Uses of Fungi | Their Importance in Human Life

There are many uses of fungi in human life. These are also a type of microorganisms which
cause a variety of diseases. But they are beneficial as they contribute to
1. Medicinal production of antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes, vitamins, hormones, etc.
2. As food stuff
3. Environmental cleaning
4. In agriculture as biofertilizers and also as biopesticides
5. In rDNA technology
6. Fermentation and other industrial applications
They are used for many purposes in human life.

Like bacteria, fungi are widely used by modern man for medicine, agriculture, food, etc.
Though they also cause of many external and internal diseases in man, still some of them are
of immense benefit.

1. Production of medicines: Fungi are used to produce many drugs like

a) Antibiotics: Ex: Penicillin (from Penicillium family Trichocomaceae), is the first antibiotic
which was discovered by Alexander Flemming. It is a very potent antibiotic and still finds its
use in modern medicine. Similarly, many other antibiotics like cephalosporins, tetracyclines,
macrolide antibiotics are also isolated from fungi. These antibiotics changed the course of
human medicine and man was able to control many epidemics worldwide successfully.
Most antibiotics are needed in large scale to combat infections from bacteria. Such large
quantities are produced by microbial fermentation of specific fungus.
b) Alkaloids: Ergot is one of the alkaloids isolated from a fungus namely Claviceps purpura.
Family: Clavicipitaceae

This produces alkaloids like ergometrine, ergotoxine, ergotamine, etc. which are used to
control migraine headaches.

c) Immune modulators: A powerful immunosuppressant in mammals referred to

as cyclosporin A is a fungal metabolite and is derived from various fungi
including Trichoderma polysporum (Hypocreaceae) and Cylindrocarpon lucidum
(Nectriaceae). Cyclosporin is an immune-suppressant used in organ transplantation. If a person
has received any of the organs like kidney, heart, etc., then their body immune system tries to
destroy the foreign organ. Taking these immune suppressants prevent the immune attack on
the transplanted organ in the body.

d) Enzymes: Few enzymes like lipase, protease, cellulase, glucoamylase are obtained from the
fungus. These enzymes have many applications to man

2. As food material:

Some fungi like mushrooms are widely used as food. They are highly nutritious while some of
them are toxic.

Examples: Agaricus campestris an edible mushroom is commercially cutlivated in France and

USA.

On the other hand Agaricus xanthodermis and Agaricus silvicola are poisonous mushrooms.

Besides the above, even cheese, fermented bean paste is made by use of fungus.

3. In Environment as Natural scavengers: Fungi are saprophytes, i.e., they eat the dead and
decomposing matter. Thus, we can see the fungus contaminates all the rotten foods. This
fungus, therefore, eats the decaying material and clean the environment around just like the
bacteria.

4. For agricultural purposes: Fungi are also used in agriculture. They are especially useful
as
a) Bio-pesticides: Some fungi are used to control bacterial and other fungal infections in plants
and crops. Use of chemical pesticides is harmful to humans and other animals. They also lead
to soil, water and air pollution.
But the use of biopesticides eliminates these problems. The infectious bacteria are destroyed
based on the competitive exclusion principle. This is called as biological control.

Some bacteria are also used as insecticides. They kill pests like beetles, caterpillars, etc.
b) Fertilizers: Fungi like mycorrhiza live in symbiotic relationship with plant roots. They help
plants absorb nutrients and also enhance soil fertility by decomposing dead leaves and other
organic matter.

They also prevent the development of root diseases and give sustainable nutrition to the whole
plant.

c) Weed control: Weeds are the plants which can grow naturally in soil. But when they grow
in agricultural land, they hinder the growth of the regular crop. This is because they compete
with the crop for same nutrition and water resources from the same soil.
5. rDNA technology: rDNA technology is one where the desired product is obtained from a
genetically modified organism like fungi. Fungi are used to produce recombinant DNA
products used in medicine. Many yeasts-like fungi are used for the fermentation process.
Penicillium chrysogenium is a filamentous fungus is a recombinant one used to produce
penicillin antibiotic in large quantities.
6. Fermentation and other industrial applications: Rhizopus is a type of fungi which is used
for different purposes. The examples include
a) Rhizopus oryzae is used to produce alcohol by the fermentation process.

b) Rhizopus stolonifer is used in production of fumaric acid.

c) Rhizopus sinensis is used for manufacture of lactic acid.

