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1 Elementary 2D Geometry 4
1.1 Euclidean Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 General Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Equilateral Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Isosceles Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 Right Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.8 Quadrilaterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.9 Cyclic Quadrilateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.10 Rhombus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.11 Rhomboid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.12 Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.13 Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.14 Kite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.15 Trapezium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.16 Pentagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.17 Hexagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.18 Heptagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.19 Octagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.20 Nonagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.21 Decagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.22 Dodecagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.23 Regular n-gons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.24 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.25 Annulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.26 Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2 Elementary 3D Geometry 38
2.1 Platonic Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2 Euler Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3 Tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4 Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5 Octahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.6 Dodecahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.7 Icosahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.8 Prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.9 Triangular Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.10 Rectangular Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.11 Pentagonal Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.12 Hexagonal Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.13 Heptagonal Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.14 Octagonal Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.15 Nonagonal Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1
The Mathematics Handbook CONTENTS
3 Trigonometry 69
3.1 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 Elementary Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3 Basic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.4 Simplification Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.6 Basic Inverse Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.7 Simplification Inverse Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.8 Machin-like formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4 Pi 90
4.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.2 Formula for π . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5 Functions 96
5.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2 Function Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.3 Even and Odd Functions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.4 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.5 Horizontal Constant Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.6 Vertical Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.7 Linear Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.8 Simultaneous Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.9 Quadratic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.10 Polylogarithm Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.11 Spence’s Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2
Geometries
3
Chapter 1
Elementary 2D Geometry
Geometry is the study of shape, size and space. It was one of the first areas of mathematics to be formalised, by the
ancient Greek Euclid.
1.1.1 Definitions:
The definitions that Euclid gave are common in many areas of mathematics.
4. A straight line is a line which lies evenly with the points on itself.
7. A plane surface is a surface which lies evenly with the straight lines on itself.
8. A plane angle is the inclination to one another of two lines in a plane which meet one another and do not lie in a
straight line.
9. And when the lines containing the angle are straight, the angle is called rectilinear.
10. When a straight line standing on a straight line makes the adjacent angles equal to one another, each of the equal
angles is right, and the straight line standing on the other is called a perpendicular to that on which it stands.
15. A circle is a plane figure contained by one line such that all the straight lines falling upon it from one point among
those lying within the figure equal one another.
17. A diameter of the circle is any straight line drawn through the center and terminated in both directions by the
circumference of the circle, and such a straight line also bisects the circle.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
18. A semicircle is the figure contained by the diameter and the circumference cut off by it. And the center of the
semicircle is the same as that of the circle.
19. Rectilinear figures are those which are contained by straight lines, trilateral figures being those contained by three,
quadrilateral those contained by four, and multilateral those contained by more than four straight lines.
20. Of trilateral figures, an equilateral triangle is that which has its three sides equal, an isosceles triangle that which
has two of its sides alone equal, and a scalene triangle that which has its three sides unequal.
21. Further, of trilateral figures, a right-angled triangle is that which has a right angle, an obtuse-angled triangle that
which has an obtuse angle, and an acute-angled triangle that which has its three angles acute.
22. Of quadrilateral figures, a square is that which is both equilateral and right-angled; an oblong that which is right-
angled but not equilateral; a rhombus that which is equilateral but not right-angled; and a rhomboid that which has
its opposite sides and angles equal to one another but is neither equilateral nor right-angled. And let quadrilaterals
other than these be called trapezia.
23. Parallel straight lines are straight lines which, being in the same plane and being produced indefinitely in both
directions, do not meet one another in either direction.
1.1.2 Axioms:
There are 5 common notions.
1. Things that are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
4. Things that coincide with one another are equal to one another.
Euclid’s 5 postulates formed the backbone from which all his proofs were derived from.
1. A straight line can be drawn from any point to any other point.
5. That, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right
angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than the two
right angles.
1.2 Angles
In geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called
the vertex of the angle.
3. Obtuse Angle: Angle larger than a right angle and smaller than a straight angle.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1
4. Straight Angle: An angle equal to 2 turn.
5. Reflex Angle: Angle larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn.
8. Congruent Angles: Angles that have the same measure. An angle is defined by its measure and is not dependent
upon the lengths of the sides of the angle.
9. Coterminal Angles: Two angles which share terminal sides, but differ in size by an integer multiple of a turn.
10. Complementary Angles: Angle pairs whose measures sum to one right angle.
AngleComplementary.png
11. Supplementary Angles: Angle pairs whose measures sum to one straight angle.
AngleSupplementary.png
12. Explementary Angles: Angle pairs whose measures sum to one revolution.
Units Interval
1 1 1 1 1 1
Turns 0, , ,1 1
4 4 4 2 2 2
π π π
Radian 0<θ< θ= <θ<π θ=π π < θ < 2π θ = 2π
2 2 2
Degrees 0◦ < θ < 90◦ θ = 90◦ 90◦ < θ < 180◦ θ = 180◦ 180◦ < θ < 360◦ θ = 360◦
AngleObtuse.png
AngleAcute.pngAngleRight.png AngleStraight.png
AngleReflex.png
6
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
AngleAlternate.png
AngleCorresponding.png
AngleVerticallyOpposite.png
AngleCointerior.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
2. Non-convex: A line may be found which meets its boundary more than twice. Equivalently, there exists a line
segment between two boundary points that passes outside the polygon.
3. Simple: The boundary of the polygon does not cross itself. All convex polygons are simple.
4. Concave: Non-convex and simple. There is an interior angle greater than 180◦ .
5. Star-shaped: The whole interior is visible from a single point, without crossing any edge. The polygon must be
simple, and may be convex or concave.
10. Isogonal: All corners lie within the same symmetry orbit. The polygon is also cyclic and equiangular.
13. Isotoxal: All edges lie within the same symmetry orbit. The polygon is also equilateral and tangential.
14. Regular: The polygon is both cyclic and equilateral. Equivalently, it is both equilateral and equiangular. A
non-convex regular polygon is called a regular star polygon.
16. Monotone with respect to a given line L: If every line orthogonal to L intersects the polygon not more than twice.
1.3.2 Naming:
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
decagon 10
hendecagon 11 undecagon
dodecagon 12 duodecagon
tridecagon 13 triskaidecagon
tetradecagon 14 tetrakaidecagon
pentadecagon 15 pentakaidecagon, quindecagon
hexadecagon 16 hexakaidecagon, sexdecagon
heptadecagon 17 heptakaidecagon, septdecagon
octadecagon 18 octakaidecagon
enneadecagon 19 enneakaidecagon , nonadecagon
icosagon 20
triacontagon 30
hectogon 100 centagon
chiliagon 1000
myriagon 10000
megagon 1000000
apeirogon ∞
1.3.3 Perimeter:
n
X
1. P = ak where ak are the side lengths and n is the number of sides of the polygon.
k=1
1.3.4 Semiperimeter:
P
1. s = where P is the perimeter.
2
1.3.5 Area:
n−1
1 X
1. T = (xk yk+1 − xk+1 yk ) where (xk , yk ) are the Cartesian coordinates, ordered clockwise, of the verticies of the
2
k=1
polygon and n the number of sides of the polygon.
B
2. T = I + − 1 where I is the number of interior points and B is the number of boundary points. This formula is
2
valid for a simple polygon that is constructed on a grid of equal-distanced points, or points with integer coordinates,
such that all the polygon’s vertices are grid points. This is Pick’s Theorem.
1.3.7 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a n sided polygon is (n − 2)180◦ . The polygon could be
thought of as having (n − 2) interior triangles, each with 180◦ .
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.3.8 Exterior Angles: The sum of the exterior angles of a n sided polygon is always 360◦ .
1.4 Triangles
A triangle is one of the basic shapes in geometry, a polygon with three corners or vertices and three sides or edges which
are line segments. While the following section is about triangles in general, there are some formula for specific types of
triangles that can be found in the sections that follow.
TriangleEquilateral2.png
2. Isosceles Triangle: Two sides are equal in length.The angles opposite to the two sides of the same length are
congruent.
TriangleIsoceles.png
3. Scalene Triangle: All sides are unequal,and thus all angles are unequal. Right triangles are scalene if and only if
not isosceles.
TriangleScalene.png
4. Right Triangle: One interior angles measures 90◦ (a right angle). The side opposite to the right angle is the
hypotenuse and it is the longest side of the right triangle. The other two sides are called the legs or catheti of the
triangle.
TriangleRight.png
5. Oblique Triangle: A Triangle that does not have an angle measuring 90◦ . Thus, all triangles that are not right
triangles.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
TriangleObtuse.png
TriangleAcute.png
TriangleAcute.png
TriangleObtuse.png
1.4.2 Similarity: Two triangles are called similar if they both have the same shape. The following theorems establish
similarity between two triangles.
1. If every angle of one triangle has the same measure as the corresponding angle in the other triangle.
2. If two corresponding internal angles of two triangles have the same measure.
3. If the corresponding sides of the triangles have lengths that are in the same proportion
4. If two corresponding sides of two triangles are in proportion, and the angles between them have the same measure.
1.4.3 Congruence: Two triangles are called congruent if they both have the same size shape. The following theorems
establish congruence between two triangles.
1. SSS: Each side of a triangle has the same length as a corresponding side of the other triangle.
2. SAS: Two sides in a triangle have the same length as two sides in the other triangle, and the angle between them
have the same measure.
3. ASA: Two angles in a triangle have the same measure as the corresponding angles in the other triangle, and the
sides between them have the same length.
4. ASA: Two angles in a triangle have the same measure as the corresponding angles in the other triangle, and a
corresponding side has the same length.
5. RHS: The hypotenuse and a leg in a right triangle have the same length as those in another right triangle.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.4.4 Centers: There are many types of centers within a triangle, found by different definitions and methods. These
centers have special properties.
1. Orthocenter: The intersection of the altitudes.
TriangleOrthocenter.png
TriangleCentroid.png
3. Circumcenter: The intersection of the the perpendicular bisectors. This is the center of the circumscribed circle.
TriangleCircumcenter.png
4. Incircle: The intersection of the angle bisectors. This is the center of the inscribed circle.
TriangleIncircle.png
5. Nine Point Circle: The midpoints of the three sides, the feet of the three altitudes and the midpoints of the portion
of altitude between the vertices and the orthocenter all lie on a circle. The radius of the nine-point circle is half
that of the circumscribed circle.
TriangleNinePointCircle.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
6. Euler’s Line: The centroid (orange), orthocenter (blue), circumcenter (green) and center of the nine-point circle
(red) all lie on a straight line.
TriangleEulerLine.png
1.4.6 Area:
1
1. T = bh, where b is the base length and h the perpendicular height from the base.
2
1
2. T = ab sin(C), where a, b are the side lengths, and C is the angle between them.
2
1
3. T = ab sin(A + B), where a, b are the side lengths, A, B are the angles opposite the sides a, b respectively.
2
a2 sin(B) sin(C)
4. T = , where a is a side length, A is the angle opposite the side a, and B, C are the other two angles.
2 sin(A)
p
5. T = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c), where a, b, c are the side lengths, and s is the semiperimeter.
