CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
The concept of the intelligent engine revolves around the idea that the engine is thinking for
itself. The brain of the system is an electronic control system that analyzes the condition of
the engine and the operation of the engine’s system (The fuel injection, exhaust valve,
cylinder lube oil and turbo charging system). Along with the control and timing needed to
make the diesel run smoothly, the intelligent diesel goes beyond that by monitoring and
evaluating the condition of the engine, based on engine conditions the smart system can
actively protect the engine from damage due to overload, lack of maintenance and
maladjustment. The intelligent engines’ finite control gives the bridge the ability to manually
adjust more variables than the current camshaft system. Along with manual controls,
operators can specifically design programs that optimize fuel economy, emission, turbo
output, allowing for high performance under different loads.

Figure 1.1 Schematic of an internal combustion engine piston and cylinder arrangement.

Diesel aims to produce mechanical energy from chemical energy stored in fuels. The engine
uses a conventional arrangement of cylinders and pistons found in other types of internal
combustion engines, as gasoline engines. Conceptually, the diesel engine achieves high
performance and excellent fuel consumption by compressing the air contained within the
Cylinder at high pressure and injecting a small amount of fuel into highly compressed air. The
temperature generated during the compression of the air makes this small amount of
pulverized fuel evaporates. Mixture of pulverized fuel to the existing hot air into the
combustion chamber causes the vaporized fuel to reach its auto-ignition temperature and burn.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Thus freeing the energy stored before. With the burning of fuel, energy in the form of heat is
released increasing the pressure inside the cylinder. This energy released raises the pressure in
the cylinder that is applied to the surface of the piston, causing it to return to the PMI (bottom
dead center) as in Figure 1. This cycle is known as a boom cycle, power cycle or duty cycle
because this cycle is that the expansion of gases produces work by applying pressure to the
piston surface.

Figure 1.2 General engine control parameter block diagram.

1.2 Replacing the Camshaft

The convenience of the camshaft is that not only does it keep the timing of the opening and
closing valves and injecting fuel through its cams, it is also responsible for the mechanical
force that is required to actually open and close the valves and power the port and helix fuel
pump.

The camshaft less intelligent system uses the rotation of the engine to power an axial piston
pump that pressurizes a hydraulic oil system. The potential energy from the hydraulic

2
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

pressure is directed by the electronically controlled servo system to drive In FI (Intelligent

Fuel Injection) and In VA (Intelligent Valve Actuation) systems.

The ECDE is divided into these main groups of components.

 Electronic sensors for registering operating conditions and changes. A wide array of
physical inputs is converted into electrical signal outputs.
 Actuators, solenoids which convert the control unit's electrical output signal into
mechanical control movement.
 ECM (Electronic Control Module) or Engine ECU (Electronic Control Unit) with
microprocessors which process information from various sensors in accordance with
programmed software and outputs required electrical signals into actuators and
solenoids.

1.3 Block Diagram

Figure 1.3.1 Block diagram.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.3.2 Block diagram of output pin specification.

1.4 Flow Chart

Figure 1.4 Flow chart

4
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.3 COMPONENTS

1.3.1 Sensors
 Injection pump speed sensor - monitors pump rotational speed
 Fuel rack position sensor - monitors pump fuel rack position
 Charge air pressure sensor - measures pressure side of the turbocharger
 Fuel pressure sensor
 Air cleaner vacuum pressure sensor
 Engine position sensor
 Temperature sensors - measure various operating temperatures
o Intake temperature
o Charge air temperature
o Coolant temperature
o Fuel temperature
o Exhaust temperature (Pyrometer)
o Ambient temperature
 Vehicle speed sensor - monitors vehicle speed
 Brake pedal sensor - operates with cruise control, exhaust brake, idle control
 Clutch pedal sensor - operates with cruise control, exhaust brake, idle control
 Accelerator pedal sensor
 Driver input switches - cruise control, idle increase /decrease, engine/exhaust brake
 Injector needle movement sensor - monitors the actual injection time and feeds the
information to the ECU (as used on VM Motor i2.5 and 3.1 engines).

1.3.2 Electronic Control Unit

The ECU collects and processes signals from various on-board sensors. An ECU electronic
module contains microprocessors, memory units, analog to digital converters and output
interface units. Depending upon the parameters, a number of different maps can be stored in
the onboard memory. This allows the ECU to be tailored to the specific engine and vehicle
requirements, depending on the application. The operating software of the ECU can be
adapted for a wide variety of engines and vehicles without the necessity of hardware

5
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Modification. The ECU is usually located in the cab or in certain cases, in a suitable position
in the engine bay where additional environmental conditions might require cooling of the
ECU as well as a requirement for better dust, heat and vibrations insulation.

1.3.3 Actuators and Solenoids

Electro-magnetic actuators are usually located on the fuel pump to transfer electrical signals
into mechanical action in this case fuel rack actuator and or fuel stop solenoid which means
that depending on requests from control unit full fuel or no fuel quantity.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 2
2. Review of Literature

2.1 Design and Analysis of a Cooling Control System of a Diesel

Engine, To Reduce Emissions and Fuel Consumption.
Marco Antonio Islander MWM International Industrial de Motors Ltda. and MPEA-
UNICAMP, E-mail: marco.iskandar@navistar.com.br
Alberto AdadeFilhoInstituteTechnological de Aeronautic- ITA and MPEA-UNICAMP, E-
mail: adade@ita.br(1998).
The diesel engine technology has been driven by increasingly stringent laws. To comply with
these laws the emissions control systems are rapidly developing in the market aimed at
providing products that meet future emissions standards, but savings in fuel consumption and
greater durability.