Algae in Food industry

Algae have been used as human food for thousands of years in all parts of the world. The
most commonly consumed macroalgae include the red algae Porphyra (nori, kim,
laver), Asparagopsis taxiformis (limu), Gracilaria,Chondrus crispus (Irish moss)
and Palmaria palmata (dulse), the kelps Laminaria (kombu), Undaria (wakame)
and Macrocystis, and the green algae Caulerpa racemosa,Codium and Ulva (see Tseng,
1981; Drueh1,1988; Mumford & Miura, 1988 for reviews). These algae are either harvested
from wild populations or are farmed. These algae usually are eaten either fresh, dried or
pickled (Abbott, 1988). Several macroalgae are also the source of hydrocolloids such as agar-
agar and carrageenan which are widely used in the food industry as stabilisers, thickeners
and gelling agents.

Algae are primary producers which present a remarkable source of different nutrients. While
the high protein content of various species is one of the main reasons to consider them as an
unconventional source of proteins, oils from microalgae rich in some PUFAs seem particularly
suitable for children, pregnant women, vegetarians and patients with fish allergies. Since algae
also represent an important source of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and natural colorants,
the incorporation of the whole biomass in food and feed could be used to provide the color,
increment nutritional value, and improve texture or resistance to oxidation. The incorporation
of microalgae biomass in the traditional food is a way to design attractive and healthy new
products. Even when used in small amounts in nutrition of different animals, algae have been
credited with improving the immune system, the increasing of weight, the number of eggs,
reproductive performance, or reducing cholesterol levels, indicating the possibility of new
farming methods in order to improve the quality of meat and eggs. Also, their importance in
aquaculture is not surprising since they are natural food for these organisms. Finally, the
nature’s richest and most complete source of organic nutrition, becoming a health food
worldwide because of the high protein content and various bioactive compounds is
microalga Spirulina.

Algae as food

Ever since the ancient times in China, kelp has been considered an elixir of longevity
because it is rich in iodine and potassium that can help treat goiter and prevent high
blood pressure. In fact, Digenea simplex Agardh is often used as an ascaricide for
children. In recent years, some research studies have shown that algae can reduce
fever, diminish inflammation, prevent cancer and thrombus. It has been proven that
algae have antibacterial, ecbolic, hemostatic and diuretic properties. Phycolloids
extracted from algae is often used to treat injuries. It is also an ingredient in medicines
used to treat ulcer, to help enhance the formation of connective tissue, to treat
hemostasia, to help lower cholesterol levels and lower blood pressure.
The following table lists various algae used in medicine and their respective uses
(Reference: Compendium of Materia Medica):
Phyllun genus Use
Enteromorpha Can be used to treat hemorrhoids, parasitic
(Ulvaphyceae) disease, goiter, asthma, coughing and
bronchitis; they reduce fever and ease pain
Ulva Can be used to treat goiter; reduce fever, ease
Chlorophyta (Ulvaphyceae) pain, induce urination
Codium Can be used to treat urinary diseases, treat
(Ulvaphyceae) edema, expel ascarid; is an ecbolic
Acetabularia Can be used to treat urinary diseases and edema
(Ulvaphyceae)
Ishige Can be used to treat cervical lymphadenitis, to
diminish inflammation and to induce urination
Laminaria Can be used to treat goiter, urinary diseases; is
( Laminariaceae) an ecbolic; contains iodine and potassium
Endarachne Can be used to treat urinary diseases, edema,
Phaeophyta
gastric diseases and hemorrhoids
Sargassum Can be used to treat cervical lymphadenitis,
(Sargassaceae) edema; diminishes inflammation; reduces fever;
induces urination; contains iodine and
potassium
Porphyra Can be used to treat goiter, bronchitis, tonsillitis
(Bangiaceae) and cough
Gelidium Laxative; can be used to treat tracheitis, gastric
(Gelidiaceae) diseases and hemorrhoids; can be used to
Rhodophyta
extract agar
Pterocladiella Laxative; can be used to treat tracheitis, gastric
disease and hemorrhoids; can be used as an agar
extract; can be used to make coating for pills
 Eucheuma Can be used to treat goiter, tonsillitis,
(Solieriaceae) bronchitis, asthma, cough, gastric diseases and
hemorrhoids
Corallina Marl, parasiticide
Gracilaria Can be used to treat goiter, edema, urinary
(Gracilariaceae) diseases, can prevent ulcer; can be used to as an
agar extract and make coating for pills
Hypnea Can be used to treat bronchitis, gastric diseases
and hemorrhoids; can be used to make
carragenate
Chondrus Can be used to treat bronchitis, tonsillitis,
(Gigartinaceae) gastric diseases, asthma and cough; is an
adhesive, can be used to make carragenate
Centroceras Can be used to treat gastro-intestinal intolerance
Chondria Ascaricide
Grateloupia Ascaricide; lowers blood pressure
(Halymeniaceae)
Gloeopeltis Can be used to treat goitre, tonsillitis and
bronchitis; prevents high blood pressure and
scurvy