1p 2
6. T = (a + b2 + c2 )2 − 2(a4 + b4 + c4 ), where a, b, c are the side lengths.
4
1p 2 2
7. T = 2(a b + a2 c2 + b2 c2 ) − (a4 + b4 + c4 ), where a, b, c are the side lengths.
4
1p
8. T = (a + b − c)(a − b + c)(−a + b + c)(a + b + c), where a, b, c are the side lengths.
4
1.4.7 Interior Angles The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180◦ .
TriangleEquilateral2.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.5.5 Properties: Where a, b, c are the side length, A, B, C are the angles opposite sides a, b, c respectively, T the
area, R the radius of the circumscribed circle, r the radius of the inscribed circle and s the semiperimeter. The following
statements are true, if and only if the triangle is an equilateral triangle.
1. a2 + b2 + c2 = ab + bc + ac
5. s2 = 3r2 + 12Rr
√
6. s2 = 3 3T
√
7. s = 3 3r
√
3 3
8. s = R
2
9. A = B = C
3
10. cos(A) + cos(B) + cos(C) =
2
A B C 1
11. sin + sin + sin =
2 2 2 8
a2 + b2 + c2
12. T = √
4 3
√
3 2
13. T = (abc) 3
4
14. R = 2r
15. 9R2 = a2 + b2 + c2
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.6.1 Perimeter: where a is the side length that is repeated twice, and b is the third side.
1. P = 2a + b
1.6.2 Area: where a is the side length that is repeated twice, and b is the third side.
b√ 2
1. T = 4a − b2
4
TriangleRight2.png
1.7.2 Area:
1
1. T = ab, where a, b are the non-hypotenuse side lengths.
2
2. T = (s − a)(s − b), where a, b are the non-hypotenuse side lengths, and s is the semiperimeter.
1.7.3 Altitudes: If an altitude is drawn from the vertex with the right angle to the hypotenuse then the triangle is
divided into two smaller triangles which are both similar to the original and therefore similar to each other.
TriangleRightAltitudes.png
1. The altitude to the hypotenuse is the geometric mean of the two segments of the hypotenuse.
2. Each leg of the triangle is the mean proportional of the hypotenuse and the segment of the hypotenuse that is
adjacent to the leg.
4. f 2 = de
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
5. b2 = ce
6. a2 = cd
ab
7. f =
c
1 1 1
8. 2 + 2 = 2
a b f
1.7.4 Radius of Circumscribed Circle: where a, b are the non-hypotenuse side lengths and c the hypotenuse.
c
1. R = , centered at the right-angled vertex.
2
1.7.5 Radius of Inscribed Circle: where a, b are the non-hypotenuse side lengths and c the hypotenuse.
a+b−c
1. r =
2
ab
2. r =
a+b+c
2r(b − r)
3. a =
b − 2r
1.7.6 Properties: Where a, b are the non-hypotenuse side lengths, c the hypotenuse, A, B, C are the angles opposite
sides a, b, c respectively, T the area, R the radius of the circumscribed circle, r the radius of the inscribed circle and s the
semiperimeter. The following statements are true, if and only if the triangle is a right triangle.
1. a2 + b2 = c2
2. (s − a)(s − b) = s(s − c)
3. s = 2R + r
4. a2 + b2 + c2 = 8R2
5. A + B = 90◦
6. cos(A) cos(B) cos(C) = 0
7. sin2 (A) + sin2 (B) + sin2 (C) = 2
8. cos2 (A) + cos2 (B) + cos2 (C) = 1
9. sin(2A) = sin(2B) = 2 sin(A) sin(B)
ab
10. T =
2
11. T = r(2R + r)
12. r = s − c
13. The length of one median is equal to the circumradius.
14. The shortest altitude is the geometric mean of the line segments it divides the opposite side into.
15. The triangle can be inscribed in a semicircle, with one side coinciding with the entirety of the diameter.
16. The circumcenter is the midpoint of the longest side.
17. The longest side is a diameter of the circumscribed circle (c = 2R).
18. The circumscribed circle is tangent to the nine-point circle.
19. The orthocenter lies on the circumscribed circle.
√
20. The distance between the incenter and the orthocenter is equal to 2r.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.7.7 Pythagorean Theorem: The Pythagorean theorem is a relation in Euclidean geometry among the three
sides of a right triangle.
1.7.8 Pythagorean Triple: Three positive integers, a, b, c such that the Pythagorean theorem is satisfied. The
numbers in a Pythagorean triple are the lengths of sides of a Right triangle with integer sides. If (a, b, c) is a Pythagorean
triple, then for positive integer k, (ka, kb, kc) is also a Pythagorean triple.
Generating a Pythagorean triple can be determined by finding m, n such that they are coprime such that m > n, and
m − n is odd. a = m2 − n2 , b = 2mn and c = m2 + n2 . A list of the first few Pythagorean triples are below.
1. (3, 4, 5)
Pythagorean triples have some special and unique properties, where a < b < c:
(c − a)(c − b)
1. is a perfect square.
2
2. At most one of a, b, c is a square.
ab
3. The area T = is an even congruent number.
2
4. The area of a Pythagorean triangle cannot be the square or twice the square of a natural number.
11. Every integer greater than 2 is part of a primitive or non-primitive Pythagorean triple.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
12. There exist infinitely many primitive Pythagorean triples in which the hypotenuse and the longer of the two legs
differ by exactly one.
13. For every odd integer j, there exist infinitely many primitive Pythagorean triples in which the hypotenuse and the
even leg differ by j 2 .
14. There exist infinitely many primitive Pythagorean triples in which the hypotenuse and the longer of the two legs
differ by exactly two.
15. For every integer j > 0, there exist infinitely many primitive Pythagorean triples in which the hypotenuse and the
odd leg differ by 2k 2 .
16. There exist infinitely many Pythagorean triples in which the two legs differ by exactly one.
17. For each natural number n, there exist n Pythagorean triples with different hypotenuses and the same area.
18. For each natural number n, there exist at least n different Pythagorean triples with the same leg a, where a is some
natural number.
19. For each natural number n, there exist at least n different Pythagorean triples with the same hypotenuse.
20. In every Pythagorean triple, the radius of the incircle and the radii of the three excircles are natural numbers.
Specifically, for a primitive triple the radius of the incircle is r = n(m − n) , and the radii of the excircles opposite
the sides m2 –n2 , 2mn, and the hypotenuse m2 + n2 are m(m − n), n(m + n), and m(m + n) respectively.
21. As for any right triangle, the converse of Thales’ theorem says that the diameter of the circumscribed circle equals
the hypotenuse.
22. There are no Pythagorean triples in which the hypotenuse and one leg are the legs of another Pythagorean triple.
23. There exist infinitely many Pythagorean triples with square numbers for both the hypotenuse c and the sum of the
legs a + b.
1.8 Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral, or tetragon, is one of the basic shapes in geometry, a polygon with four corners or vertices and four sides
or edges which are line segments. While the following section is about quadrilaterals in general, there are some formula
for specific types of quadrilaterals that can be found in the sections that follow.
QuadrilateralRhombus.png
3. Rhomboid: A parallelogram in which adjacent sides are of unequal lengths and angles are oblique.
QuadrilateralRhomboid.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
4. Rectangle: All four angles are right angles, and thus the diagonals bisect each other and are equal in length.
QuadrilateralRectangle.png
5. Square: All four sides are of equal length, and all four angles are right angles. Thus, the opposite sides are parallel,
the diagonals perpendicularly bisect each other, and are of equal length. A quadrilateral is a square if and only if
it is both a rhombus and a rectangle.
QuadrilateralSquare.png
7. Kite: Two pairs of adjacent sides are of equal length. Thus, the diagonals are perpendicular and it is also implied
that one diagonal divides the kite into congruent triangles, and so the angles between the two pairs of equal sides
are equal in measure.
QuadrilateralKite.png
QuadrilateralRightKite.png
QuadrilateralTrapizum.png
10. Tangential Trapezium: A trapezium where the four sides are tangents to an inscribed circle.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
QuadrilateralTangen.png
11. Ex-tangential quadrilateral: the four extensions of the sides are tangent to an excircle.
QuadrilateralExtan.png
12. Cyclic Quadrilateral: Where the circumscribed circle goes through all four vertices.
QuadrilateralIrregular.png
1.8.3 Area: for a Convex Quadrilateral, where the sides a, b, c, d are labeled consecutively.
d1 d2 sin(Q)
1. T = , where d1 d2 are the diagonal lengths, and Q the interior angle between them.
2
s
2
A+C
2. T = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − abcd cos , where a, b, c, d are the side lengths, s is the semiperimeter,
2
and A, C are two opposite angles.
1 1
3. T = ad sin(A) + bc sin(C), where a, b, c, d are the side lengths, A is the angle between a and d and C is the angle
2 2
between b and c.
|tan(Q)| 2
a + c2 − b2 − d2 where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and Q the interior angle between the diagonals.
4. T =
4
r
1
5. T = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − (ac + bd + d1 d2 )(ac + bd − d1 d2 ), where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and d1 d2
4
are the diagonal lengths.
1
q
6. T = 4d21 d22 − (a2 + c2 − b2 − d2 ), where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and d1 d2 are the diagonal lengths.
4
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1
7. T ≤ (a + c)(b + d) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths, Equality only for a rectangle.
4
1p 2
8. T ≤ (a + c2 )(b2 + d2 ) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths. Equality only for a rectangle.
2
1
9. T ≤ (a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 ) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths. Equality only for a square.
4
1
10. T ≤ (d21 + d22 ) where d1 d2 are the diagonal lengths. Equality only if the diagonals are perpendicular and equal.
4
p
11. T ≤ (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and s is the semiperimeter. Equality if and
only if the quadrilateral is cyclic or degenerate.
1p
12. T ≤ 3 (ab + cd)(ac + bd)(ad + bc) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths.
2
1.8.4 Diagonals: for a Convex Quadrilateral, where the sides a, b, c, d are labeled consecutively and A, B, C, D are
the interior angles adjacent to a, b, c, d respectively.
p
1. d1 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(B)
p
2. d1 = c2 + d2 − 2cd cos(D)
r
(ac + bd)(ad + bc) − 2abcd (cos(B) + cos(D))
3. d1 =
ab + cd
p
4. d2 = a2 + d2 − 2ad cos(A)
p
5. d2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos(C)
r
(ab + cd)(ac + bd) − 2abcd (cos(A) + cos(C))
6. d2 =
ad + bc
1.8.5 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360◦ .
1.9.2 Area:
1
1. T = (ad + bc) sin(A) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths named consequently and A is the angle between a and d.
2
1
2. T = (a2 − b2 − c2 + d2 ) tan(A) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths named consequently and A is the angle between
4
a and d.
1
3. T = (ac + bd) sin(Q) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths named consequently and Q is the angle between the
2
diagonals.
p
4. T = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and s the semiperimeter.
1 p
5. T = (ab + cd)(ac + bd)(ad + bc) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and R the radius of the circumscribed
4R
circle.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.9.4 Radius of Circumscribed Circle: where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and s the semiperimeter.
1p
1. R = (ab + cd)(ac + bd)(ad + bc)(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d), centered at the intersection of the two diagonals.
4
1.9.5 Properties: The quadrilateral is cyclic, if and only if it falls into at least one of the following the categories.
1. Any square.
2. Any rectangle.
4. Any antiparallelogram.
8. The four perpendicular bisectors to the sides are concurrent. The intersection is the centre of the circumscribed
circle.
9. The opposite interior angles are supplementary. A + C = B + D = 180◦ where A, B, C, D are consequently named
interior angles.
A C B D
10. tan tan = tan tan = 1 where A, B, C, D are consequently named interior angles.