2.1.1 Solenoids valve electronically controlled

The temperature of the coolant and with it the engine must be adjusted so it remains
approximately constant within a narrow range. An efficient way to compensate for different
working conditions is to install an electronically controlled thermostat, and incorporating an
element of control that will regulate the temperature regardless of pressure variations in the
cooling system. An electronically controlled thermostat differs from conventional thermostats.
The controller receives information from the ECM and sends a PWM (pulse width
modulation) to a solenoid valve. The solenoid valves open and close the internal mechanism
of the thermostat, controlling the flow of coolant liquid that goes through the radiator.

This increases the range of work for Different climatic conditions and with large fluctuations
in load factors and help in reducing engine emissions while reducing engine wear.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 Experimental Investigation of Embedded Controlled Diesel

Engine
R.Govindaraju1, M.Bharathiraja2, Dr. K.Ramani3, Dr.K.R.Govindan4 (2000)
journalhomepage:http://aessweb.com/

This paper presents embedded control design and experimental results of the fuel injection
control system of a single cylinder direct injection diesel engine. Here, the electronic fuel
injector is controlled by PIC microcontroller using the signals received from air velocity
sensor, load sensor, exhaust temperature sensor, crankshaft position sensor and speed sensor.
The performance of the electronic fuel injection system is compared with that mechanical fuel
injection system and fuel consumption characteristics are studied.

Internal Combustion (IC) engines are used in a variety of stationary applications ranging from
power generation to inert gas production and in automobiles. Both spark ignition and
compression ignition engines can be found. Depending on the application, stationary IC
engines range in size from relatively small for agricultural irrigation purposes to thousands of
horsepower for power generation. The major issue with the usage of IC engines is fuel
consumption. For this purpose, electronically controlled fuel injection systems are tried.

In multi cylinder diesel engines instead of mechanically controlled fuel injection systems.
However due to cost and space requirements, usage of embedded control systems are not
implemented in single cylinder diesel engines. But for automobiles, agriculture pumping, and
standby power generator sets, large quantum of single cylinder diesel engines are utilized. By
providing electronically controlled fuel injection systems in these single cylinder diesel
engines, sizable quantum of fuel will be saved and the performance will be improved. With
this in mind, a 6 HP single cylinder diesel engine is tested both with mechanically controlled
fuel injection system and electronically controlled fuel injection system.

2.2.1 Electronic Fuel Injection System

The construction of fuel injection system of electronic type is shown in Fig 3. An embedded
system is a computer system designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions with real-
time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device including hardware
and mechanical parts. Embedded systems control many devices in common use today.

8
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 2.1.1 Fuel System of Electronic Type

The IC engine embedded system is known as Engine Management System. An engine

management system is a type of electronic control unit that determines the amount of fuel,
injection timing and other parameters an internal combustion engine needs to keep running. It
does this by reading values from multidimensional performance maps, using input values (e.g.
Engine speed) calculated from signals coming from sensor devices monitoring the engine.
Before ECU's, air/fuel mixture, is directly controlled by mechanical and pneumatic sensors
and actuators.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 3
3. Proposed Methodology

3.1 Experimental Setup

The conversion of mechanical injection system into the electronic injection system is
discussed here. The engine specification, different sensor details, fuel injector details and
microcontroller details are also presented.

Figure 3.1. Block diagram of Experimental Setup.

3.2 Methodology

Hardware block of the experimental setup is shown in this experiment; mechanical controlled
engine is converted into electronic controlled engine. From the mechanical controlled engine,
the injection quantity is calculated for different loads and speeds. This injection quantity
calculation is stored in the memory of Electronic Control Unit in the form of lookup table.

In electronic fuel injection system, air flow sensor, crankshaft position sensor, speed sensor,
exhaust gas temperature and load sensor are used to give input to the Electronic Control Unit.
The ECU will calculate the load and speed calculations from inputs from the sensors. Then
the ECU will calculate the fuel pulse width from lookup table using this load and speed. This
fuel pulse width is given to the electronic fuel injector through driver circuit. Electronic fuel
injector injects the fuel according to the operational requirement of the engine.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

3.3 Sensor Details

The sensors used in this electronic fuel injection system are air valve sensor, crankshaft
position sensor, load sensor, temperature sensor. Some of the sensors require signal
conditioning because of weak signal strength, noises, etc. Various signal conditioning boards
are used for the crankshaft position sensor, speed sensor. Sensors are fitted at different places
of the engine. Load sensor is fitted at the dynamometer to get the engine load condition.

3.4 Crank Shaft Position Sensor

The crankshaft position sensor sends the information of the piston position to find the timing
of the injection and it is fitted at the extreme end of the crank shaft includes magnets and soft
iron core winded by coil and toothed wheel that is designed to rotate in linkage with the
crankshaft. Toothed wheel has 58 teeth and two tooth gaps that are used for identifying the
cylinder position. The revolution of toothed wheel makes the crank angle sensor to generate
58 signals. From which the exact timing at which the start of the delivery of fuel is arrived.

3.5 Speed Sensor

The Speed sensor is fitted at the coupling between the engine and the dynamometer. It is used
to find the engine speed. Speed sensor generates 4 pulse signals per a revolution of the output
gear. Then ECM receives the pulse signal that will be used for idling speed adjustment. Speed
sensor finds whether the engine is at idling or running. When current flows it receives 0.5V,
when the sensor does not operate and it receives a 12V signal, to detect engine speed.