Bryophytes in Medicines

The Chinese and the native Americans have used various moss species like Philonotis
( Bartramiaceae), Bryum, Mnium (Mniaceae), crushed into a kind of paste and applied as a
poultice. In India, the burned ash of mosses mixed with fat and honey is used as an ointment
for cuts, burns and wounds in the Himalayan region. The liverwort Marchantia polymorpha
(Marchantiaceae) is also used as a medicine for boils and abscesses, perhaps because the young
archegoniophore resembles a boil when it first emerges from the-thallus. The rosette forming
Riccia spp., are used as an external application to cure ringworm. Chinese traditional medicine
names 40 kinds of bryophytes that have been used to treat illnesses of the cardiovascular
system, tonsillitis, bronchitis, tympanitis, cystitis, as well as skin diseases and burns. It has
been shown that an extract of Rhodobryum giganteum can increase aorta blood transit by upto
30% in animals. Transgenic Physcomitrella are now being used to produce 'blood-clotting
factor IX', for the treatment of 'haemophilia' B. Preparations of calcined peat have long been
regarded as effective and cheap germicides; peat water possesses astringent and antiseptic
properties. 'Sphagnol', a distillate of Peat Tar, is useful in eczema, psoriasis, pruritus,
hemorrhoids, chilblains, scabies, acne and other forms of skin diseases, and is also beneficial
for allaying irritation arising from insect bites. One of the features that helps bryophytes survive
and maintain their place in today's flora is their content of biologically active compounds.
These protect the otherwise delicate plants not only from fungi and other microorganisms but
also from insects and slugs. In a way, these biochemical compounds make up for the lack of a
thick cuticle and bark in bryophytes. Liverworts are not susceptible to fungal diseases, and
antimicrobial activity has been seen in extracts of Reboulia and Paliaviciania, possibly due to
lunularic acid, found in liverworts but not in mosses. A few moss genera like Atrichum,
Dicranum (Dicranaceae), Minium, Polytrichum (Polytrichaceae) and Sphagnum also possess
antibiotically active substances. It was found that a methanol extract from H. aduncus.

Plagiochila stevensoniana proved to inhibit dermatophytic organisms like Trichophyton

mentagrophytes, Candida albicans and Bacillus subtilis. This antibiotic activity might be
attributed to the presence of non-ionized organic acids and polyphenolic compounds. In the
case of several bryophyte species, the active ingredients responsible for anti-microbial effects
have been identified, e.g. Polygodial from Porella, Norpiguisone from Conocephalum
conicum, and Lunularin from Lunularia cruciata. Green-house tests have shown that plants
(tomato, pepper, cucumber, wheat) treated with liverwort extract were distinctly less affected
(if at all) by fungus infections by Phytophtora infestans than untreated plants. However, as yet,
these extracts have not actually been applied in agricultural settings. Many bryophyte extracts
act like stomach poison on animal pests. The slug Arion lusitanicus was offered lettuce with
liver- (b) wort extract and with pure solvent as control. The untreated (control) leaf was
devoured completely whereas the leaf treated with liverwort extract remained untouched. This
leads us to the conclusion that liverwort extract is not only a potent fungicide and bactericide,
but also a weak biocide (stomach poison) against animal pests.
Bryophytes as pollution indicators

Bryophyte proves to be a potential bio-indicator of air pollution. The habitat diversity,

structural simplicity, totipotency, rapid rate of multiplication and high metal accumulation
capacity make bryophytes an ideal organism for pollution studies. The decline and absence of
bryophyte populations especially epiphytes is a phenomenon primarily induced by air pollution
caused by gaseous and particulate pollutants. Bryophytes are reliable indicators and monitors
of air pollution as they are easy to handle and show a vast range of specific sensitivity and
visible symptoms to pollutants greatly exceeding that of higher plants.