2 2 2 2
1.10 Rhombus
In geometry, a rhombus (equilateral quadrilateral) is a simple quadrilateral whose four sides all have the same length.
Every rhombus is a parallelogram, and a rhombus with right angles is a square.
QuadrilateralRhombus.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.10.2 Area:
1. T = ah where a is the side length and h is the perpendicular distance between any two non-adjacent sides.
1.10.4 Properties: The following statements are true, if and only if the quadrilateral is a rhombus.
1. A quadrilateral with four sides of equal length.
2. A quadrilateral in which the diagonals are perpendicular and bisect each other.
3. 4a2 = d21 + d22 where a is the side length and d1 d2 are the diagonal lengths.
1.11 Rhomboid
Commonly referred to as a parallelogram, the formal name in geometry is a rhomboid. It is a simple quadrilateral with two
pairs of parallel sides. The opposite sides of a parallelogram are of equal length and the opposite angles of a parallelogram
are of equal measure.
QuadrilateralRhomboid.png
1.11.2 Area:
1. T = bh where b is the base length and h is the perpendicular distance from the base to the non-adjacent side.
2. T = ab sin(A) where a, b are the side lengths and A is any interior angle.
|tan(Q)| 2
a − b2 where a, b are the side lengths and Q the interior angle between the diagonals.
3. T =
2
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.11.3 Properties: The following statements are true, if and only if the quadrilateral is a rhomboid.
1. Two pairs of opposite sides are equal in length.
7. a2 + b2 = d21 + d22 where a, b are the side lengths and d1 d2 are the diagonal lengths.
Other properties, that do not hold under the if and only if.
3. The area of a rhomboid is twice the area of a triangle created by one of its diagonals.
4. The area of a rhomboid is also equal to the magnitude of the vector cross product of two adjacent sides.
7. A rhomboid has rotational symmetry of order 2. If it also has two lines of reflectional symmetry then it must be a
rhombus or an oblong.
1.12 Rectangle
In geometry, a rectangle is any quadrilateral with four right angles. A rectangle with four sides of equal length is a square.
QuadrilateralRectangle.png
1.12.2 Area:
1. T = ab where a, b are the side lengths.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.12.4 Properties: where the sides a, b, c, d are labeled consecutively and A, B, C, D are the interior angles adjacent
to a, b, c, d respectively. The following statements are true, if and only if the quadrilateral is a rectangle.
1
1. T = (a + c)(b + d)
4
1p 2
2. T = (a + c2 )(b2 + d2 )
2
3. Equiangular.
Other properties, that do not hold under the if and only if.
1. A rectangle is cyclic.
2. The two diagonals are equal in length and bisect each other.
1.13 Square
In geometry, a square is any quadrilateral with four equal sides and four right angles.
QuadrilateralSquare.png
1.13.2 Area:
1. T = a2 where a is the side length.
d21
2. T = where d1 is the diagonal length.
2
3. T = 2R2 where R is the radius of the circumscribed circle.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.13.6 Properties: The following statements are true, if and only if the quadrilateral is a square.
1. A rectangle with two adjacent equal sides.
3. A parallelogram with one right angle and two adjacent equal sides.
6. A quadrilateral where the diagonals are equal and are the perpendicular bisectors of each other.
Other properties, that do not hold under the if and only if.
8. A square can be defined as a parallelogram with equal diagonals that bisect the angles.
10. If a circle is circumscribed around a square, the area of the circle is π/2 times the area of the square.
11. If a circle is inscribed in the square, the area of the circle is π/4 times the area of the square.
12. A square has a larger area than any other quadrilateral with the same perimeter.
1.14 Kite
In geometry, a kite is a quadrilateral whose four sides can be grouped into two pairs of equal-length sides that are adjacent
to each other.
QuadrilateralKite.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.14.2 Area:
d1 d2
1. T = where d1 , d2 are the diagonal lengths.
2
2. T = ab sin(C) where a, b are the side lengths and C the angle between unequal sides.
1.14.3 Diagonals:
p
1. d1 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(C) where a, b are the side lengths and C the angle between unequal sides.
p
2. d2 = 2a2 (1 − cos(A)) where a is a side lengths and A the angle between the two a sides.
p
3. d2 = 2b2 (1 − cos(B)) where b is a side lengths and B the angle between the two b sides.
1.14.4 Properties: The following statements are true, if and only if the quadrilateral is a kite.
1. Two disjoint pairs of adjacent sides are equal.
1.15 Trapezium
In geometry, a quadrilateral with at least one pair of parallel sides is referred to as a trapezium. The parallel sides are
called the bases of the trapezium and the other two sides are called the legs. A scalene trapezium is a trapezium with no
sides of equal measure.
QuadrilateralTrapizum.png
1.15.2 Area:
a+b
1. T = h where a, b are the base lengths and h the perpendicular distance between them.
2
a+b p
2. T = (−a + b + c + d)(a − b + c + d)(a − b + c − d)(a − b − c + d) where a, b are the base lengths and c, d
4 |b − a|
the side lengths.
a+b p
3. T = (s − b)(s − a)(s − b − c)(s − b − d) where a, b are the base lengths and c, d the side lengths and s the
|b − a|
semiperimeter.
s 2
(ab2 − a2 b − ad2 + bc2 )(ab2 − a2 b − ac2 + bd2 )
2
b + d2 − a2 − c2
4. T = − where a, b are the base lengths and
(2(b − a))2 4
c, d the side lengths.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.15.3 Diagonals:
s
ab2 − a2 b − ac2 + bd2
1. d1 = where a, b are the base lengths and c, d the side lengths.
b−a
s
ab2 − a2 b − ad2 + bc2
2. d2 = where a, b are the base lengths and c, d the side lengths.
b−a
1.15.4 Properties: The following statements are true, if and only if the quadrilateral is a kite.
1. It has two adjacent angles that are supplementary, that is, they add up 180 degrees.
2. The angle between a side and a diagonal is equal to the angle between the opposite side and the same diagonal.
3. The diagonals cut each other in mutually the same ratio.
4. The diagonals cut the quadrilateral into four triangles of which one opposite pair are similar.
5. The diagonals cut the quadrilateral into four triangles of which one opposite pair have equal areas.
6. The product of the areas of the two triangles formed by one diagonal equals the product of the areas of the two
triangles formed by the other diagonal.[
7. The midpoints of two opposite sides and the intersection of the diagonals are collinear.
8. d21 + d22 = c2 + d2 + 2ab where a, b are the base lengths, c, d the side lengths and d1 , 2 are the diagonal lengths.
p
(−a + b + c + d)(a − b + c + d)(a − b + c − d)(a − b − c + d)
9. h = where a, b are the base lengths, h the perpen-
2 |b − a|
dicular distance between them and c, d the side lengths
1.16 Pentagons
In geometry, a pentagon is any five-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this section,
the formula only apply to regular pentagons.
PentagonRegular.png
1.16.2 Area:
√
5 2a2
1. T = p √ √ where a is the side length.
2 5+ 5 3− 5
p √
a2 25 + 10 5
2. T = where a is the side length.
4
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.16.5 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a pentagon is 540◦ .
1.17 Hexagons
In geometry, a hexagon is any six-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this section,
the formula only apply to regular hexagons.
HexagonRegular.png
1.17.4 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a hexagon is 720◦ .
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.18 Heptagons
In geometry, a heptagon is any seven-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this section,
the formula only apply to regular heptagons.
HeptagonRegular.png
1.18.3 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a heptagon is 900◦ .
◦
1.18.4 Internal Angle: The internal angle of a heptagon is 51 73 .
1.19 Octagons
In geometry, an octagon is any eight-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this section,
the formula only apply to regular octagons.
OctagonRegular.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.19.2 Area:
2a2
1. T = √ where a is the side length.
2−1
√
2. T = 2 2R2 where R is the radius of the circumscribed circle.
√
3. T = 8 2 − 1 r2 where r is the radius of the inscribed circle.
4. T = d22 − a2 where a is the side length and d2 the length of the second longest diagonal.
5. T = 2ad where a is the side length and d the distance between parallel sides.
1.19.4 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of an octagon is 1080◦ .
1.20 Nonagon
In geometry, a nonagon is any nine-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this section,
the formula only apply to regular nonagons.
NonagonRegular.png
1.20.3 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a nonagon is 1260◦ .
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.21 Decagon
In geometry, a decagon is any ten-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this section,
the formula only apply to regular decagons.
DecagonRegular.png
1.21.4 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a decagon is 1440◦ .
1.22 Dodecagon
In geometry, a dodecagon is any twelve-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this
section, the formula only apply to regular dodecagon.
DodecagonRegular.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.22.2 Area:
√
1. T = 3 2 + 3 a2 where a is the side length.
1.22.3 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a decagon is 1800◦ .
1.23.2 Area:
na2
1. T = where a is the side length.
180
4 tan
n
s2
2. T = where s is the semiperimeter.
180
n tan
n
nR2
360
3. T = sin where R is the radius of the circumscribed circle.
2 n
2 180
4. T = nr tan where r is the radius of the inscribed circle.
n
1.23.4 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a n-gon is (n − 2)180◦ .
2
1.23.5 Internal Angle: The internal angle of a n-gon is 1 − 180◦ .
n
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.24 Circles
A circle is a simple shape of Euclidean geometry that is the set of all points in a plane that are at a given distance from
a given point, the centre. It can be thought of as an ∞-gon.
Circle.png
1.24.1 Terminology:
1. Arc: Any connected part of the circle.
5. Diameter: A line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle and which passes through the centre. It is a special case
of a chord, namely the longest chord, and it is twice the radius.
6. Passant: A coplanar straight line that does not touch the circle.
7. Radius: A line segment joining the centre of the circle to any point on the circle itself.
8. Secant: An extended chord, a coplanar straight line cutting the circle at two points.
9. Sector: A region bounded by two radii and an arc lying between the radii.
10. Segment: A region, not containing the centre, bounded by a chord and an arc lying between the chord’s endpoints.
11. Semicircle: A region bounded by a diameter and an arc lying between the diameter’s endpoints. It is a special case
of a circular segment, namely the largest one.
12. Tangent: A coplanar straight line that touches the circle at a single point.
CircleLines.png CircleSlices.png
1.24.2 Circumference:
1. C = 2πr where r is the radius of the circle.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.24.3 Area:
1. T = πr2 where r is the radius of the circle.
πd2
2. T = where d is the diameter of the circle.
4
Cd
3. T = where C is the circumference of the circle and d is the diameter of the circle.
4
Q
4. TSC = πr2 where TSC is the area of the sector, r is the radius of the circle and Q the interior angle at the sector
360
in degrees.
1
5. TSC = r2 Q where TSC is the area of the sector, r is the radius of the circle and Q the interior angle at the sector
2
in radians.
r2 π
6. TSG = Q − sin(Q) where TSG is the area of the segment, r is the radius of the circle and Q the interior
2 180
angle at the segment in degrees.
r2
7. TSG = (Q − sin(Q)) where TSG is the area of the segment, r is the radius of the circle and Q the interior angle
2
at the segment in radians.
1.24.4 Properties:
1. The circle is the shape with the largest area for a given length of perimeter.
2. The circle is a highly symmetric shape: every line through the centre forms a line of reflection symmetry and it has
rotational symmetry around the centre for every angle.