3.6 Fuel Injector Details

It is the injector’s job to inject into the combustion chamber exactly the correct amount of fuel
at precisely the right time. To do so, the injector is triggered by signals from the ECM. The
injector has an electromagnetic servo-valve. It is a high-precision component which has been
manufactured to extremely tight tolerances. The valve, the nozzle, and the electromagnet are
located in the injector body. Fuel flows from the high-pressure connection though an input
throttle into the valve control chamber. There is the same pressure inside the injector as there
is in the pump, and the fuel is injected through the nozzle into the combustion chamber.
Excess fuel flows back to the tank through the return line. Maximum RPM & fuel cut off on
overrun is achieved by controlling injectors, via ECU.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The mechanical fuel injection system is replaced by electronic fuel injection in this
experiment. The advent of electronic control over the diesel injection pump has allowed many
advances over the purely mechanical system. The production of high pressure and injection is,
however, still mechanical with all current systems. The advantages of the electronic injection
system improve performance, increased comfort, reduced smoke at acceleration, more precise
control of fuel quantity injected, better control of the start of injection, idle speed control,
drive by wire system and output to data acquisition systems etc.

3.7 Microcontroller

Figure 3.7 AT mega 328 pin configuration.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The configuration of microcontroller is chosen for the experiment is at mega 328 micro
controller;

 Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Pre scale and Compare Mode

– One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Pre scale, Compare Mode, and Capture Mode
– Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
– Six PWM Channels
– 8-channel 10-bit ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package
 Temperature Measurement
– 6-channel 10-bit ADC in PDIP Package
 Temperature Measurement
– Programmable Serial USART
– Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
– Byte-oriented 2-wire Serial Interface (Philips I2C compatible)
– Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
– On-chip Analog Comparator
– Interrupt and Wake-up on Pin Change
 Special Microcontroller Features
– Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
– Internal Calibrated Oscillator
– External and Internal Interrupt Sources
– Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby,
And Extended Standby
 I/O and Packages
– 23 Programmable I/O Lines
 Operating Voltage:
– 1.8 - 5.5V
 Temperature Range:
–-40C to 85C
 Speed Grade:
– 0 - 4MHz@1.8 - 5.5V, 0 - 10MHz@2.7 - 5.5.V, 0 - 20MHz @ 4.5 - 5.5V
 Power Consumption at 1MHz, 1.8V, 25C
– Active Mode: 0.2mA
– Power-down Mode: 0.1μA
– Power-save Mode: 0.75μA (Including 32 kHz RTC)

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 3.7 Block diagram of AT mega 328.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Comparison between Processors

The ATmega48A/PA/88A/PA/168A/PA/328/P differ only in memory sizes, boot loader
support, and interrupt vector sizes. Table summarizes the different memory and interrupt
vector sizes for the devices.

ATmega48A/PA/88A/PA/168A/PA/328/P support a real Read-While-Write Self

Programming mechanism. There is a separate Boot Loader Section, and the SPM instruction
can only execute from there. In ATmega48A/48PA there is no Read-While-Write support and
no separate Boot Loader Section. The SPM instruction can execute from the entire Flash
memory

Data Retention

Reliability Qualification results show that the projected data retention failure rate is much less
than 1 PPM over 20 years at 85°C or 100 years at 25°C.

About Code Examples

This documentation contains simple code examples that briefly show how to use various parts
of the device. These code examples assume that the part specific header file is included before
compilation. Be aware that not all C compiler vendors include bit definitions in the header
files and interrupt handling in C is compiler dependent. Please confirm with the C compiler
documentation for more details. For I/O Registers located in extended I/O map, “IN”, “OUT”,
“SBIS”, “SBIC”, “CBI”, and “SBI” instructions must be replaced with instructions that allow
access to extended I/O. Typically “LDS” and “STS” combined with “SBRS”, “SBRC”,
“SBR”, and “CBR”.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Capacitive Touch Sensing

The Atmel® Q Touch® Library provides a simple to use solution to realize touch sensitive
interfaces on most Atmel AVR® microcontrollers. The Q Touch Library includes support for
the Atmel Q Touch and Atmel Q Matrix® acquisition methods. Touch sensing can be added
to any application by linking the appropriate Atmel Q Touch Library for the AVR
Microcontroller. This is done by using a simple set of APIs to define the touch channels and
sensors, and then calling the touch sensing APIs to retrieve the channel information and
determine the touch sensor states.

3.8 I2C Protocol

A simple bi-directional 2-wire bus for efficient inter-IC control. This bus is called the Inter-IC
or I2C-bus. At present, NXP's IC range includes more than 150 CMOS and bipolar I2C-bus
compatible types for performing communication functions between intelligent control devices
(e.g. microcontrollers) The I2C bus physically consists of 2 active wires and a ground
connection. The active wires, called SDA and SCL, are both bi-directional. SDA is the Serial
Data line, and SCL is the Serial Clock line.
Every device hooked up to the bus has its own unique address, no matter whether it is an
MCU, LCD driver, memory, or ASIC. Each of these chips can act as a receiver and/or
transmitter, depending on the functionality. Obviously, an LCD driver is only a receiver,
while a memory or I/O chip can be both transmitter and receiver.

Figure 3.8 A sample schematic with one master (a microcontroller), three slave nodes (an
ADC, a DAC, and a microcontroller), and pull-up resistors Rp.