Metals are non-degradable and once released into the environment become an integral part of
the habitat. Bryophytes are able to concentrate heavy metals in large amounts than that of
vascular plants. Heavy metals are absorbed either from the atmosphere or from the substrate or
from both the sources. The older tissues of the plant have higher concentrations of the metallic
ions as compared to the younger portions. The ability of mosses to accumulate heavy metals
depends upon the total leaf surface and the number of thin walled parenchymatous cells.
Atrichum undulatum is highly sensitive to air pollution and proves best as a bioindicator.
Ceratodon purpureus is not a good indicator because its leaves have a small surface and
contains many thick walled cells. Carpet forming bryophytes has proved to be rapid and
inexpensive method for surveying heavy metal deposition in the terrestrial ecosystem. The
concentration of airborne material decreases in the plant tissues with distance from the source
of pollution and there is a wide variation in metal accumulation from species to species and
from habitat to habitat under different microclimate conditions. Among mosses the profusely
branched and ramifying pleurocarps and the densely packed acrocarps are more efficient
entrappers and absorbers of metal particles than the unbranched and erect acrocarps.
Accumulation of mercury is found greater in Dicranum scoparium. Bryophytes are able to
concentrate heavy metals in large amounts, greatly surpassing the absorbing capacity of
vascular plants. The gametophytes of moss can accumulate iron 5-10 times more readily than
the vascular plants. The concentration of Al, Ba, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ga, Ni, Pb, Ag, Ti, Vi, Zn and Zr
were higher in bryophytes than those in angiosperms. The bryophytes are able to concentrate
rare earth elements. Elements which are rarely founds in other plants were found in bryophytes.
Bi were found in the thallose liverworts like Conocephalum conicum and Marchantia
polymorpha, Sn in the saxicolous mosses Grimmia laevigata and Hedwigia ciliata and Ag in
Atrichum angusatum and Polytrichum commune. Cu, Pb and B are found in the substrate of
Mielichhoferia. Mosses of family Neckeraceae contained a high percentage of Ca and those of
family Grimmiaceae, Polytrichaeae and Dicranaceae had a low percentage of it. The moss
gametophytes readily entangle and retain particulate contaminants amongst the leaves and they
possess remarkable ion-exchange properties. Sphagnum when dry absorbs and retains rain
water to a considerable extent which facilitates ionic exchange between the soluble metal and
moss cell walls. The sorption and retention of the heavy metals are in the order: Cu, Pb>Ni>
Co>Zn, Mn. Accumulation of mercury (Hg) is found greater in Dicranum scoparium than
Polytrichum commune which is due to the differences in their life forms. The surface cuticle
affects the absorption and accumulation rates of dissolved materials. The ectohydric moss
Dicranella varia which lack cuticle and absorbs water over the whole of its surface,
accumulates higher contents of heavy metals than that of myxohydric moss Philonotis fontana
which has a more or less continuous cuticle and absorption taking place towards the base of
the gametophytes. Ectohydric mosses have the ability to accumulate heavy metals and serve as
indirect indices of air pollution.

