.

The occupied pressure hulls of deep diving submarines such as DSV Alvin are spherical instead of cylindrical. This allows a more
even distribution of stress at the great depth. A titanium frame is usually affixed to the pressure hull, providing attachment for ballast
and trim systems, scientific instrumentation, battery packs,syntactic flotation foam, and lighting.

A raised tower on top of a submarine accommodates the periscope and electronics masts, which can include radio, radar, electronic
warfare, and other systems including the snorkel mast. In many early classes of submarines (see history), the control room, or "conn",
was located inside this tower, which was known as the "conning tower". Since then, the conn has been located within the hull of the
submarine, and the tower is now called the "sail". The conn is distinct from the "bridge", a small open platform in the top of the sail,
used for observation during surface operation.

"Bathtubs" are related to conning towers but are used on smaller submarines. The bathtub is a metal cylinder surrounding the hatch
that prevents waves from breaking directly into the cabin. It is needed because surfaced submarines have limited freeboard, that is,
they lie low in the water. Bathtubs help prevent swamping the vessel.

Single and double hulls

Modern submarines and submersibles, as well as the oldest ones, usually have a
single hull. Large submarines generally have an additional hull or hull sections
outside. This external hull, which actually forms the shape of submarine, is called
the outer hull (casing in the Royal Navy) or light hull, as it does not have to
withstand a pressure difference. Inside the outer hull there is a strong hull, or
pressure hull, which withstands sea pressure and has normal atmospheric pressure
inside.
U-995, Type VIIC/41 U-boat of World
War II, showing the ship-like lines of
As early as World War I, it was realized that the optimal shape for withstanding
the outer hull for surface travel,
pressure conflicted with the optimal shape for seakeeping and minimal drag, and
blended into the cylindrical pressure
construction difficulties further complicated the problem. This was solved either by hull structure.
a compromise shape, or by using two hulls; internal for holding pressure, and
external for optimal shape. Until the end of World War II, most submarines had an
additional partial cover on the top, bow and stern, built of thinner metal, which was flooded when submerged. Germany went further
with the Type XXI, a general predecessor of modern submarines, in which the pressure hull was fully enclosed inside the light hull,
but optimized for submerged navigation, unlike earlier designs that were optimized for surface operation.

After World War II, approaches split. The Soviet Union changed its designs, basing
them on German developments. All post–World War II heavy Soviet and Russian
submarines are built with a double hull structure. American and most other Western
submarines switched to a primarily single-hull approach. They still have light hull
sections in the bow and stern, which house main ballast tanks and provide a
hydrodynamically optimized shape, but the main cylindrical hull section has only a
single plating layer. Double hulls are being considered for future submarines in the
Type XXI U-boat, late World War II,
United States to improve payload capacity,stealth and range.[57]
with pressure hull almost fully
enclosed inside the light hull
Pressure hull
The pressure hull is generally constructed of thick high-strength steel with a
complex structure and high strength reserve, and is separated with watertight bulkheads into several compartments. There are also
examples of more than two hulls in a submarine, like theTyphoon class, which has two main pressure hulls and three smaller ones for
control room, torpedoes and steering gear, with the missile launch system between the main hulls.

The dive depth cannot be increased easily. Simply making the hull thicker increases the weight and requires reduction of onboard
equipment weight, ultimately resulting in a bathyscaphe. This is acceptable for civilian research submersibles, but not military
submarines.