5. The area enclosed and the square of its radius are proportional to π.
6. The circle which is centred at the origin with radius 1 is called the unit circle.
7. Through any three points, not all on the same line, there lies a unique circle. In Cartesian coordinates, it is possible
to give explicit formulae for the coordinates of the centre of the circle and the radius in terms of the coordinates of
the three given points.
8. Chords are equidistant from the centre of a circle if and only if they are equal in length.
10. A perpendicular line from the centre of a circle bisects the chord.
11. The line segment through the centre bisecting a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
12. If a central angle and an inscribed angle of a circle are subtended by the same chord and on the same side of the
chord, then the central angle is twice the inscribed angle.
13. If two angles are inscribed on the same chord and on the same side of the chord, then they are equal.
14. If two angles are inscribed on the same chord and on opposite sides of the chord, then they are supplementary.
15. For a cyclic quadrilateral, the exterior angle is equal to the interior opposite angle.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
18. If the intersection of any two chords divides one chord into lengths a and b and divides the other chord into lengths
c and d, then ab = cd
19. If the intersection of any two perpendicular chords divides one chord into lengths a and b and divides the other
chord into lengths c and d, then a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 equals the square of the diameter.
20. The sum of the squared lengths of any two chords intersecting at right angles at a given point is the same as that of
any other two perpendicular chords intersecting at the same point, and is given by 8r2 –4p2 , where r is the circle’s
radius and p is the distance from the center point to the point of intersection.
21. The distance from a point on the circle to a given chord times the diameter of the circle equals the product of the
distances from the point to the ends of the chord.
22. The sagitta is a line segment drawn perpendicular to a chord, between the midpoint of that chord and the arc of
the circle.
23. Given the length y of a chord, and the length x of the sagitta, the Pythagorean theorem can be used to calculate
y2 x
the radius of the unique circle which will fit around the two lines, r = +
8x 2
24. A line drawn perpendicular to a radius through the end point of the radius lying on the circle is a tangent to the
circle.
25. A line drawn perpendicular to a tangent through the point of contact with a circle passes through the centre of the
circle.
26. Two tangents can always be drawn to a circle from any point outside the circle, and these tangents are equal in
length.
28. All inscribed angles that subtend the same arc are equal.
30. In every triangle a unique circle, called the inscribed circle, can be inscribed such that it is tangent to each of the
three sides of the triangle.
31. About every triangle a unique circle, called the circumscribed circle, can be circumscribed such that it goes through
each of the triangle’s three vertices.
32. A tangential polygon, such as a tangential quadrilateral, is any convex polygon within which a circle can be inscribed
that is tangent to each side of the polygon.
33. A cyclic polygon is any convex polygon about which a circle can be circumscribed, passing through each vertex.
1.25 Annulus
In geometry, an annulus is a ring-shaped object, formed by the region bounded by two concentric circles.
CircleAnnulus.png
36
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
1.25.1 Area:
1. T = π R2 − r2 where R is the radius of the larger circle and r the is the radius of the smaller circle.
1.26 Ellipse
In mathematics, an ellipse is a curve on a plane surrounding two focal points such that a straight line drawn from one of
the focal points to any point on the curve and then back to the other focal point has the same length for every point on
the curve. The semi-major axis, a and the semi-minor axis, b are one half of the major and minor axes, respectively. As
such, for an ellipse centered at the Cartesian origin, the x-roots are ±a and the y-intercepts are ±b.
1.26.4 Circumference:
r
a2 + b2
1. P ≈ 2π where a is the semi-major axis and b the semi-minor axis of the ellipse.
2
p
2. P ≈ π 3 (a + b) − (3a + b) (a + 3b) where a is the semi-major axis and b the semi-minor axis of the ellipse.
∞
!
X (2k)!2 ε2k
3. P = 2aπ 1 − where a is the semi-major axis and ε is the eccentricity of the ellipse.
(2k k)4 (2k − 1)
k=1
!
1 × 3 2 ε4 1 × 3 × 5 ε6
1 2
4. P = 2aπ 1 − ε − − − . . . where a is the semi-major axis and ε is the eccen-
2 2×3 3 2×3×6 5
tricity of the ellipse.
1.26.5 Area:
1. T = πab where a is the semi-major axis and b the semi-minor axis of the ellipse.
37
Chapter 2
Elementary 3D Geometry
2.1.1 Schläfli symbol: Each Platonic solid can be denoted by a symbol {p, q} where p = the number of edges of
each face and q = the number of faces meeting at each vertex.
Tetrahedron.png
Hexahedron.png
38
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Octahedron.png
Dodecahedron.png
Icosahedron.png
2.1.3 Verticies
4p
1. V = where {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
4 − (p − 2)(q − 2)
2.1.4 Edges
2pq
1. E = where {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
4 − (p − 2)(q − 2)
2.1.5 Faces
4q
1. F = where {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
4 − (p − 2)(q − 2)
2.1.6 Dihedral Angle: The interior angle in radians between any two face planes.
π
cos
θ q
1. sin = where {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
2 π
sin
p
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.1.7 Angular Deficiency: The difference in radians between the sum of the face-angles at that vertex and 2π.
2
1. δ = 2π − qπ 1 − where {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
p
2.1.9 Volume:
1
1. V = rSA where SA is the surface area and r the radius of the inscribed sphere of the Platonic solid.
3
2.1.10 Radius of Circumscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length, θ is the dihedral angle and {p, q} is the
Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
a
π θ
1. R = tan tan , centered at the geometric centre of the Platonic solid.
2 q 2
2.1.11 Radius of Inscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length, θ is the dihedral angle and {p, q} is the Schläfli
symbol of the Platonic solid.
a
π θ
1. r = cot tan , centered at the geometric centre of the Platonic solid.
2 p 2
2.1.12 Interior Angle: The solid angle at the vertex of a Platonic solid.
1. Ω = qθ − (q − 2)π where {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
2.1.13 Properties: The following statements are true, if and only if the convex polygon is a Platonic solid.
1. All its faces are congruent convex regular polygons.
2.2.1 For Convex Polyhedra: The Euler characteristic is constant for any convex polyhedron.
1. χ = V + F − E = 2
40
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra1.png
2. Triangular prism: V = 6, E = 9, F = 5, χ = 2
Polyhedra2.png
Polyhedra3.png
Polyhedra4.png
Polyhedra5.png
6. Cube: V = 8, E = 12, F = 6, χ = 2
Polyhedra6.png
Polyhedra7.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra8.png
Polyhedra9.png
Polyhedra10.png
Polyhedra11.png
Polyhedra12.png
Polyhedra13.png
Polyhedra14.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra15.png
Polyhedra16.png
Polyhedra17.png
Polyhedra18.png
Polyhedra19.png
Polyhedra20.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra21.png
Polyhedra22.png
Polyhedra23.png
Polyhedra24.png
Polyhedra25.png
Polyhedra26.png
Polyhedra27.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra28.png
Polyhedra29.png
Polyhedra30.png
Polyhedra31.png
2. Tetrahemihexahedron: V = 6, E = 12, F = 7, χ = 1
Polyhedra32.png
Polyhedra33.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra34.png
Polyhedra35.png
Polyhedra36.png
Polyhedra37.png
Polyhedra38.png
Polyhedra39.png
Polyhedra40.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra41.png
Polyhedra42.png
Polyhedra43.png
Polyhedra44.png
Polyhedra45.png
Polyhedra46.png
Polyhedra47.png
47
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra48.png
Polyhedra49.png
Polyhedra50.png
Polyhedra51.png
Polyhedra52.png
Polyhedra53.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra54.png
Polyhedra55.png
Polyhedra56.png
Polyhedra57.png
Polyhedra58.png
Polyhedra59.png
Polyhedra60.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra61.png
Polyhedra62.png
Polyhedra63.png
Polyhedra64.png
Polyhedra65.png
Polyhedra66.png
Polyhedra67.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra68.png
Polyhedra69.png
Polyhedra70.png
Polyhedra71.png
Polyhedra72.png
Polyhedra73.png
Polyhedra74.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra75.png
Polyhedra76.png
Polyhedra77.png
Polyhedra78.png
Polyhedra79.png
Polyhedra80.png
Polyhedra81.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra82.png
Polyhedra83.png
Polyhedra84.png
Polyhedra85.png
Polyhedra86.png
Polyhedra87B.png
Polyhedra87.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
Polyhedra88.png
Polyhedra89.png
Polyhedra90.png
Polyhedra91.png
Polyhedra92.png
2.3 Tetrahedron
In geometry, a tetrahedron is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, three of which meet at each corner or
vertex. It has six edges and four vertices. The tetrahedron is the simplest of all the ordinary convex polyhedra and the
only one that has four faces. For the remainder of this section, the formula only apply to the regular polyhedron.
Tetrahedron.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.3.5 Radius of Inscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length and R is the radius of the circumscribed sphere.
1
1. r = R, centered at the geometric center of the tetrahedron.
3
a
2. r = √ , centered at the geometric center of the tetrahedron.
24
2.4 Cube
In geometry, a cube is a three-dimensional solid bounded by six square faces with three meeting at each vertex. The cube
is the only regular hexahedron. The cube is also a square parallelepiped, an equilateral cuboid and a right rhombohedron.
It is a regular square prism in three orientations, and a trigonal trapezohedron in four orientations. For the remainder of
this section, the formula only apply to the regular polyhedron.
Hexahedron.png
55
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.4.4 Radius of Inscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length and R is the radius of the circumscribed sphere.
a
1. r = , centered at the geometric center of the cube.
2
2.5 Octahedron
In geometry, an octahedron is a polyhedron with eight faces. A regular octahedron is a Platonic solid composed of eight
equilateral triangles, four of which meet at each vertex. For the remainder of this section, the formula only apply to the
regular polyhedron.
Octahedron.png
2.5.5 Radius of Inscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length and R is the radius of the circumscribed sphere.
a
1. r = √ , centered at the geometric center of the octahedron.
6
2.6 Dodecahedron
In geometry, a dodecahedron is any polyhedron with twelve flat faces. For the remainder of this section, the formula only
apply to the regular polyhedron. It is composed of 12 regular pentagonal faces, with three meeting at each vertex. It has
20 vertices, 30 edges and 160 diagonals.
Dodecahedron.png
56
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
5 11 √
r
a
1. r = + 5, centered at the geometric center of the dodecahedron.
2 2 10
ϕ2
2. r = √ a, centered at the geometric center of the dodecahedron.
2 3−ϕ
2.7 Icosahedron
In geometry, an icosahedron is a polyhedron with 20 triangular faces, 30 edges and 12 vertices. For the remainder of this
section, the formula only apply to the regular polyhedron. A regular icosahedron with identical equilateral faces is often
meant because of its geometrical significance as one of the five Platonic solids. It has five triangular faces meeting at each
vertex.
Icosahedron.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.8 Prisms
In geometry, a prism is a polyhedron with an n-sided polygonal base, a translated copy, and n other faces, necessarily all
parallelograms, joining corresponding sides of the two bases. All cross-sections parallel to the base faces are the same.
Prisms are named for their base. For the remainder of this section, the formula only apply to the right prism, where the
joining edges and faces are perpendicular to the base faces.
2.8.1 Verticies
1. V = 2n
2.8.2 Edges
1. E = 3n
2.8.3 Faces
1. F = 2 + n
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.8.5 Volume:
1. V = B` where B is the area of the base and ` the length of the prism.
na2 ` π
2. V = cot where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism. In this case, the base must
4 n
be a regular polygon.