The I2C bus is a multi-master bus. This means that more than one IC capable of initiating a
data transfer can be connected to it. The I2C protocol specification states that the IC that
initiates a data transfer on the bus is considered the Bus Master. Consequently, at that time, all
the other ICs are regarded to be Bus Slaves.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

3.9 Adapter

Figure 3.9 Adapter

A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electrical load. The
primary function of a power supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to another and,
as a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power converters. Some
power supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others are built into larger devices
along with their loads. Examples of the latter include power supplies found in desktop
computers and consumer electronics devices.

Figure 3.9 Circuit Diagram of Power Supply

Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a

17
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

power supply may obtain energy from various types of energy sources, including electrical
energy transmission systems, energy storage devices such as a batteries and fuel cells,
electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators, solar power converters, or
another power supply.

All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy source, and
a power output that delivers energy to the load. In most power supplies the power input and
output consist of electrical connectors or hardwired circuit connections, though some power
supplies employ wireless energy transfer in lieu of galvanic connections for the power input
or output. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions
such as external monitoring and control.

3.10 Motor Driver IC (ULN 2803)

Figure 3.10.1 Pin Configuration of ULN2803

18
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Pin functions

Specification

This standard device has proven ubiquity and versatility across a wide range of applications.
This is due to its integration of 8 Darlington transistors that are capable of sinking up to 500
mA and wide GPIO range capability. The ULN2803A comprises seven high voltage, high
current NPN Darlington transistor pairs. All units feature a common emitter and open
collector outputs. To maximize their effectiveness, these units contain suppression diodes for
inductive loads. The ULN2803A has a series base resistor to each Darlington pair, thus
allowing operation directly with TTL or CMOS operating at supply voltages of 5.0 V or 3.3
V. The ULN2803A offers solutions to a great many interface needs, including solenoids,
relays, lamps, small motors, and LEDs. Applications requiring sink currents beyond the
capability of a single output may be accommodated by paralleling the outputs.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Functional Block Diagram

Figure 3.10.2 Internal Configuration of ULN2803

Feature Description
Each channel of ULN2803A consists of Darlington connected NPN transistors. This
connection creates the effect of a single transistor with a very high current gain (β2). This can
be as high as 10,000 A/A at certain currents. The very high β allows for high output current
drive with a very low input current, essentially equating to operation with low GPIO voltages.
The GPIO voltage is converted to base current via the 2.7 kΩ resistor connected between the
input and base of the pre-driver Darlington NPN. The 7.2 kΩ & 3.0 kΩ resistors connected
between the base and emitter of each respective NPN act as pull-downs and suppress the
amount of leakage that may occur from the input. The diodes connected between the output
and COM pin is used to suppress the kick-back voltage from an inductive load that is excited
when the NPN drivers are turned off (stop sinking) and the stored energy in the coils causes a
reverse current to flow into the coil supply via the kick-back diode. In normal operation the
diodes on base and collector pins to emitter will be reversed biased. If these diode are forward
biased, internal parasitic NPN transistors will draw (a nearly equal) current from other
(nearby) device pins.

Inductive Load Drive

When the COM pin is tied to the coil supply voltage, ULN2803A is able to drive inductive
loads and supress the kick-back voltage via the internal freewheeling diodes.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Resistive Load Drive

When driving a resistive load, a pull-up resistor is needed in order for ULN2803A to sink
current and for there to be a logic high level. The COM pin can be left floating for these
applications.

Application Information

ULN2803A will typically be used to drive a high voltage and/or current peripheral from an
MCU or logic device that cannot tolerate these conditions. The following design is a common
application of ULN2803A, driving inductive loads. This includes motors, solenoids & relays.
Each load type can be modelled by what's seen in

Application Curves

The following curves were generated with ULN2803A driving an OMRON G5NB relay –
Vin= 5.0V; Vsup= 12 V & RCOIL= 2.8 Kω.

Power Supply Recommendations

This part does not need a power supply; however, the COM pin is typically tied to the system
power supply. When this is the case, it is very important to make sure that the output voltage
does not heavily exceed the COM pin voltage. This will heavily forward bias the fly-back
diodes and cause a large current to flow into COM, potentially damaging the on-chip metal or
over-heating the part.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

3.11 Crystal Oscillator 16MHz

Figure 3.11 Crystal (16MHz)

Circuit Design

The oscillator design on i.MX processors is known as the Colpitts Oscillator with Translated
ground. Crystal Equivalent Circuit illustrates the crystal’s equivalent electrical model.

Figure 3.7 Internal Diagram And Equivalent Circuit Of Crystal.

22
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The crystal model is based on the following components:

L: Motional Inductor
C: Motional Capacitor
R: Equivalent Series Resistor
Cc: Shunt Capacitor
Operational oscillation frequency is a function of the components in Equation

Freq = 1/ [2*pi*sqrt (L*C)]

The conditions for oscillation are as follows:

. Amplifier Gain ≥1
. Total phase shift across crystal = 360 degrees
The following factors influence crystal oscillation:
1. As Cc increases, Gain decreases.
2. As R increases, Gain decreases.
3. The C1 and C2 load capacitors affect the gain and phase margin. The simulation output
shows that

Crystal Evaluations and Recommendations

This section describes evaluations conducted by two crystal vendors, Hong Kong X.tals
Limited (referred to as crystal 1 in this text) and ILSI America (referred to as crystal 2). The
vendors tested the on-chip oscillator with their own 16 MHz crystals, which meet the
following requirements:
. R (equivalent series resistance, or ESR) < 20 ohm
. Cc (Shunt Capacitance) < 7 pF
The evaluation environment had the following characteristics:
. Crystal 1 was evaluated with an MC9328MX1 EVB with the i.MX processor inserted in a
socket.
Crystal 2 was evaluated with an ADS with the i.MX processor soldered directly onto the
board.
. The external capacitor values were: C1 = 10 pF and C2 =33 pF. (To see how the external
capacitors

23
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Measurement Results
The evaluations produced the following results:
. Total capacitor load = 22.5 pF.
. Measured negative resistance versus the VO (output voltage) signal of 16 MHz,
As shown in figure.