WWI submarines had hulls ofcarbon steel, with a 100-metre (330 ft) maximum depth. During WWII, high-strength alloyed steel was
introduced, allowing 200-metre (660 ft) depths. High-strength alloy steel remains the primary material for submarines today, with
250–400-metre (820–1,310 ft) depths, which cannot be exceeded on a military submarine without design compromises. To exceed
that limit, a few submarines were built with titanium hulls. Titanium can be stronger than steel, lighter, and is not ferromagnetic,
important for stealth. Titanium submarines were built by the Soviet Union, which developed specialized high-strength alloys. It has
produced several types of titanium submarines. Titanium alloys allow a major increase in depth, but other systems must be
redesigned to cope, so test depth was limited to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) for the
Soviet
submarine K-278 Komsomolets, the deepest-diving combat submarine. An Alfa-
class submarine may have successfully operated at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft),[58]
though continuous operation at such depths would produce excessive stress on many
submarine systems. Titanium does not flex as readily as steel, and may become
brittle after many dive cycles. Despite its benefits, the high cost of titanium
construction led to the abandonment of titanium submarine construction as the Cold
War ended. Deep–diving civilian submarines have used thickacrylic pressure hulls.

The deepest deep-submergence vehicle (DSV) to date is Trieste. On 5 October 1959,

In 1960, Jacques Piccard and Don
Trieste departed San Diego forGuam aboard the freighter Santa Maria to participate
Walsh were the first people to
in Project Nekton, a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench. On 23 January explore the deepest part of the
1960, Trieste reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern world's ocean, and the deepest
part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard (son of Auguste) and location on the surface of the Earth's
Lieutenant Don Walsh, USN.[59] This was the first time a vessel, manned or crust, in the Bathyscaphe Trieste
unmanned, had reached the deepest point in the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems designed by Auguste Piccard.

indicated a depth of 11,521 metres (37,799 ft), although this was later revised to
10,916 metres (35,814 ft) and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have
found the Challenger Deep slightly shallower,at 10,911 metres (35,797 ft).

Building a pressure hull is difficult, as it must withstand pressures at its required diving depth. When the hull is perfectly round in
cross-section, the pressure is evenly distributed, and causes only hull compression. If the shape is not perfect, the hull is bent, with
several points heavily strained. Inevitable minor deviations are resisted by stiffener rings, but even a one-inch (25 mm) deviation
from roundness results in over 30 percent decrease of maximal hydrostatic load and consequently dive depth.[60] The hull must
therefore be constructed with high precision. All hull parts must be welded without defects, and all joints are checked multiple times
with different methods, contributing to the high cost of modern submarines. (For example, each Virginia-class attack submarine costs
US$2.6 billion, over US$200,000 perton of displacement.)

Propulsion
The first submarines were propelled by humans. The first mechanically driven
submarine was the 1863 French Plongeur, which used compressed air for
propulsion. Anaerobic propulsion was first employed by the Spanish Ictineo II in
1864, which used a solution of zinc, manganese dioxide, and potassium chlorate to
generate sufficient heat to power a steam engine, while also providing oxygen for
the crew. A similar system was not employed again until 1940 when the German
Navy tested a hydrogen peroxide-based system, the Walter turbine, on the
experimental V-80 submarine and later on the naval U-791 and type XVII
HMCS Windsor, a Royal Canadian
submarines.[61] Navy Victoria-class diesel-electric
hunter-killer submarine
Until the advent of nuclear marine propulsion, most 20th-century submarines used
batteries for running underwater and gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines on the
surface, and for battery recharging. Early submarines used gasoline, but this quickly gave way to kerosene (paraffin), then diesel,
because of reduced flammability. Diesel-electric became the standard means of propulsion. The diesel or gasoline engine and the
electric motor, separated by clutches, were initially on the same shaft driving the propeller. This allowed the engine to drive the
electric motor as a generator to recharge the batteries and also propel the submarine. The clutch between the motor and the engine
would be disengaged when the submarine dived, so that the motor could drive the propeller
. The motor could have multiple armatures
on the shaft, which could be electrically coupled in series for slow speed and in parallel for high speed (these connections were called
"group down" and "group up", respectively).
Diesel-electric
Early submarines used a direct mechanical connection between the engine and
propeller, switching between diesel engines for surface running, and battery-driven
electric motors for submerged propulsion.