2.9.1 Verticies
1. V = 6
2.9.2 Edges
1. E = 9
2.9.3 Faces
1. F = 5
2.9.5 Volume:
1. V = B` where B is the area of the base and ` the length of the prism.
1
2. V = bh` where a is the side length of the base, h the perpendicular height of the triangular base and ` the length
2
of the prism.
2.10.1 Verticies
1. V = 8
2.10.2 Edges
1. E = 12
2. Length of the edges= 4(a + b + c) where a, b, c are the side lengths of the prism.
2.10.3 Faces
1. F = 6
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.10.6 Volume:
1. V = B` where B is the area of the base and ` the length of the prism.
2. V = ab` where a, b are the side lengths of the base and ` the length of the prism.
2.11.1 Verticies
1. V = 10
2.11.2 Edges
1. E = 15
2.11.3 Faces
1. F = 7
2.11.5 Volume:
1. V = B` where B is the area of the base and ` the length of the prism.
√ q √ 3
a2 ` 2 5 + 5
2. V = where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism.
16
2.12.1 Verticies
1. V = 12
2.12.2 Edges
1. E = 18
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.12.3 Faces
1. F = 8
2.12.5 Volume:
1. V = B` where B is the area of the base and ` the length of the prism.
√
3 3a2 `
2. V = where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism.
2
2.13.1 Verticies
1. V = 14
2.13.2 Edges
1. E = 21
2.13.3 Faces
1. F = 9
2.14.1 Verticies
1. V = 16
2.14.2 Edges
1. E = 24
2.14.3 Faces
1. F = 10
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.14.5 Volume:
1. V = B` where B is the area of the base and ` the length of the prism.
√
2. V = 2a2 ` 1 + 2 where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism.
2.15.1 Verticies
1. V = 18
2.15.2 Edges
1. E = 27
2.15.3 Faces
1. F = 11
2.16.1 Verticies
1. V = 20
2.16.2 Edges
1. E = 30
2.16.3 Faces
1. F = 12
2.16.5 Volume:
1. V = B` where B is the area of the base and ` the length of the prism.
√ p √ √
5 2 5 + 5 5 + 1 a2 `
2. V = where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism.
8
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.17 Pyramids
In geometry, a pyramid is a polyhedron formed by connecting an n-sided polygonal base and a point, called the apex.
Each base edge and apex form a triangle. Pyramids are named for their base. For the remainder of this section, the base
must be a regular polygon.
2.17.1 Verticies
1. V = n + 1
2.17.2 Edges
1. E = 2n
2.17.3 Faces
1. F = n + 1
2.17.5 Volume:
1
1. V = Bh where B is the area of the base and h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid. This formula is valid
3
for any base.
n π
2. V = hs2 cot where h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid and s the semiperimeter of the base.
12 n
2.18.1 Verticies
1. V = 4
2.18.2 Edges
1. E = 6
2.18.3 Faces
1. F = 4
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.18.5 Volume:
1
1. V = Bh where B is the area of the base and h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid. This formula is valid
3
for any base.
√
3hs2
2. V = where h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid and s the semiperimeter of the base.
12
2.19.1 Verticies
1. V = 5
2.19.2 Edges
1. E = 8
2.19.3 Faces
1. F = 5
2.19.5 Volume:
1
1. V = Bh where B is the area of the base and h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid. This formula is valid
3
for any base.
hs2
2. V = where h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid and s the semiperimeter of the base.
3
2.20 Cylinder
A cylinder is a solid formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given line segment, the axis of the cylinder. It can
be though of as a prism as n → ∞.
2.20.2 Volume:
1. SA = πr2 h where r is the radius and h is the height of the cylinder.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.21 Cone
A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a circular base to the apex.
2.21.2 Volume:
1
1. V = πr2 h where r is the radius and h is the height of the cone.
3
2.22 Sphere
A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space. A sphere is defined as the set of points that
are all the same distance r, the radius, from a given point, the center, in three-dimensional space.
2.22.2 Volume:
4
1. V = πr3 where r is the radius of the sphere.
3
SphericalCap.png
2.23.1 Conditions:
1. 0 < h < 2r where a is the radius of the cap and h is the height of the cap.
2. r2 = (r − h)2 + a2 where a is the radius of the cap and h is the height of the cap.
a2 + h2
3. r = where a is the radius of the cap and h is the height of the cap.
2h
2. SA = π(2a2 + h2 ) where a is the radius of the cap and h is the height of the cap.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.23.3 Volume:
πh
1. V = (3a2 + h2 ) where a is the radius of the cap and h is the height of the cap.
6
πh2
2. V = (3r − h) where h is the height of the cap and r is the radius of the sphere.
r
2.23.4 Hemisphere: When the cap is a hemisphere, the above formula are simplified as a = r.
1. SA = 3πr2 where r is the radius of the sphere
2
2. V = πr2 where r is the radius of the sphere
3
SphericalSector.png
2.24.2 Volume:
2
1. V = πr2 h where h is the height of the spherical cap and r is the radius of the sphere.
3
2 3 Q
2. V = πr 1 − cos where r is the radius of the sphere and Q is the interior angle of the cone.
3 2
SphericalSegment.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.25.2 Volume:
πh 2
1. V = (3r1 + 3r22 + h2 ) where r1 , r2 are the radii of the circle bases of the spherical segment and h is the height of
6
the spherical segment.
SphericalWedge.png
2.26.2 Volume:
2
1. V = Qr3 where r is the radius of the sphere and Q the angle of the wedge.
3
2.27 Torus
In geometry, a torus is a surface of revolution generated by revolving a circle in three-dimensional space about an axis
coplanar with the circle.
Torus.png
2.27.2 Volume:
2
1. V = Qr3 where r is the radius of the circle and R is the radius of revolution.
3
2.28 Ellipsoid
An ellipsoid is a closed surface that is a three-dimensional analogue of an ellipse.
Ellipsoid.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 2 – Elementary 3D Geometry
2.28.2 Volume:
4
1. V = πabc where a, b, c are the radii of the ellipsoid.
3
68
Chapter 3
Trigonometry
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that studies the relationships involving lengths and angles of triangles. The
trigonometric functions are first defined from a right triangle, but they have far reaching properties in many other areas
of mathematics. Trigonometry is used in navigation, engineering, and physics. A common use in physics is resolving
a vector into Cartesian coordinates. The sine and cosine functions are also commonly used to model periodic function
phenomena such as sound and light waves, the position and velocity of harmonic oscillators, sunlight intensity and day
length, and average temperature variations through the year.
TrigTriangle.png
3.1.1 Definitions:
opposite
1. Sine: sin(θ) =
hypotenuse
adjacent
2. Cosine: cos(θ) =
hypotenuse
opposite sin(θ)
3. Tangent: tan(θ) = =
adjacent cos(θ)
adjacent cos(θ)
4. Cotangent: cot(θ) = =
opposite sin(θ)
hypotenuse 1
5. Secant: sec(θ) = =
adjacent cos(θ)
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
hypotenuse 1
6. Cosecant: csc(θ) = = . Occasionally, csc(θ) is also written as cosec (() θ).
opposite sin(θ)
3.1.2 Derivation from the Unit Circle: The numerical values for the trigonometric function of θ are found from
the unit circle.
TrigUnitCircle1.png TrigUnitCircle2.png
3.1.3 Period:
1. sin(θ) = sin(θ + 360◦ k) = sin(θ + 2πk) for k ∈ Z
3.1.4 Domain and Range: These are for the real case, definitions exist in the complex domain and these are
discussed elsewhere.
6. csc(θ) = y where θ ∈ R such that θ 6= {· · · , −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π, · · · } and y ∈ R such that −1 6< y 6< 1
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
3.2.2 Law of Cosines: In trigonometry, the law of cosines or cosine rule relates the lengths of the sides of a triangle
to the cosine of one of its angles. The law of cosines generalises the Pythagorean theorem to all triangles. It is useful for
computing the third side of a triangle when two sides and their enclosed angle are known, and in computing the angles
of a triangle if all three sides are known. According to the law,
1. a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos(A) where a, b, c are the side lengths and A is the opposite angle to side a.
2. b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos(B) where a, b, c are the side lengths and B is the opposite angle to side b.
3. c2 = a2 + b2 − 2av cos(C) where a, b, c are the side lengths and C is the opposite angle to side c.
2
b + c2 − a2
4. A = arccos where a, b, c are the side lengths and A is the opposite angle to side a.
2bc
2
a + c2 − b2
5. B = arccos where a, b, c are the side lengths and B is the opposite angle to side b.
2ac
2
a + b2 − c2
6. C = arccos where a, b, c are the side lengths and C is the opposite angle to side c.
2ab
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
3.2.3 Law of Tangents: In trigonometry, the law of tangents is a statement about the relationship between the
tangents of two angles of a triangle and the lengths of the opposing sides. It can be used in any case where two sides and
the included angle, or two angles and a side, are known.
A−B
tan
2 a−b
1. = where a, b are the side lengths and A, B are the opposite angles to the sides a, b, c respectively.
A+B a+b
tan
2
A−C
tan
2 a−c
2. = where a, c are the side lengths and A, C are the opposite angles to the sides a, b, c respectively.
A+C a+c
tan
2
B−C
tan
2 b−c
3. = where b, c are the side lengths and B, C are the opposite angles to the sides a, b, c respectively.
B+C b+c
tan
2
3.2.4 Law of Contangents: In trigonometry, the law of cotangents relates the radius of the inscribed circle of a
triangle to its sides and angles.
A B C
cot cot cot
2 2 2 1
1. = = = where a, b, c are the side lengths, A, B, C are the opposite angles to the
s−a s−b s−c r
sides a, b, c respectively, s is the semiperimeter and r is the radius of the inscribed circle of the triangle.
A B C
cot cot cot r
2 2 2 s
2. = = = where a, b, c are the side lengths, A, B, C are the op-
s−a s−b s−c (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
posite angles to the sides a, b, c respectively and s is the semiperimeter of the triangle.