The crystal evaluations produced comparable results except for the capacitive loading of
the16 MHz oscillator itself. One vendor reports this value as 22.5 pF, while the other reports it
as 14 pF. This difference is probably due to slight differences in measurement environments,
measurement tools, evaluation boards, and method of connecting the i.MX processor to the
board. To ensure oscillations are produced, use a crystal with a low ESR value. The required
ESR value for 16 MHz crystals is a maximum of 20 ohms.
The following value ranges are recommended for external load capacitors:
. C1 = 10.17 pF
. C2 = 22.33 pF
The evaluations show that the optimum capacitance values are 17 pF for C1 and 30 pF for C2.
The driving level is 2.0 uW (microwatts).

Using an External Signal as the Clock Source

As an alternative to using a crystal, you can use an externally generated 16 MHz clock source
as input to the on-chip 16 MHz oscillator. If you use an external 16 MHz oscillator or other
clock source, use one of the following settings to put the internal oscillator in bypass mode:
. To select the clock input from the 16 MHz oscillator, set the CSCR register bit 18 to 0,

24
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

CLK16_SEL.
. To disable the on-chip oscillator, set the CSCR register bit 17 to 0, OSC_EN.
. To select the high frequency signal as input to the System PLL, set the CSCR register bit 16
to 1, System_SEL.
For more information about the Clock Source Control register and its bit definitions, refer to
the PLL and Clock Control chapter in the reference manual for your specific i.MX processor.
To use an external signal instead of a crystal, make sure the crystal is removed from the
board. With this step complete, the external clock can be fed into the EXTAL16M pad with a
peak amplitude that is not higher than the internal voltage or 1.9 V. If you use a 16 MHz
oscillator, it is best to provide a mechanism to shut off the oscillator during low-power
Modes. Shutting off the power in this way results in maximum power savings. You can
achieve this by using a GPIO to enable or disable the external oscillator.

3.12 Capacitor 104

Figure 3.12 Capacitor (104)

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e. insulator). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal
or conductive electrolyte, etc. The non-conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's
charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica,
oxide layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a
capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.

25
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached
across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to
collect on one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been
attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the
capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor,
a displacement current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance. Capacitance
is expressed as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential
difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to
about 1 mF (10−3 F).

The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between conductors and when
the conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes
a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit the conductors
and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output
of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric
power transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.

3.13 Reset Switch

Figure 3.12 Reset Switch

26
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The reset button could be an actual button or concept. The reset button would typically kick
off a soft boot, instructing the computer to go through the process of shutting down, which
would clear memory and reset devices to their initialized state. Contrary to the 'Power Button',
this would simply remove power immediately.

Pressing the reset button would be preferable to the power button, which could potentially
leave a device in the middle of some operation and subject to defect. In most commodity
hardware, the consumer would expect the device to be resilient enough to 'reset' when power
was restored.

Depending on the architecture, the reset button might have different effects. On PCs, usually
it is connected to the motherboard, and when pressed it sends a reset signal to all peripherals.
Many newer computers have no separate button for resetting the computer; it is integrated
with the power button. On most new operating systems, the user can customize what happens
when they press the power button. For example they may set it to 'Do nothing', 'restart',
'shutdown', or 'stand by'. This is only for pressing the button once; on most computers the
power button can remove power immediately if held down for a few seconds. When OS hangs
reset button is no longer "integrated with the power button".

3.14 Dc motor

Figure 3.14 Dc Motor

An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy. The reverse of this would be the conversion of mechanical
energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator.

In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an
electric motor's magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor. In

27
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

certain applications, such as in the transportation industry with traction motors, electric
motors can operate in both motoring and generating or braking modes to also produce
electrical energy from mechanical energy.

Found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools,
household appliances, power tools, and disk drives, electric motors can be powered by direct
current (DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating
current (AC) sources, such as from the power grid, inverters or generators. Small motors may
be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions
and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use. The largest of
electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-
storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified
by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, and so
on.

Electric motors are used to produce linear or rotary force (torque), and should be
distinguished from devices such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers that convert
electricity into motion but do not generate usable mechanical powers, which are respectively
referred to as actuators and transducers.

3.15 PCB
A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic
components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper
sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. PCBs can be single sided (one copper
layer), double sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer. Conductors on different layers are
connected with plated-through holes called vias. Advanced PCBs may contain components -
capacitors, resistors or active devices - embedded in the substrate.

Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to
PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs require the additional design
effort to lay out the circuit but manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Manufacturing
circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods as components are
mounted and wired with one single part. Furthermore, operator wiring errors are eliminated.

When the board has only copper connections and no embedded components, it is more
correctly called a printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. Although more
accurate, the term printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with
electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit board

28
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA). The IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit
card assembly (CCA), and for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term
PCB is used informally both for bare and assembled boards.

3.16 7805

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear
voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not
give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a
constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide.
7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at
input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.