In 1928, the United States Navy's Bureau of Engineering proposed a diesel-electric

transmission. Instead of driving the propeller directly while running on the surface,
the submarine's diesel drove a generator that could either charge the submarine's
batteries or drive the electric motor. This made electric motor speed independent of
diesel engine speed, so the diesel could run at an optimum and non-critical speed.
recharging battery (JMSDF)
One or more diesel engines could be shut down for maintenance while the
submarine continued to run on the remaining engine or battery power. The US
pioneered this concept in 1929, in theS-class submarines S-3, S-6, and S-7. The first production submarines with this system were the
Porpoise class of the 1930s, and it was used on most subsequent US diesel submarines through the 1960s. No other navy adopted the
system before 1945, apart from the Royal Navy's U-class submarines, though some submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy used
separate diesel generators for low speed running.[62]

Other advantages of such an arrangement were that a submarine could travel slowly with the engines at full power to recharge the
batteries quickly, reducing time on the surface or on snorkel. It was then possible to isolate the noisy diesel engines from the pressure
hull, making the submarine quieter. Additionally, diesel-electric transmissions were more compact.

During World War II the Germans experimented with the idea of the schnorchel (snorkel) from captured Dutch submarines, but didn't
see the need for them until rather late in the war. The schnorchel was a retractable pipe that supplied air to the diesel engines while
submerged at periscope depth, allowing the boats to cruise and recharge their batteries while maintaining a degree of stealth. It was
far from a perfect solution, however. There were problems with the device's valve sticking shut or closing as it dunked in rough
weather; since the system used the entire pressure hull as a buffer, the diesels would instantaneously suck huge volumes of air from
the boat's compartments, and the crew often suffered painful ear injuries. Speed was limited to 8 knots (15 km/h), lest the device snap
from stress. The schnorchel also created noise that made the boat easier to detect with sonar, yet more difficult for the on-board sonar
to detect signals from other vessels. Finally, Allied radar eventually became sufficiently advanced that the schnorchel mast could be
detected beyond visual range.[63]

While the snorkel renders a submarine far less detectable, it is not perfect. In clear weather, diesel exhaust can be seen on the surface
to a distance of about three miles,[64] while "periscope feather" (the wave created by the snorkel or periscope moving through the
[65]
water) is visible from far off in calm sea conditions. Modern radar is also capable of detecting a snorkel in calm sea conditions.

The problem of the diesels causing a vacuum in the submarine when the head valve is submerged still exists in later model diesel
submarines, but is mitigated by high-vacuum cut-off sensors that shut down the engines when the vacuum in the ship reaches a pre-
set point. Modern snorkel induction masts use a fail-safe design using compressed air, controlled by a simple electrical circuit, to
hold the "head valve" open against the pull of a powerful spring. Seawater washing over the mast shorts out exposed electrodes on
top, breaking the control, and shutting the "head valve" while it is submerged. US submarines did not adopt the use of snorkels until
after WWII.[66]

One new technology that is being introduced starting with the Japanese Navy's eleventh Sōryū-class submarine (JS Ōryū) is a more
modern battery, the lithium-ion battery. These batteries have about double the electric storage of traditional batteries, and by changing
out the lead-acid batteries in their normal storage areas plus filling up the large hull space normally devoted to AIP engine and fuel
tanks with many tons of lithium-ion batteries, modern submarines can actually return to a "pure" diesel-electric configuration yet
have the added underwater range and power normally associated with AIP equipped submarines.

Air-independent
During World War II, German Type XXI submarines (also known as "Elektroboote")
were the first submarines designed to operate submerged for extended periods.
Initially they were to carry hydrogen peroxide for long-term, fast air-independent
propulsion, but were ultimately built with very large batteries instead. At the end of
the War, the British and Soviets experimented with hydrogen peroxide/kerosene
(paraffin) engines that could run surfaced and submerged. The results were not
encouraging. Though the Soviet Union deployed a class of submarines with this
engine type (codenamedQuebec by NATO), they were considered unsuccessful.
German Type XXI submarine
The United States also used hydrogen peroxide in an experimental midget
submarine, X-1. It was originally powered by a hydrogen peroxide/diesel engine and
battery system until an explosion of her hydrogen peroxide supply on 20 May 1957.
[67]
X-1 was later converted to use diesel-electric drive.