3.2.5 Law of the Auxiliary Angle: The auxiliary angle formula combines the addition of sin(θ) and cos(θ) into
a single trigonometric function.
p
1. a sin(x) + b cos(x) = R sin(x + α) where R = a2 + b2 . α can be found a few different ways.
b
arctan +π a<0
a
α=
b
arctan a≥0
a
b
arcsin π − R + π a < 0
α=
b
arctan a≥0
R
a
α = sgn(b) arccos
R
p
2. a sin(x) + b sin(x + θ) = R sin(x + α) where R = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos (θ) and
arctan b sin (θ)
+ π a + b cos (θ) < 0
a + b cos (θ)
α= .
b sin (θ)
arctan a + b cos (θ) ≥ 0
a + b cos (θ)
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
n
X n X
X n
3. ak sin (x + θk ) = R sin(x + α) where R = ak aj cos (θk − θj ) and
k=1 k=1 j=1
P n
ak sin (θk )
k=1
α = arctan
P n
ak cos (θk )
k=1
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
cot2 (θ) − 1
9. cot(2θ) =
2 cot (θ)
1
10. sec(2θ) =
2 cos2 (θ) −1
1
11. csc(2θ) =
2 sin (θ) cos (θ)
3. sin(5θ) = 16 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 12 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + sin (θ)
4. sin(6θ) = 32 sin (θ) cos5 (θ) − 32 sin (θ) cos3 (θ) + 6 sin (θ) cos (θ)
5. sin(7θ) = 64 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) − 80 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) + 24 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) − sin (θ)
6. sin(8θ) = 128 sin (θ) cos7 (θ) − 192 sin (θ) cos5 (θ) + 80 sin (θ) cos3 (θ) − 8 sin (θ) cos (θ)
7. sin(9θ) = 256 sin (θ) cos8 (θ) − 448 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) + 240 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 40 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + sin (θ)
n
X n n−k k (n − k)π
8. sin(nθ) = sin (θ) cos (θ) sin
k 2
k=0
14. cos(7θ) = 64 cos7 (θ) − 112 cos5 (θ) + 56 cos3 (θ) − 7 cos (θ)
15. cos(8θ) = 128 cos8 (θ) − 256 cos6 (θ) + 160 cos4 (θ) − 32 cos2 (θ) + 1
16. cos(9θ) = 256 cos9 (θ) − 576 cos7 (θ) + 432 cos5 (θ) − 120 cos3 (θ) + 9 cos (θ)
n
X n n−k k (n − k)π
17. cos(nθ) = sin (θ) cos (θ) cos
k 2
k=0
18. cos(nθ) = 2 cos (θ) cos ((n − 1)θ) − cos ((n − 2)θ)
3 tan (θ) − tan3 (θ)
19. tan(3θ) =
1 − 3 tan2 (θ)
4 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) sin (θ)
20. tan(3θ) = 3
− 3
4 cos (θ) − 3 cos (θ) 4 cos (θ) − 3 cos (θ)
4 tan (θ) − 4 tan3 (θ)
21. tan(4θ) =
1 − 6 tan2 (θ) + tan4 (θ)
5 tan (θ) − 10 tan3 (θ) + tan5 (θ)
22. tan(5θ) =
1 − 10 tan2 (θ) + 5 tan4 (θ)
6 tan (θ) − 20 tan3 (θ) + 6 tan5 (θ)
23. tan(6θ) =
1 − 15 tan2 (θ) + 15 tan4 (θ) − tan6 (θ)
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
78
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
1
45. csc(5θ) =
16 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 12 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + sin (θ)
1
46. csc(6θ) =
32 sin (θ) cos5 (θ) − 32 sin (θ) cos3 (θ) + 6 sin (θ) cos (θ)
1
47. csc(7θ) =
64 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) − 80 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) + 24 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) − sin (θ)
1
48. csc(8θ) =
128 sin (θ) cos7 (θ) − 192 sin (θ) cos5 (θ) + 80 sin (θ) cos3 (θ) − 8 sin (θ) cos (θ)
1
49. csc(9θ) =
256 sin (θ) cos8 (θ) − 448 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) + 240 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 40 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + sin (θ)
1 1
18. cos2 (θ) = cos(2θ) +
2 2
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
1 3
19. cos3 (θ) = cos(3θ) + cos (θ)
4 4
1 1 3
20. cos4 (θ) = cos(4θ) + cos(2θ) +
8 2 8
1 5 5
21. cos5 (θ) = cos(5θ) + cos(3θ) + cos (θ)
16 16 8
1 3 15 5
22. cos6 (θ) = cos(6θ) + cos(4θ) + cos(2θ) +
32 16 32 16
1 7 21 35
23. cos7 (θ) = cos(7θ) + cos(5θ) + cos(3θ) + cos (θ)
64 64 64 64
1 1 7 7 35
24. cos8 (θ) = cos(8θ) + cos(6θ) + cos(4θ) + cos(2θ) +
128 16 32 16 128
1 9 9 21 63
25. cos9 (θ) = cos(9θ) + cos(7θ) + cos(5θ) + cos(3θ) + cos (θ)
256 256 64 64 128
n−1
2
2 X n
n
cos ((n − 2k)θ)) n is odd
2 k
k=0
26. cosn (θ) =
n
2
−1
1 n 2 X n
2n n
+ n
cos ((n − 2k)θ)) n is even
2 k
2 k=0
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
1
43. tan2 (θ) = −1
cos2 (θ)
1 − cos(2θ)
44. tan2 (θ) =
cos(2θ) + 1
sin (θ) sin (θ)
45. tan3 (θ) = − +
cos (θ) cos3 (θ)
− sin(3θ) + 3 sin (θ)
46. tan3 (θ) =
cos(3θ) + 3 cos(θ)
1 2
47. tan4 (θ) = +1−
cos4 (θ) cos2 (θ)
3 + cos(4θ) − 4 cos(2θ)
48. tan4 (θ) =
cos(4θ) + 4 cos(2θ) + 3
sin (θ) 2 sin (θ) sin (θ)
49. tan5 (θ) = − 3
+
cos (θ) cos (θ) cos5 (θ)
sin(5θ) − 5 sin(3θ) + 10 sin (θ)
50. tan5 (θ) =
cos(5θ) + 5 cos(3θ) + 10 cos (θ)
1 3 3
51. tan6 (θ) = + − −1
cos6 (θ) cos2 (θ) cos4 (θ)
10 − cos(6θ) + 6 cos(4θ) − 15 cos(2θ)
52. tan6 (θ) =
cos(6θ) + 6 cos(4θ) + 15 cos(2θ) + 10
sin (θ) 3 sin (θ) 3 sin (θ) sin (θ)
53. tan7 (θ) = − + 3
− 5
+
cos (θ) cos (θ) cos (θ) cos7 (θ)
− sin(7θ) + 7 sin(5θ) − 21 sin(3θ) + 35 sin (θ)
54. tan7 (θ) =
cos(7θ) + 7 cos(5θ) + 21 cos(3θ) + 35 cos (θ)
1 4 6 4
55. tan8 (θ) = − + − +1
cos8 (θ) cos2 (θ) cos4 (θ) cos6 (θ)
35 + cos(8θ) − 8 cos(6θ) + 28 cos(4θ) − 56 cos(2θ)
56. tan8 (θ) =
35 + cos(8θ) + 8 cos(6θ) + 28 cos(4θ) + 56 cos(2θ)
sin (θ) 4 sin (θ) 6 sin (θ) 4 sin (θ) sin (θ)
57. tan9 (θ) = − + − +
cos (θ) cos3 (θ) cos5 (θ) cos7 (θ) cos9 (θ)
sin(9θ) − 9 sin(7θ) + 36 sin(5θ) − 84 sin(3θ) + 126 sin (θ)
58. tan9 (θ) =
cos(9θ) + 9 cos(7θ) + 36 cos(5θ) + 84 cos(3θ) + 126 cos (θ)
n−1
−k) n
2 n−1
P
(−1) ( 2 sin ((n − 2k)θ)
k
k=0
n−1
n is odd
n
2
P
cos ((n − 2k)θ))
k=0 k
59. tann (θ) =
n
−1
1 n 2 2P −k) n
n
(
+ n (−1) cos ((n − 2k)θ)
2
2n n2
2 k=0 k
n is even
n
−1
1 n 2 2P n
cos ((n − 2k)θ))
n + n
2 n 2 k=0 k
2
2 cos2 (θ)
60. cot2 (θ) = −
−2 + 2 cos2 (θ)
81
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
cos(2θ) + 1
61. cot2 (θ) =
1 − cos(2θ)
4 cos3 (θ)
62. cot3 (θ) =
−4 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + 4 sin (θ)
cos(3θ) + 3 cos(θ)
63. cot3 (θ) =
− sin(3θ) + 3 sin (θ)
8 cos4 (θ)
64. cot4 (θ) = −
−8 − 8 cos4 (θ) + 16 cos2 (θ)
cos(4θ) + 4 cos(2θ) + 3
65. cot4 (θ) =
3 + cos(4θ) − 4 cos(2θ)
16 cos5 (θ)
66. cot5 (θ) =
16 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 32 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + 16 sin (θ)
cos(5θ) + 5 cos(3θ) + 10 cos (θ)
67. cot5 (θ) =
sin(5θ) − 5 sin(3θ) + 10 sin (θ)
32 cos6 (θ)
68. cot6 (θ) = −
−32 + 32 cos6 (θ) − 96 cos4 (θ) + 96 cos2 (θ)
cos(6θ) + 6 cos(4θ) + 15 cos(2θ) + 10
69. cot6 (θ) =
10 − cos(6θ) + 6 cos(4θ) − 15 cos(2θ)
64 cos7 (θ)
70. cot7 (θ) =
−64 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) + 192 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 192 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + 64 sin (θ)
cos(7θ) + 7 cos(5θ) + 21 cos(3θ) + 35 cos (θ)
71. cot7 (θ) =
− sin(7θ) + 7 sin(5θ) − 21 sin(3θ) + 35 sin (θ)
128 cos8 (θ)
72. cot8 (θ) = −
−128 − 128 cos8 (θ) + 512 cos6 (θ) − 768 cos4 (θ) + 512 cos2 (θ)
35 + cos(8θ) + 8 cos(6θ) + 28 cos(4θ) + 56 cos(2θ)
73. cot8 (θ) =
35 + cos(8θ) − 8 cos(6θ) + 28 cos(4θ) − 56 cos(2θ)
cos(9θ) + 9 cos(7θ) + 36 cos(5θ) + 84 cos(3θ) + 126 cos (θ)
74. cot9 (θ) =
sin(9θ) − 9 sin(7θ) + 36 sin(5θ) − 84 sin(3θ) + 126 sin (θ)
n−1
P2 n
cos ((n − 2k)θ))
k=0 k
n is odd
n−1
n
2 n−1
(−1)( 2 −k)
P
sin ((n − 2k)θ)
n
k=0 k
75. cot (θ) = n
−1
1 n 2 2P n
cos ((n − 2k)θ))
n + n
2 n 2 k=0 k
2
n is even
n
−1
1 n 2 2P
( n
−k ) n
n n + n
(−1) 2 cos ((n − 2k)θ)
2 2 2 k=0 k
2
76. sec2 (θ) =
cos(2θ) + 1
4
77. sec3 (θ) =
cos(3θ) + 3 cos(θ)
8
78. sec4 (θ) =
cos(4θ) + 4 cos(2θ) + 3
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
16
79. sec5 (θ) =
cos(5θ) + 5 cos(3θ) + 10 cos(θ)
32
80. sec6 (θ) =
cos(6θ) + 6 cos(4θ) + 15 cos(2θ) + 10
64
81. sec7 (θ) =
cos(7θ) + 7 cos(5θ) + 21 cos(3θ) + 35 cos(θ)
128
82. sec8 (θ) =
cos(8θ) + 8 cos(6θ) + 28 cos(4θ) + 56 cos(2θ) + 35
256
83. sec9 (θ) =
cos(9θ) + 9 cos(7θ) + 36 cos(5θ) + 84 cos(3θ) + 126 cos(θ)
2n
n−1
n is odd
n
P2
2 cos ((n − 2k)θ))
k=0 k
84. secn (θ) =
2n
n n is even
−1
n 2 2P n
n + n cos ((n − 2k)θ))
2 2 k=0 k
2
85. csc2 (θ) = −
−2 + 2 cos2 (θ)
2
86. csc2 (θ) = −
−1 + cos(2θ)
4
87. csc3 (θ) =
−4 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + 4 sin (θ)
4
88. csc3 (θ) =
− sin(3θ) + 3 sin (θ)
8
89. csc4 (θ) = −
−8 − 8 cos4 (θ) + 16 cos2 (θ)
8
90. csc4 (θ) = −
−3 − cos(4θ) + 4 cos(2θ)
16
91. csc5 (θ) =
16 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 32 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + 16 sin (θ)
16
92. csc5 (θ) =
sin(5θ) − 5 sin(3θ) + 10 sin (θ)
32
93. csc6 (θ) = −
−32 + 32 cos6 (θ) − 96 cos4 (θ) + 96 cos2 (θ)
32
94. csc6 (θ) = −
−10 + cos(6θ) − 6 cos(4θ) + 15 cos(2θ)
64
95. csc7 (θ) =
−64 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) + 192 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 192 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + 64 sin (θ)
64
96. csc7 (θ) =
− sin(7θ) + 7 sin(5θ) − 21 sin(3θ) + 35 sin (θ)
128
97. csc8 (θ) = −
−128 − 128 cos8 (θ) + 512 cos6 (θ) − 768 cos4 (θ) + 512 cos2 (θ)
83
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
128
98. csc8 (θ) = −
−35 − cos(8θ) + 8 cos(6θ) − 28 cos(4θ) + 56 cos(2θ)
256
99. csc9 (θ) =
sin(9θ) − 9 sin(7θ) + 36 sin(5θ) − 84 sin(3θ) + 126 sin (θ)
2n
n−1 n is odd
n
2 n−1
(−1)( 2 −k)
P
2 sin ((n − 2k)θ)
k=0 k
100. cscn (θ) =
2n
n n is even
−1
n 2 2P −k) n
n
(
n + n (−1) cos ((n − 2k)θ)
2
2 2 k=0 k
Conditional Identities:
1. sin(2x) + sin(2y) + sin(2z) = 4 sin(x) sin(y) sin(z) if x + y + z = 180◦ = π.