Pin Diagram:

Figure 3.16 Pin Diagram of Regulator IC 7805

Pin Description:

Pin
Function Name
No

1 Input voltage (5V-18V) Input

2 Ground (0V) Ground

3 Output
Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V)

29
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Absolute Maximum Ratings

Absolute maximum ratings are those values beyond which damage to the device may occur.
The datasheet specifications should be met, without exception, to ensure that the system
design is reliable over its power supply, temperature, and output/input loading variables.
Fairchild does not recommend operation outside datasheet specifications.

30
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Features
• 5 x 8 dots with cursor
• Built-in controller (KS 0066 or Equivalent)
• + 5V power supply (Also available for + 3V)
• 1/16 duty cycle
• B/L to be driven by pin 1, pin 2 or pin 15, pin 16 or A.K (LED)
• N.V. optional for + 3V power supply

31
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

3.17 LCD

Figure 3.12 LCD 16/2

32
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

33
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

3.18 10uF Capacitor

Figure 3.18 10uf Capacitor

All electrolytic capacitors (e-caps) are polarized capacitors whose anode electrode (+) are
made of a special metal on which an insulating oxide layer originates by anodic
ally oxidation (forming), which acts as the dielectric of the electrolytic capacitor. A non-solid
or solid electrolyte which covers the surface of the oxide layer in principle serves as the
second electrode (cathode) (-) of the capacitor.

Due to their very thin dielectric oxide layer and enlarged anode surface electrolytic capacitors
have—based on the volume—a much higher capacitance/voltage product compared
to ceramic capacitors or film capacitors, but an articulately smaller C/V value than
electrochemical super capacitors.
The large capacitance of electrolytic capacitors makes them particularly suitable for passing
or bypassing low-frequency signals up to some mega-hertz and storing large amounts of
energy. They are widely used for decoupling or noise filtering in power supplies and DC link
circuits for variable-frequency drives, for couple signals between amplifier stages, and store
energy as in a flash lamp.

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized components by the manufacturing principle and may only
be operated with DC voltage. Voltages with reverse polarity, or voltage or ripple current
higher than specified, can destroy the dielectric and thus the capacitor. A possible ripple
voltage must not cause reversal. The destruction of electrolytic capacitors can have
catastrophic consequences (explosion, fire).

34
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

3.19 LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a pn-
junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy
in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical
components may be used to shape its radiation pattern .Appearing as practical electronic
components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are
still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in
remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were
also of low intensity, and limited to red.

Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very
high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices,
replacing small incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the
form of seven-segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent
developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs have
many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer
lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting
diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, and camera flashes.

Figure 3.19 LED

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

3.20 Carbon film resistor

Carbon film resistors are a fixed form type resistor. They are constructed out of a ceramic
carrier with a thin pure carbon film around it that functions as resistive material.

Advantages and drawbacks

Carbon film resistors are a significant improvement on carbon composition. However, in
comparison to metal film and metal oxide film, the commercially available range steadily
decreases. Metal and oxide film are not more expensive to produce, and have overall better
properties.

Carbon film resistor applications

Typical use for carbon film resistors is in high voltage and temperature applications.
Operating temperatures are up to 15kV with a nominal temperature of 350°C. Examples are
high voltage power supplies, radar, x-rays and laser.

Manufacturing
Carbon film resistors are made with a deposition process. At high temperature and under a
high pressure, a ceramic carrier is held in hydrocarbon gas. The gas (methane or benzene) is
cracked at a temperature of 1000°C. The crystalline carbon is pyrolytically deposited on the
ceramic substrate. Because of the precise distribution of the pure graphite without binding,
these carbon resistors have a low noise. The desired resistance value can be obtained by
choosing the right layer thickness, and by cutting a spiral shape in the carbon layer. The
helical cut in the film increases the length of the current path. By decreasing the pitch of the
helix, the length of the resistive path increases, and there with the resistance value increases.

36
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Furthermore, by fine tuning the cutting of the spiral the resistor can have a higher accuracy of
resistance value. Typical tolerance values for carbon film resistors are 2, 5, 10 and 20%.
Because of the use of pure carbon, the carbon film resistor has a higher negative temperature
coefficient than carbon composition. The resistive temperature coefficient lies between
2.5×10^-4 Ω/°C and -8×10^-4 Ω/°C. Also this type of resistor is protected against chemical
influences with a silicone coating. This type of resistor is widely used in electronics.
Therefore it is important to note that the small resistors have a capacity of approximately 0.5
pF. Self-induction is around 0.01 μH for uncut resistors and up to several μH for spiral cut
resistors. These resistors are available in values between 1Ω – 10’000 MΩ and have a power
rating of 1/16, ⅛, ¼, ½, 1 or 2 watt.

3.21 Preset Resistor/Trimmer

Figure 3.21 Preset Resistor

A trimmer or preset is a miniature adjustable electrical component. It is meant to be set

correctly when installed in some device, and never seen or adjusted by the device's user.
Trimmers can be variable resistors (potentiometers), variable capacitors, or trimmable
inductors. They are common in precision circuitry like A/V components, and may need to be
adjusted when the equipment is serviced. Trimpots are often used to initially calibrate
equipment after manufacturing. Unlike many other variable controls, trimmers are mounted
directly on circuit boards, turned with a small screwdriver and rated for many fewer
adjustments over their lifetime. Trimmers like trimmable inductors and
trimmable capacitors are usually found in superhet radio and television receivers, in
the intermediate frequency (IF), oscillator and radio frequency (RF) circuits. They are
adjusted into the right position during the alignment procedure of the receiver.