Today several navies use air-independent propulsion. Notably Sweden uses Stirling
technology on the Gotland-class and Södermanland-class submarines. The Stirling
engine is heated by burning diesel fuel with liquid oxygen from cryogenic tanks. A
newer development in air-independent propulsion is hydrogen fuel cells, first used
on the German Type 212 submarine, with nine 34 kW or two 120 kW cells and soon
to be used in the new Spanish S-80-class submarines.[68]
American X-1 Midget Submarine

Nuclear power
Steam power was resurrected in the 1950s with a nuclear-powered steam turbine
driving a generator. By eliminating the need for atmospheric oxygen, the time that a
submarine could remain submerged was limited only by its food stores, as breathing
air was recycled and fresh waterdistilled from seawater. More importantly, a nuclear
submarine has unlimited range at top speed. This allows it to travel from its
operating base to the combat zone in a much shorter time and makes it a far more
difficult target for most anti-submarine weapons. Nuclear-powered submarines have
a relatively small battery and diesel engine/generator powerplant for emergency use
if the reactors must be shut down. Battery well containing 126 cells on
USS Nautilus, the first nuclear-
Nuclear power is now used in all large submarines, but due to the high cost and large
powered submarine
size of nuclear reactors, smaller submarines still use diesel-electric propulsion. The
ratio of larger to smaller submarines depends on strategic needs. The US Navy,
French Navy, and the British Royal Navy operate only nuclear submarines,[69][70] which is explained by the need for distant
operations. Other major operators rely on a mix of nuclear submarines for strategic purposes and diesel-electric submarines for
defense. Most fleets have no nuclear submarines, due to the limited availability of nuclear power and submarine technology
.

Diesel-electric submarines have a stealth advantage over their nuclear counterparts. Nuclear submarines generate noise from coolant
pumps and turbo-machinery needed to operate the reactor, even at low power levels.[71] Some nuclear submarines such as the
American Ohio class can operate with their reactor coolant pumps secured, making them quieter than electric subs. A conventional
submarine operating on batteries is almost completely silent, the only noise coming from the shaft bearings, propeller, and flow noise
around the hull, all of which stops when the sub hovers in mid-water to listen, leaving only the noise from crew activity. Commercial
submarines usually rely only on batteries, since they operate in conjunction with a mother ship.

Several serious nuclear and radiation accidents have involved nuclear submarine mishaps.[72][73] The Soviet submarine K-19 reactor
accident in 1961 resulted in 8 deaths and more than 30 other people were over-exposed to radiation.[74] The Soviet submarine K-27
reactor accident in 1968 resulted in 9 fatalities and 83 other injuries.[72] The Soviet submarine K-431 accident in 1985 resulted in 10
fatalities and 49 other radiation injuries.[73]
Alternative
Oil-fired steam turbines powered the BritishK-class submarines, built during World War I and later, to give them the surface speed to
keep up with the battle fleet. The K-class subs were not very successful, however
.

Toward the end of the 20th century, some submarines—such as the British Vanguard class—began to be fitted with pump-jet
propulsors instead of propellers. Though these are heavier, more expensive, and less efficient than a propeller, they are significantly
quieter, providing an important tactical advantage.