3.5.1 Definitions:
1. Arcsine: y = sin (θ) ⇒ θ = arcsin(y)
3.5.2 Vertical Period: For the inverse function to be a function, only the case when k = 0 is taken when analysing.
However, due to the periods of the trigonometric functions, the inverse trigonometric functions have vertical periods.
84
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
Also,
3.5.3 Domain and Range: These are for the real case, definitions exist in the complex domain and these are
discussed elsewhere.
6. arccsc(y) = θ where y ∈ R such that −1 6< y 6< 1 and θ ∈ R such that θ 6= {· · · , −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π, · · · }
8. arccos(−y) = π − arccos(y)
9. arctan(−y) = − arctan(y)
85
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
86
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
1
23. cot (arcsec (θ)) = r
1
θ 1− 2
θ
r
1
24. cot (arccsc (θ)) = θ 1 − 2
θ
1
25. sec (arcsin (θ)) = √
1 − θ2
1
26. sec (arccos (θ)) =
θ
p
27. sec (arctan (θ)) = 1 + θ2
√
1 + θ2
28. sec (arccot (θ)) =
θ
29. sec (arcsec (θ)) = θ
1
30. sec (arccsc (θ)) = r
1
1− 2
θ
1
31. csc (arcsin (θ)) =
θ
1
32. csc (arccos (θ)) = √
1 − θ2
√
1 + θ2
33. csc (arctan (θ)) =
θ
p
34. csc (arccot (θ)) = 1 + θ2
1
35. csc (arcsec (θ)) = r
1
1− 2
θ
36. csc (arccsc (θ)) = θ
87
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
π
7. arctan (θ) + arccot (θ) =
2
θ+φ
8. arctan (θ) + arctan (φ) = arctan where θφ < 1
1 − θφ
θ−φ
9. arctan (θ) − arctan (φ) = arctan where θφ > −1
1 + θφ
a c
ad + bc
10. arctan + arctan = arctan where ac < bd
b d bd − ac
a c ad − bc
11. arctan − arctan = arctan where ac > −bd
b d bd + ac
3.8.1 Form:
N
π X ak
1. c0 = ck arctan where an , bn are positive integers such that an < bn , cn is a signed non-zero integer and
4 bk
k=1
c0 is a positive integer.
88
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
89
Chapter 4
Pi
The number π is a mathematical constant that is the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter. Being an irrational
number, π cannot be expressed exactly as a ratio of any two integers. Consequently, its decimal representation never
ends and never settles into a permanent repeating pattern. The digits appear to be randomly distributed, although no
proof of this has yet been discovered. Also, π is a transcendental number – a number that is not the root of any nonzero
polynomial having rational coefficients. The transcendence of π implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge
of squaring the circle with a compass and straight-edge. Scientific applications generally require no more than 40 digits
of π, but computing power has determined over 10 trillion.
4.1 Fundamentals
4.1.1 Definition: π is the ratio of a circle’s circumference, C, to its diameter, d.
90
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 4 – Pi
1
2. π = 3 +
1
7+
1
15 +
1
1+
1
292 +
1
1+
1
1+
1
1+
..
.
4
3. π =
12
1+
32
2+
52
2+
62
2+
92
2+
112
2+
..
.
12
4. π = 3 +
32
6+
52
6+
6+
72
6+
92
6+
112
6+
..
.
4
5. π =
12
1+
22
3+
32
5+
42
7+
52
9+
62
11 +
..
.
∞ k
√ − 13 √
X 1 1 1
6. π = 12 = 12 1 − 2 + − + ···
2k + 1 3 5 × 32 7 × 33
k=0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
7. π = 1 + + + − + + + + − + + − + · · · where the sign of the fraction is determined
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
by the denominator. If the denominator is a prime of the form 4m − 1, the sign is positive. If the denominator is
2 or a prime of the form 4m + 1, the sign is negative. For composite numbers, the sign is equal the product of the
signs of its factors.
∞
X 1 4 2 1 1
8. π = − − −
16k 8k + 1 8k + 4 8k + 5 8k + 6
k=0
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 4 – Pi
√ ∞
3 X ((4k)!)2 (6k)!
127169 1070 131 2
9. π = 5 − − +
6 9k+1 (12k)!(2k)! 12k + 1 12k + 5 12k + 7 12k + 11
k=0
∞
1 X (−1)k 25 28 26
1 4 4 1
10. π = 6 − − + − − − +
2 210k 4k + 1 4k + 3 10k + 1 10k + 3 10k + 5 10k + 7 10k + 9
k=0
∞
Y 4k 2 2 2 4 4 6 6 8
11. π = 2
= × × × × × × × ···
2k − 1 1 3 3 5 5 7 7
k=1
√ √ √
p q p
1 1 2 2+ 2 2+ 2+ 2
12. = × × × × ···
π 2 2 2 2
√k
√ !
4k 1+i− k1−i
13. π = lim
k→∞ i
k
!
4 Xp 2
14. π = lim k − j2
k→∞ k 2 j=1
!
24k
15. π = lim
2k 2
k→∞
k k
∞
π X k!
16. =
2 (2k + 1)!!
k=0
∞
π X 2k k!2
17. =
2 (2k + 1)!
k=0
π 1 1 1 1 1
18. =1− + − + − + ···
4 3 5 7 9 11
π 1 1
19. = 4 arctan − arctan
4 5 239
π 3 5 7 11 13 17 19
20. = × × × × × × · · · where the numerators are the odd primes and each denominator is the
4 4 4 8 13 12 16 20
multiple of four nearest to the numerator.
π 1 1 1 1×3 1 1×3×5 1
21. = + + + + ···
6 2 2 3 × 23 2 × 4 5 × 25 2 × 4 × 6 7 × 27
√ ∞
1 2 2 X (4k)!(1103 + 26390k)
22. =
π 9801 (k!)4 3964k
k=0
∞
X (−1)k (6k)!(13591409 + 545140134k)
1
23. = 12 3k+3
π (3k)!(k!)3 640320 2
k=0
∞
1 X ((2k)!)3 (42k + 5)
24. =
π (k!)6 163k+1
k=0
∞
1 1 X (−1)k (4k)!(21460k + 1123)
25. =
π 4 (k!)4 4412k+1 210k+1
k=0
∞ 1 3
1 1 X (6k + 1) 2 k
26. =
π 4 4k (k!)3
k=0
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 4 – Pi
∞ √ !8k √ √ 1 3
1 1 X 5−1 42k 5 + 30k + 5 5 − 1 2 k
27. =
π 32 2 64k (k!)3
k=0
∞ k 1
1
2
(15k + 2)
1 4 X 2 2 k 3 k 3 k
28. =
π 27 27 (n!)3
k=0
∞ 1 1 2
4 k (33k + 4) 2 k
1 2 X 3 k 3 k
29. = √
π 15 3 k=0 125 (k!)3
√ ∞ 1 1 5
18 3 X 4 k (133k + 8) 2 k
1 6 k 6 k
30. = √
π 85 85 k=0 85 (k!)3
√ ∞ 1 1 5
4 k (11k + 1) 2 k
1 2 3X 6 k 6 k
31. = √
π 5 5 k=0 125 (k!)3
∞ 1
1 3
1 1 X (8k + 1) 2 k 4 k 4 k
32. = √
π 2 3 k=0 (k!)3 9k
∞ 1
1 3
1 9 X (40k + 3) 2 k 4 k 4 k
33. =√
π 3 k=0 (k!)3 492k+1
∞ 1
1 3
1 11 X (280k + 19) 2 k 4 k 4 k
34. = √
π 2 11 k=0 (k!)3 992k+1
∞ 1
1 3
1 4 X (10k + 1) 2 k 4 k 4 k
35. =√
π 2 k=0 (k!)3 92k+1
√ ∞ 1
1 3
1 5 X (644k + 41) 2 k 4 k 4 k
36. =
π 4 (k!)3 5k 722k+1
k=0
√∞ 1 1 3
3 X (−1)k (28k + 3) 2 k
1 4 k 4 k
37. =
π 4 (k!)3 3k 4k+1
k=0
∞ 1 1 3
1 X (−1)k (20k + 3) 2 k
1 4 k 4 k
38. =
π 4 (k!)3 22k+1
k=0
∞
1 1 X (−1)k (4k)!(260k + 23)
39. =
π 72 (k!)4 44k 182k
k=0
∞
1 1 X (−1)k (4k)!(21460k + 1123)
40. =
π 3528 (k!)4 44k 8822k
k=0
π2 Y 1
43. = r where the product is taken over all the prime numbers p.
6 1
p=1 1− 2
p
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 4 – Pi
eπ − 1 π
44. =
eπ + 1 π2
2+
π2
6+
π2
10 +
π2
14 +
..
.
94
Functions
95
Chapter 5
Functions
A mathematical function is a relation between a variable input x and variable output y. The definition can be extended
to multiple variable inputs into the function. Essentially, a function is a mapping of the input to one and only one output.
This property is what defines a function from an arbitrary relation between variable inputs and outputs and has special
properties.
5.1 Terminology
5.1.1 Vertical Line Test: The vertical line test is used to determine if a graph or relation is a function. In plotting
the relation, if for every of x in the domain, there is a correspondence to one and only one output y, then the relation
is a function. This is easily accomplished by moving a ruler vertically across the page and ensuring that the function
and ruler intersect at one and only one point for every x in the domain. If for any value of x in the domain, the graph
intersects the ruler (or vertical line) at more than one point, then the relation is not a function.
5.1.2 Horizontal Line Test: The horizontal line test is used in conjunction with the vertical line test to determine
if a function has a one-to-one relation. For a function (which implies the vertical line test is passed) move a horizontal
ruler upwards across the page. If the function intersects the ruler at one and only one point for every x in the domain,
then there is one to one correspondence. As such, every input x corresponds to one output y and also every output y
corresponds to one unique input x.