37
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Trimmers come in a variety of sizes and levels of precision. For example, multi-turn trim
potentiometers exist, in which it takes several turns of the adjustment screw to reach the end
value. This allows for very high degrees of accuracy. Often they make use of a worm-gear
(rotary track) or a lead screw (linear track).

In 1952, Marlan Bourns patented the world's first trimming potentiometer, trademarked
"Trimpot", a name now commonly used to refer to any trimming potentiometer.

3.22 9 Pin Resistor Bank

Figure 3.22 Resistor Bank

Resistive load bank, the most common type, provides equivalent loading for
both generators and prime movers. That is, for each kilowatt (or horsepower) of load applied
to the generator by the load bank, an equal amount of load is applied to the prime mover by
the generator. A resistive load bank, therefore, removes energy from the complete system:
load bank from generator—generator from prime mover—prime mover from fuel. Additional
energy is removed as a consequence of resistive load bank operation: waste heat from coolant,
exhaust and generator losses and energy consumed by accessory devices. A resistive load
bank impacts upon all aspects of a generating system.

The load of a resistive load bank is created by the conversion of electrical energy to heat via
high-power resistors such as grid resistors. This heat must be dissipated from the load bank,
either by air or by water, by forced means or convection.

In a testing system, a resistive load simulates real-life resistive loads, such as incandescent
lighting and heating loads as well as the resistive or unity power factor component of
magnetic (motors, transformers) loads.

38
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The most common type uses wire resistance, usually with fan cooling, and this type is often
portable and moved from generator to generator for test purposes. Sometimes a load of this
type is built into a building, but this is unusual.

Chapter 4
4. OPERATION

Figure 4.1 Circuit Diagram

The injection of fuel or the quantity of injected fuel has a decisive influence on engine
starting, idling, power and emissions. The engine ECU is programmed ("mapped") with
relevant data to where the fuel rack position has an equivalent signal for the amount of fuel
being injected. The driver requests the torque or engine speed requirements via accelerator
pedal potentiometer thereby sending a signal to the engine ECU which then, depending on its
mapping and data collected from various sensors, calculates in real time the quantity of
injected fuel required, thus altering the fuel rack to the required position. The driver can also
input additional commands such as idle speed increase to compensate e.g. for PTO operation
which can be either variably set or has a preset speed which can be recalled. The road speed

39
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

function can be used to evaluate vehicle speed and possibly activate a speed limiter (Heavy
Vehicles), or maintain or restore a set speed (cruise control). Further functions can include
exhaust brake operation which, when activated, will result in the fuel pump rack position
being set to zero delivery or idle. The engine ECU can also interface with various other
vehicle systems e.g. traction control and carries out self-monitoring duties and self-diagnostic
functions to keep the system working at an optimal level. To ensure the safe operation in case
Of failure, the limp home mode functions are also integrated into the system, for e.g. should
the pump speed sensor fail the ECU can use an alternator speed signal function for engine
RPMs counter as a backup signal. At mega 328 controller are used for each cylinder control
unite.

40
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 5
5. Software Used

5.1 Arduino

Figure 5.1 Arduino Window

Arduino is an open-source computer hardware and software company, project and user
community that designs and manufactures kits for building digital devices and interactive
objects that can sense and control the physical world. Arduino boards may be purchased
preassembled, or as do-it-yourself kits; at the same time, the hardware design information is
available for those who would like to assemble an Arduino from scratch.

The project is based on a family of microcontroller board designs manufactured primarily by

Smart Projects in Italy, and also by several other vendors, using various 8-bit Atmel AVR
microcontrollers or 32-bit Atmel ARM processors. These systems provide sets of digital and

41
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

analog I/O pins that can be interfaced to various extension boards and other circuits. The
boards feature serial communications interfaces, including USB on some models, for loading
programs from personal computers. For programming the microcontrollers, the Arduino
platform provides an integrated development environment (IDE) based on the Processing
project, which includes support for C and C++ programming languages. The first Arduino
was introduced in 2005. The project leaders sought to provide an inexpensive and easy way
for hobbyists, students, and professionals to create devices that interact with their
environment using sensors and actuators. Common examples for beginner hobbyists include
simple robots, thermostats and motion detectors. Ad fruit Industries estimated in mid-2011
that over 300,000 official Arduinos had been commercially produced and in 2013 that
700,000 official boards were in users' hands.

5.2 Dip Trace

Figure 5.2.1 Dip Trace Window

42
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 5.2.2 PCB Layout

Dip Trace is EDA software for creating schematic diagrams and printed circuit boards. The
first version of Dip Trace was released in August, 2004. The latest version as of July 21, 2014
is Dip Trace version 2.4.0.2. The interface and tutorials are multi-lingual (currently English,
Czech, Russian and Turkish). In January of 2011, Parallax switched from Eagle to Dip Trace
for developing its printed circuit boards.

43
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 6
RESULT

The Diesel engine is the most efficient energy source in the areas of Transportation,
Agriculture, and Power Generation. Mechanical fuel control is most widely used in all these
areas of applications. However to ensure reduction in fuel consumption, embedded controlled
fuel injection system for a five cylinder diesel engine is designed and tested. Fig 6.1 shows
that the Total Fuel Consumption (kg/hr) in Electronic Fuel Injection System is significantly
reduced due to accuracy in the delivery of diesel.