Armament
The success of the submarine is inextricably linked to the development of the
torpedo, invented by Robert Whitehead in 1866. His invention is essentially the
same now as it was 140 years ago. Only with self-propelled torpedoes could the
submarine make the leap from novelty to a weapon of war. Until the perfection of
the guided torpedo, multiple "straight-running" torpedoes were required to attack a
target. With at most 20 to 25 torpedoes stored on board, the number of attacks was
limited. To increase combat endurance most World War I submarines functioned as
submersible gunboats, using their deck guns against unarmed targets, and diving to
escape and engage enemy warships. The importance of guns encouraged the The forward torpedo tubes in HMS
development of the unsuccessful Submarine Cruiser such as the French Surcouf and Ocelot
the Royal Navy's X1 and M-class submarines. With the arrival of Anti-submarine
warfare (ASW) aircraft, guns became more for defense than attack. A more practical
method of increasing combat endurance was the external torpedo tube, loaded only in port.

The ability of submarines to approach enemy harbours covertly led to their use as minelayers. Minelaying submarines of World War I
and World War II were specially built for that purpose. Modern submarine-laid mines, such as the British Mark 5 Stonefish and Mark
6 Sea Urchin, can be deployed from a submarine's torpedo tubes.

After World War II, both the US and the USSR experimented with submarine-launched cruise missiles such as the SSM-N-8 Regulus
and P-5 Pyatyorka. Such missiles required the submarine to surface to fire its missiles. They were the forerunners of modern
submarine-launched cruise missiles, which can be fired from the torpedo tubes of submerged submarines, for example the US BGM-
109 Tomahawk and Russian RPK-2 Viyuga and versions of surface–to–surface anti-ship missiles such as the Exocet and Harpoon,
encapsulated for submarine launch. Ballistic missiles can also be fired from a submarine's torpedo tubes, for example missiles such as
the anti-submarine SUBROC. With internal volume as limited as ever and the desire to carry heavier warloads, the idea of the
external launch tube was revived, usually for encapsulated missiles, with such tubes being placed between the internal pressure and
outer streamlined hulls.

The strategic mission of the SSM-N-8 and the P-5 was taken up by submarine-launched ballistic missile beginning with the US
Navy's Polaris missile, and subsequently the Poseidon and Trident missiles.

Germany is working on the torpedo tube-launched short-range IDAS missile, which can be used against ASW helicopters, as well as
surface ships and coastal targets.

Sensors
A submarine can have a variety of sensors, depending on its missions. Modern military submarines rely almost entirely on a suite of
passive and active sonars to locate targets. Active sonar relies on an audible "ping" to generate echoes to reveal objects around the
submarine. Active systems are rarely used, as doing so reveals the sub's presence. Passive sonar is a set of sensitive hydrophones set
into the hull or trailed in a towed array, normally trailing several hundred feet behind the sub. The towed array is the mainstay of
NATO submarine detection systems, as it reduces the flow noise heard by operators. Hull mounted sonar is employed in addition to
the towed array, as the towed array can't work in shallow depth and during maneuvering. In addition, sonar has a blind spot "through"
the submarine, so a system on both the front and back works to eliminate that problem. As the towed array trails behind and below
the submarine, it also allows the submarine to have a system both above and below the thermocline at the proper depth; sound
passing through the thermocline is distorted resulting in a lower detection range.

Submarines also carry radar equipment to detect surface ships and aircraft. Submarine captains are more likely to use radar detection
gear than active radar to detect targets, as radar can be detected far beyond its own return range, revealing the submarine. Periscopes
are rarely used, except for position fixes and to verify a contact's identity
.

Civilian submarines, such as the DSV Alvin or the Russian Mir submersibles, rely on small active sonar sets and viewing ports to
navigate. The human eye cannot detect sunlight below about 300 feet (91 m) underwater, so high intensity lights are used to
illuminate the viewing area.

Navigation
Early submarines had few navigation aids, but modern subs have a variety of
navigation systems. Modern military submarines use an inertial guidance system for
navigation while submerged, but drift error unavoidably builds over time. To counter
this, the crew occasionally uses the Global Positioning System to obtain an accurate
position. The periscope—a retractable tube with a prism system that provides a view
of the surface—is only used occasionally in modern submarines, since the visibility
range is short. The Virginia-class and Astute-class submarines use photonics masts
rather than hull-penetrating optical periscopes. These masts must still be deployed
above the surface, and use electronic sensors for visible light, infrared, laser range- The larger search periscope, and the
finding, and electromagnetic surveillance. One benefit to hoisting the mast above the smaller, less detectable attack
surface is that while the mast is above the water the entire sub is still below the periscope on HMS Ocelot
water and is much harder to detect visually or by radar
.