5.1.3 One-to-one Functions: If the function is one-to-one, that is, that both the vertical and horizontal line test
have been satisfied, then it is said to be and injective function. This function will always be increasing or decreasing, and
not have a point of local maximum or minimum.
5.1.4 Analytic Functions: An analytic function has the property of infinite differentiability about a given point
x0 . As such, it must also be continuous around that point and a Taylor Series exists in the neighborhood of x0 . This
Taylor series is convergent to x0 .
4. (f (x))−1 = g(x) where f, g are analytic functions such that f (x) 6= 0 for all x.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
5.2.1 Types of Transformations: for a real function f (x), plotted in the Cartesian plane.
1
1. f (kx) for k > 0 represents a horizontal dilation of factor
k
2. kf (x) for k > 0 represents a vertical dilation of factor k
2. Even Functions: If f (x) is a real function. Then f is said to be an even function if f (x) = f (−x) for all x in the
domain of f . Geometrically, the graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis.
3. Every function can be expressed as the sum of an even and an odd function.
97
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
5.3.3 Series:
1. The Maclaurin series of an even function includes only even powers.
2. The Maclaurin series of an odd function includes only odd powers.
3. The Fourier series of a periodic even function includes only cosine terms.
4. The Fourier series of a periodic odd function includes only sine terms.
5.3.4 Integration:
Zk
1. Odd Functions: If f (x) is an odd function, then f (x)dx = 0 where k ∈ R
−k
Zk Zk
2. Even Functions: If f (x) is an even function, then f (x)dx = 2 f (x)dx where k ∈ R
−k 0
98
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
5.4 Polynomials
A polynomial is an expression consisting of variables, called indeterminates, and coefficients that involves only the opera-
tions of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and non-negative integer exponents. Polynomials appear in a wide variety
of areas of mathematics and science. For example, they are used to form polynomial equations, which encode a wide
range of problems, from elementary word problems to complicated problems in the sciences. They are used to define
polynomial functions, which appear in settings ranging from basic chemistry and physics to economics and social science.
They are used in calculus and numerical analysis to approximate other functions. In advanced mathematics, polynomials
are used to construct polynomial rings and algebraic varieties, central concepts in algebra and algebraic geometry.
5.4.3 Degree The degree of a polynomial is determined by the highest power of x within the function.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
xP 0 (x)
1. deg (P (x)) = lim
x→∞ P (x)
2. deg (kP (X)) = deg (P (x)) where P is a polynomial function and k 6= 0
3. deg (P (x) ± Q(x)) ≤ max (deg (P (x)) , deg (Q(x))) where P, Q are polynomial functions.
4. deg (P (x) × Q(x)) = deg (P (x)) + deg (Q(x)) where P, Q are non-zero polynomial functions.
5. deg (P (Q(x))) = deg (P (x)) deg (Q(x)) where P, Q are non-zero polynomial functions.
6. deg (Q (P (x))) = deg (P (x)) deg (Q(x)) where P, Q are non-zero polynomial functions.
5.5.1 Form:
1. y = c where c ∈ R
5.5.2 Roots:
1. Unless c = 0, in which case every x is a root, there are no roots.
5.5.3 y-intercept:
1. yIN T = c
5.5.4 Properties:
1. This is an even function.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
5.5.5 Graph:
1. The graph of y is a horizontal line in the plane passing through (0, c).
p1.jpg
5.6.1 Form:
1. x = c where c ∈ R
5.6.2 Roots:
1. x = c
5.6.3 Graph:
1. The graph of x = c is a vertical line in the plane passing through (c, 0).
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p2.jpg
5.7.1 Form:
1. y = mx + c where m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept.
5.7.2 Roots:
c
1. x = −
m
5.7.3 y-intercept:
1. yIN T = c
5.7.4 Properties:
1. The gradient is a property defining the steepness of the line, denoted by m found between any two points (x1 , y1 )
rise y2 − y1
and x2 , y2 . m = = ∈ R where x1 < x2 .
run x2 − x1
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
5.7.5 Graph:
1. A positive gradient indicates an upwards graph.
p3.jpg
p4.jpg
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p5.jpg
p6.jpg
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
a1 b2 x + b1 b2 y = b2 c1
2. − a2 b1 x + b1 b2 y = b1 c2 .
(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )x = b2 c1 − b1 c2
b2 c1 − b1 c2
3. x0 = .
a1 b2 − a2 b1
b2 c1 − b1 c2
c1 − a1
c1 − a1 x0 a1 b2 − a2 b1 a1 c2 − a2 c1
4. y0 = = = .
b1 b1 a1 b2 − a2 b1
b2 c1 − b1 c2
c2 − a2
c2 − a2 x0 a1 b2 − a2 b1 a1 c2 − a2 c1
5. y0 = = = .
b2 b2 a1 b2 − a2 b1
a1 a2 x + a2 b1 y = a2 c1
2. − a1 a2 x + a1 b2 y = a1 c2 .
(a2 b1 − a1 b2 )y = a2 c1 − a1 c2
a2 c1 − a1 c2
3. y0 = .
a2 b1 − a1 b2
a2 c1 − a1 c2
c1 − b1
c1 − b1 y0 a2 b1 − a1 b2 b1 c2 − b2 c1
4. x0 = = = .
a1 a1 a2 b1 − a1 b2
a2 c1 − a1 c2
c2 − b2
c2 − b2 y0 a2 b1 − a1 b2 b1 c2 − b2 c1
5. x0 = = = .
a2 a2 a2 b1 − a1 b2
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
b2 c1 − b1 c2
c1 − a1
c1 − a1 x0 a1 b2 − a2 b1 a1 c2 − a2 c1
5. y0 = = = .
b1 b1 a1 b2 − a2 b1
b2 c1 − b1 c2
c2 − a2
c2 − a2 x0 a1 b2 − a2 b1 a1 c2 − a2 c1
6. y0 = = = .
b2 b2 a1 b2 − a2 b1
2. When
the lines are parallel to each other, there are no solutions.
a1 x + b1 y = c1 b1 b2
=⇒ = , c1 6= c2 where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 , x, y ∈ C.
a x + b2 y = c2 a1 a2
2
y = m1 x + c1
=⇒ m1 = m2 , c1 6= c2 where c1 , c2 , m1 , m2 , x, y ∈ C.
y = m2 x + c2
3. When
the lines are the same to each other, there are no unique solutions as this is not a linear system.
a1 x + b1 y = c1 a1 b1 c1
=⇒ = = where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 , x, y ∈ C.
a x + b2 y = c2 a2 b2 c2
2
y = m1 x + c1
=⇒ m1 = m2 , c1 = c2 where c1 , c2 , m1 , m2 , x, y ∈ C.
y = m2 x + c2
5.9.1 Form:
b
1. y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b, c ∈ C. The axis of symmetry is across x = − and the y-intercept is c. The graph is
2a
a parabola that opens upwards if a > 0 or downwards if a < 0
2. y = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) where a is the shape parameter and x1 , x2 are the roots of the function.
3. y = a x2 − (x1 + x2 )x + x1 x2 where a is the skewness parameter and x1 , x2 are the roots of the function.
4. y = a(x − h)2 + k where a > 0 is the skewness parameter and (h, k) is a minimum turning point.
5. y = −a(x − h)2 + k where a > 0 is the skewness parameter and (h, k) is a maximum turning point.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
5.9.2 Roots:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
1. x =
2a
5.9.3 y-intercept:
1. yIN T = c
5.9.4 Properties:
b2 − 4ac
2 b
1. When the function is represented in the from y = ax + bx + c, the turning point occurs at the point − , −
2a 4a
The nature is determined by a. If a > 0, then the turning point is a minimum, otherwise if a < 0, then the turning
point is a maximum.
x1 + x2
2. When the function is represented in the from y = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ), the turning point occurs at the point ,a
2
The nature is determined by a. If a > 0, then the turning point is a minimum, otherwise if a < 0, then the turning
point is a maximum.
b
3. The axis of symmetry of the parabola is where x = −
2a
5.9.5 Graph:
1. a is the skewness parameter.
p7.png
2. b changes the location of the turning point, while keeping the y-intercept constant
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
p8.png
p9.png
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
5.10.4 Identities:
1. Lis (−z) + Lis (z) = 21−s Lis (z 2 ) where s, z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
2. Lis (1) = ζ(s) where ζ is the Zeta function, s ∈ C and Re (s) > 1 .
2. lim (Lis (eα )) = Γ(1 − s)(−α)s−1 where Γ is the Gamma function, α, s, z ∈ C, Re (s) < 1 and |z| < 1.
|α|→0
−αs
4. lim (Lis (−eα )) = where Γ is the Gamma function, α, s, z ∈ C, s 6= −1, −2, −3, . . . and |z| < 1.
Re(α)→∞ Γ(s + 1)
6. lim (Lis (−eα )) = Γ(1 − s)(−α)s−1 where Γ is the Gamma function, α, s, z ∈ C, −π < Im (α) < π and |z| < 1.
Re(s)→−∞
7.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
z, (1 + z) 1 + 10z + z 2
6. Li−4 (z) = where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
(1 − z)5
n
∂ n z
k+1
X z
7. Li−n (z) = z = k!S(n + 1, k + 1) where S(n,k) are the Stirling numbers of the second
∂z 1−z 1−z
k=0
kind, n ∈ N0 , z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
n
−1 k+1
X
n+1
8. Li−n (z) = (−1) k!S(n + 1, k + 1) where S(n,k) are the Stirling numbers of the second kind, n ∈
1−z
k=0
N1 , z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
Zz
ln (1 − u)
2. Li2 (z) = − du where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
u
0
5.11.2 Identities:
1
Li2 z 2 where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
1. Li2 (z) + Li2 (−z) =
2
ln2 (z)
1
2. Li2 (1 − z) + Li2 1 − =− where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
z 2
π2
3. Li2 (z) + Li2 (1 − z) = − ln (z) ln (1 − z) where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
6
1 π2
Li2 1 − z 2 = − − ln (z) ln (z + 1) where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
4. Li2 (−z) − Li2 (1 − z) +
2 12
π2 1
1
5. Li2 (z) + Li2 = − − ln2 (−z) where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
z 6 2
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
π 2 ln2 (3)
1 1 1
7. Li2 − Li2 = −
3 6 9 18 6
π2 1
1 1 1
8. Li2 − − Li2 = − + ln2 (3)
3 3 9 18 6
π2
1 1 1 2
9. Li2 + Li2 = + 2ln (2) ln (3) − 2ln2 (2) − ln2 (3)
4 3 9 18 3
1 1 1 9
10. Li2 − + Li2 = − ln2
8 9 2 8
√ ! √ !
5−1 π2 1 2 5−1 π2 1
11. Li2 − = − + ln = − + arcsech2 (2)
2 15 2 2 15 2
√ ! √ !
5+1 π2 5+1 π2
12. Li2 − = − − ln2 =− − arcsech2 (2)
2 10 2 10
√ ! √ !
3− 5 π2 5−1 π2
13. Li2 = − ln2 = − arcsech2 (2)
2 15 2 15
√ ! √ !
5−1 π2 5−1 π2
14. Li2 = − ln2 = − arcsech2 (2)
2 10 2 10
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