Brake Fuel Fuel Reduction in

Power consumption in consumption Fuel
(KW) Mechanical in Electronic Consumptio
System (Kg/hr) System (Kg/hr) n (Kg/hr)

0 0.415 0.4 0.015

0.375 0.43 0.42 0.01
0.75 0.46 0.43 0.03
1.125 0.48 0.45 0.03
1.5 0.49 0.46 0.03
1.875 0.5 0.48 0.02

44
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

2.25 0.51 0.49 0.02

2.625 0.54 0.5 0.04
3 0.56 0.52 0.04
3.375 0.6 0.55 0.05
3.75 0.61 0.56 0.05
4.125 0.62 0.57 0.05
4.5 0.66 0.6 0.06
4.875 0.7 0.62 0.08
5.25 0.73 0.65 0.08
5.625 0.77 0.7 0.07

Figure 6.1 Output Table

TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION GRAPH

0.9
TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION, Kg/hr

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Mechanical system
0.3
Electronic system
0.2
0.1
0

BRAKE POWER,Kw

Figure 6.2 Total Fuel Consumption graph.

45
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Performance and fuel consumption tests are conducted for both mechanical and electronic
controlled fuel injection systems. Load sensor, Air flow sensor, Speed sensor, Exhaust sensor
and crankshaft position sensor are used to give the load, speed and piston position of the
engine to the ECU in electronic controlled fuel injection system. Based upon these inputs, the
ECU determines the fuel injection requirements and corresponding fuel pulse widths are
generated. This in-turn regulates the fuel supply to the injector through driver circuit. The
results show that an improvement in Total Fuel Consumption. Specific Fuel Consumption and
Mechanical Efficiency remain same for both Mechanical and Electronic Injection System.
Hence by using embedded controlled fuel injection system in a five cylinder diesel engine,
saving in fuel is ensured.

Chapter 7
CONCLUSION
We can enhance this project by adding some features like telemetry database management
which would have complete details regarding utility of fuel a well as Data transparency
between ship & the base station. ECDE ensures reduction in fuel consumption solves problem
of load on fuel engine & controls timing of intake & exhaust. Specific fuel consumption &
mechanical efficiency remain same for both mechanical & electronic injection system. Hence
by using embedded controlled fuel injection system in single cylinder diesel engine, saving in
fuel is ensured. This research can be very useful in shipping, transportation & can serve for
the betterment of transportation system.

46
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 8
8.1 FUTURE SCOPE

• It can be enhanced by adding some features like telemetry database management

which would have complete details regarding utility of fuel a well as data transparency
between ship & base station.

8.2 ADVANTAGES

 The Intelligent, Camshaft less, diesel engines offer several potential improvements for
the main engines.

47
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

 Variable electronically-controlled timing of fuel injection and exhaust valves for

lower specific fuel consumption and better performance parameters.
 The electronic controls also offer lower RPM speed, including better astern and crash
stop performance.
 With the smarter In FI system the operator can more precisely control fuel
consumption and improve emission characteristics.

The highly integrated monitoring system allows for the potential of longer time between
overhauls by equalizing the thermal load between cylinders.

8.3APPLICATION

• Diesel engine is the most efficient energy source in the areas:

1) Transportation

2) Agriculture

3) Shipping

4) Power Generation

Chapter 9
Publication
Paper Published On Electronically Controlled Diesel Engine in International Journal of
Global Technology Initiatives in Volume 4, Issue 1, March 2015

Link for the Paper Published Is Given Below

http://www.ijgti.org.in/index.php/ijgti/article/view/311

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 10

REFERENCES

[1] Junxi Wang, Xiaojian Mao, Keqing Zhu, Junhua Song, and Bin Zhuo (2009) “An
intelligent diagnostic tool for electronically controlled diesel engine”, Journal of
Mechatronics, Vol 19, pp: 859–867.
[2] Jinguang Liang, Xiumin Yu, Yue Gao, Yunkai Wang, Hongyang YU, and Baoli
Gong (2008) “Optimization of fuel supply map during the starting process of Electronic
controlled diesel engine”, Journal of Front. Energy Power Eng. China, Vol 2, Issue 4, pp:
410–415.
[3] Jinhu Wang and Tingting Cheng (2012) “The Judgment of Electronic Diesel Engine
State”, Journal of Precedia Engineering, Vol 29, pp: 3044-3048.

49
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

[4] Raul Payri, S. Molina, F. J. Salvador, and J. Gimeno (2004), “A Study of the Relation
Between Nozzle Geometry, Internal flow and Sprays Characteristics in Diesel Fuel
Injection Systems”, KSME International Journal, Vol. 18 Issue 7, pp: 1222 – 1235.
[5] Paolo Lino, Bruno Maione, and Alessandro Rizzo (2007) “Nonlinear modeling and
control of a common rail injection system for diesel engines”, Journal of applied
mathematical modeling, Vol 31, pp: 1770-1784.
[6] Alan C. Lloyd and Thomas A. Cackette (2011) “Diesel Engines: Environmental Impact
and Control”. Journal of Air & Waste Manage. Assoc, Vol 51, pp: 809-847.
[7] Alberto Sangiovanni-Vincentelli, Berkeley Marco Di Natale, Scuola Superiore S.
Anna, and Pisa (2007) “Embedded System Design for Automotive Applications”,
Journal of IEEE Computer Society, pp: 42 – 51.
[8] Bang-Quan He, Jian-Xin Wang, Ji-Ming Hao, Xiao-Guang Yan, and Jian-Hua Xiao
(2003) “A study on emission characteristics of an EFI engine with ethanol blended
gasoline fuels”, Journal of Atmospheric Environment, Vol 37, pp: 949–957.

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