Communication
Military submarines use several systems to communicate with distant command centers or other ships. One is VLF (very low
frequency) radio, which can reach a submarine either on the surface or submerged to a fairly shallow depth, usually less than 250 feet
(76 m). ELF (extremely low frequency) can reach a submarine at greater depths, but has a very low bandwidth and is generally used
to call a submerged sub to a shallower depth where VLF signals can reach. A submarine also has the option of floating a long,
buoyant wire antenna to a shallower depth, allowing VLF transmissions by a deeply submer
ged boat.

By extending a radio mast, a submarine can also use a "burst transmission" technique. A burst transmission takes only a fraction of a
second, minimizing a submarine's risk of detection.

To communicate with other submarines, a system known as Gertrude is used. Gertrude is basically a sonar telephone. Voice
communication from one submarine is transmitted by low power speakers into the water
, where it is detected by passive sonars on the
receiving submarine. The range of this system is probably very short, and using it radiates sound into the water, which can be heard
by the enemy.

Civilian submarines can use similar, albeit less powerful systems to communicate with support ships or other submersibles in the
area.

Life support systems

With nuclear power or air-independent propulsion, submarines can remain submerged for months at a time. Conventional diesel
submarines must periodically resurface or run on snorkel to recharge their batteries. Most modern military submarines generate
breathing oxygen by electrolysis of water (using a device called an "Elektrolytic Oxygen Generator"). Atmosphere control equipment
includes a CO2 scrubber, which uses an amine absorbent to remove the gas from air and diffuse it into waste pumped overboard. A
machine that uses a catalyst to convert carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide (removed by the CO2 scrubber) and bonds hydrogen
produced from the ship's storage battery with oxygen in the atmosphere to produce water, is also used. An atmosphere monitoring
system samples the air from different areas of the ship for nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, R-12 and R-114 refrigerants, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, and other gases. Poisonous gases are removed, and oxygen is replenished by use of an oxygen bank located in a
main ballast tank. Some heavier submarines have two oxygen bleed stations (forward and aft). The oxygen in the air is sometimes
kept a few percent less than atmospheric concentration to reduce fire danger
.

Fresh water is produced by either an evaporator or a reverse osmosis unit. The primary use for fresh water is to provide feedwater for
the reactor and steam propulsion plants. It is also available for showers, sinks, cooking and cleaning once propulsion plant needs have
been met. Seawater is used to flush toilets, and the resulting "black water" is stored in a sanitary tank until it is blown overboard
using pressurized air or pumped overboard by using a special sanitary pump. The blackwater–discharge system is difficult to operate,
and the German Type VIIC boat U-1206 was lost with casualties because of human error while using this system.[75] Water from
showers and sinks is stored separately in g" rey water" tanks and discharged overboard using drain pumps.

Trash on modern large submarines is usually disposed of using a tube called a Trash Disposal Unit (TDU), where it is compacted into
a galvanized steel can. At the bottom of the TDU is a large ball valve. An ice plug is set on top of the ball valve to protect it, the cans
atop the ice plug. The top breech door is shut, and the TDU is flooded and equalized with sea pressure, the ball valve is opened and
the cans fall out assisted by scrap iron weights in the cans. The TDU is also flushed with seawater to ensure it is completely empty
and the ball valve is clear before closing the valve.

Crew
A typical nuclear submarine has a crew of over 80; conventional boats typically
have fewer than 40. The conditions on a submarine can be difficult because crew
members must work in isolation for long periods of time, without family contact.
Submarines normally maintain radio silence to avoid detection. Operating a
submarine is dangerous, even in peacetime, and many submarines have been lost in
accidents.

Women
Most navies prohibited women from serving on submarines, even after they had The interior of a British E-class
been permitted to serve on surface warships. The Royal Norwegian Navy became submarine. An officer supervises
the first navy to allow women on its submarine crews in 1985. The Royal Danish submerging operations, c. 1914–
1918.
Navy allowed female submariners in 1988.[76] Others followed suit including the
Swedish Navy (1989),[77] the Royal Australian Navy (1998), the Spanish Navy
(1999),[78][79] the German Navy (2001) and the Canadian Navy (2002). In 1995,
Solveig Krey of the Royal Norwegian Navy became the first female officer to
assume command on a military submarine,HNoMS Kobben.[80]

On 8 December 2011, British Defence Secretary Philip Hammond announced that

the UK's ban on women in submarines was to be lifted from 2013.[81] Previously
there were fears that women were more at risk from a build-up of carbon dioxide in
the submarine. But a study showed no medical reason to exclude women, though
pregnant women would still be excluded.[81] Similar dangers to the pregnant woman Midshipmen learn to pilot the
and her fetus barred women from submarine service in Sweden in 1983, when all submarine aboard USS West
Virginia.
other positions were made available for them in the Swedish Navy. Today, pregnant
women are still not allowed to serve on submarines in Sweden. However, the
policymakers thought that it was discriminatory with a general ban and demanded
that women should be tried on their individual merits and have their suitability evaluated and compared to other candidates. Further,
they noted that a woman complying with such high demands is unlikely to become pregnant.[77] In May 2014, three women became
the RN's first female submariners.[82]

Women have served on US Navy surface ships since 1993, and as of 201
1–2012, began serving on submarines for the first time. Until
presently, the Navy allowed only three exceptions to women being on board military submarines: female civilian technicians for a
few days at most, women midshipmen on an overnight during summer training for Navy ROTC and Naval Academy, and family
members for one-day dependent cruises.[83] In 2009, senior officials, including then-Secretaryof the Navy Ray Mabus, Joint Chief of
Staff Admiral Michael Mullen, and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Gary Roughead, began the process of finding a way to
implement women on submarines.[84] The US Navy rescinded its "no women on subs" policy in 2010.
[85]

Both the US and British navies operate nuclear-powered submarines that deploy for periods of six months or longer
. Other navies that
permit women to serve on submarines operate conventionally powered submarines, which deploy for much shorter periods—usually
only for a few months.[86] Prior to the change by the US, no nation using nuclear submarines permitted women to serve on board.
[87]

In 2011, the first class of female submarine officers graduated from Naval Submarine School's Submarine Officer Basic Course
(SOBC) at the Naval Submarine Base New London.[88] Additionally, more senior ranking and experienced female supply officers
from the surface warfare specialty attended SOBC as well, proceeding to fleet Ballistic Missile (SSBN) and Guided Missile (SSGN)
submarines along with the new female submarine line officers beginning in late 2011.[89] By late 2011, several women were assigned
to the Ohio-class ballistic missile submarineUSS Wyoming.[90] On 15 October 2013, the US Navy announced that two of the smaller
[85]
Virginia-class attack submarines,USS Virginia and USS Minnesota, would have female crew-members by January 2015.

Abandoning the vessel

In an emergency, submarines can transmit a signal to other ships. The crew can use Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment to
abandon the submarine.[91] The crew can prevent a lung injury from the pressure change known as pulmonary barotrauma by
exhaling during the ascent.[92] Following escape from a pressurized submarine, the crew is at risk of developing decompression
sickness.[93] An alternative escape means is via a Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle that can dock onto the disabled
submarine.[94][95]

See also
Supercavitation
Ohio Replacement Submarine
Future of the Russian Navy
Autonomous underwater vehicle
Coastal submarine
Depth charge
Category:Fictional submarines
Flying submarine
List of ships sunk by submarines by death toll
List of submarine actions
List of submarine classes
List of submarine museums
List of submarines of the Second World War
List of specifications of submarines of World War II
List of sunken nuclear submarines
Merchant submarine
Nuclear navy
Semi-submersible naval vessel
Submarine films
Submarine power cable
Submarine simulator, a computer game genre
By country
List of submarine operators
Australia – Collins-class submarine
Bangladesh – Type 035G submarine
Britain – List of submarines of the Royal Navy, List of submarine classes of the Royal Navy
China – Submarines of the People's Liberation Army Navy
France – Submarines in the French Navy, List of submarines of the French Navy, List of French submarine classes
and types
Germany – List of U-boats of Germany
India – Submarines of the Indian Navy
Israel – Dolphin-class submarine
Japan – Imperial Japanese Navy submarines, List of combatant ship classes of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense
Force#SS : Submarine
The Netherlands – List of submarines of the Netherlands
Pakistan – List of active Pakistan Navy ships#Submarines
Romania – Romanian submarines of World War II
Russia – List of Soviet and Russian submarine classes
Soviet Union – List of ships of the Soviet Navy#Submarines
Spain – List of submarines in the Spanish Navy
Turkey – List of submarines of the Turkish Navy
United States – Submarines in the US Navy, List of submarines of the US Navy, List of US submarine classes, Naval
Submarine Medical Research Laboratory

References
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ubmarine/). English Russia. Retrieved 21 May 2013. Check date values in: |date= (help)
2. Editors (2019). "Submarine -- definition"(https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/submarine)
. Oxford Dictionaries
| English. Retrieved 2019-04-05.
3. The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1993, Vol. 2 N–Z
4. Gugliotta, Bobette (2014-02-17).Pigboat 39: An American Sub Goes to War (https://books.google.com/books?id=R
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limites excedere, unica demonstratione elucidabo, quomodo scilicet quis in fundum alicuius aquae aut fluvij, sicco
corpore intrare possit, quod me vidisse in celebri Oppido & Regno olleti
T affirmavi, coram piae memoriae Carolo
Quinto Imperatore, & infinitis aliis spectatoribus."(Nevertheless, reader, our statement is seento refute something
witnessed, which one considers a wonder , exceeding the limits of nature; I will elucidate a unique demonstration,
namely, how one can penetrate to the bottomof any water or river while remaining dry , which, I assert, I saw in the
celebrated city and kingdom of Toledo in the presence of Emperor Charles V of blessed memory and a multitude of
other spectators.) From p. 44: "Nunc venio ad experientiam praedictam, T olleti demonstratam a duobus Graecis, qui
Cacabo magnae amplitudinis accepto, orificio inverso, funibus in aere pendente, tabem & asseres in medio concavi
Cacabi affigunt, … " (Now I come to the experiment mentioned above:in Toledo, it was shown by two Greeks, who,I
understand, attached to a cauldron c( acabus) of great size — [which had its] opening inverted [and which was] held
in the air by ropes — a beam and poles inside of the hollow cauldron … [The beam and poles formed seats for the
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External links
U.S. Patent 708,553 – Submarine boat
Role of the Modern Submarine
Submariners Association – UK Submariners site and Boat Database
Video from 1955 giving a detailed descriptionof boat systems on YouTube
The Invention of the Submarine
U.S. submarine photo archive
U.S. World War II Submarine Veterans History Project
German Submarines of WWII, uboat.net
Record breaking Japanese Submarines
List of Naval Submarines on naval-technology .com
The Fleet Type Submarine Online US Navy submarine training manuals, 1944–1946
 The Home Front: Manitowoc County in World War II: Video footage of submarine launches into Lake Michigan during
World War II
American Society of Safety Engineers. Journal of Professional Safety
. Submarine Accidents: A 60-Year Statistical
Assessment. C. Tingle. September 2009. pp. 31–39.Ordering full article; or Reproduction without graphics/tables
Historic film footage showing submarines in WWI at europeanfilmgateway .eu

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