The moss protonemata, precursors of the leafy gametophores appear to be more sensitive than
the mature gametophyte. The active metabolism and high reproductive capacity of certain
bryophytes enable to colonize urban area. The reproductive potential of a species determines
its degree of success in a polluted environment. The survival of Bryum argenteum, Ceratodon
purpureus, Dicranella heteromalla, Funaria hygrometrica, Leptobryum pyriforme, Lunularia
cruciata, Marchantia polymorpha and Pohlia proligera lies in their high reproductive capacity
and fast subsequent growth. These species produce spores or gemmae on a very large scale.
Terricolous species Dicranella heteromalla, Pohlia nutans and Ceratodon purpureus showed
good growth on soils with a pH of 3.4 and in SO2 polluted areas. Hypnum yokohamae and
Glyphomitrium humillimum were able to tolerate SO2 concentrations of 0.04 to 0.05 p.p.m.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) resistant bryophytes show fast growth rate. The sensitive protonema
usually short-lived and soon initiates protonemal buds which develop rapidly into more
resistant gametophytes. Pohlia nutans and Aulacomnium androgynum are resistant species
against fluoride pollution. Sphagnum spp., Polytrichum commune, Leucobryum glaucum,
Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus and numerous small hepatics and acrocarpous mosses can resist
fluoride pollution. Fissidens garberi is the most resistant moss for it can survive within 10 m
of a caesium source and even within 3 m in shielded habitats. There are certain bryophytes
which colonize heavy metal contaminated sites which then lead to the evolution of tolerant
genotypes or the development of tolerant metal ecotypes. Morphological changes in Cu and Zn
stressed Funaria hygrometrica and Marchantia polymorpha are observed by Coombes and
Lepp (1974). Funaria develops ‘capsule cells’ and ‘brood cells’ when subjected to high doses
of Cu and Zn thereby reducing the surface area of the protonema in contact with Cu and Zn.
Marchantia develops a buffering zone of outer dead cells which immobilize Cu within their
cells, thus preventing toxic concentrations from reaching the inner cells. In Sphagnum a single
mutated vegetative cell in the plant give rise to a new tolerant clone. Therefore, bog moss is
good systems for studies on adaptation of plants to pollution. Bryophytes as biomonitoring
agent The expansion and lack of environmental regulation has lead to a large input of various
toxic pollutants into the atmosphere. There is a need of continuous monitoring of air quality.
This is accomplished either by the construction or employment of bioindicators/biomonitors.
Bioindicators refers to all organisms that depict the quality of the environment on the basis of
changes in morphology; physiology etc. but biomonitors provide both qualitative and
quantitative information. The use of organisms as monitors of the environment is known as
biomonitoring and the organisms are known as biomonitors.

Pteridophytes as medicines

The aim of this review was to explore the pharmacological activity of early tracheophytes
(pteridophytes) as an alternative medicine for treating human ailments. As the first vascular
plants, pteridophytes (aka, ferns and fern allies) are an ancient lineage, and human beings have
been exploring and using taxa from this lineage for over 2000 years because of their beneficial
properties. We have documented the medicinal uses of pteridophytes belonging to thirty
different families. The lycophyte Selaginella sp. was shown in earlier studies to have multiple
pharmacological activity, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, antidiabetic,
antiviral, antimicrobial, and anti-Alzheimer properties. Among all the pteridophytes examined,
taxa from the Pteridaceae, Polypodiaceae, and Adiantaceae exhibited significant medicinal
activity. Based on our review, many pteridophytes have properties that could be used in
alternative medicine for treatment of various human illnesses. Biotechnological tools can be
used to preserve and even improve their bioactive molecules for the preparation of medicines
against illness. Even though several studies have reported medicinal uses of ferns, the possible
bioactive compounds of several pteridophytes have not been identified. Furthermore, their
optimal dosage level and treatment strategies still need to be determined.
Ferns are plants that don't produce seeds; they reproduce with spores. They generally live as
an understory plant in shaded, moist areas, although their habitat varies considerably. Their
leaves are called fronds, which are highly divided except in a few isolated species. While they
don't have any major economic importance, they have a minor economic impact in the floral
and landscape industry, and are important in areas where they are used for food.

Landscape and Floral Industry

Ferns are a staple in the landscape and floral industry. Ferns are great landscape plants, and are
used for their attractive lacy foliage. In the floral industry, ferns are used for both houseplants
and greenery for floral arrangements. Some of the most popular ferns for these purposes are
sword ferns (Nephrolepis exaltata), birdsnest fern (Asplenium nidus, one of the rare ferns with
solid leaves) and floral fern (Rumohra adiantoides).

Food
Although not a diet staple, ferns provide some sustenance for some groups of people, and the
Native Americans were known to gather and eat selected ferns in times of hunger. Erect sword
fern (Polystichum munitum (Dryopteridaceae) or licorice fern (Polypodium glycyrrhiza)
(Polypodiaceae) rhizomes are roasted and steamed. Sword ferns taste somewhat bitter and
licorice ferns are saccharin-sweet. The unfurling fronds, called fiddleheads, are eaten more
often, but anyone attempting to forage for these should note that mature fronds are toxic.
Fiddleheads of the ostrich fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris), cinnamon fern (Osmunda
cinnamomea) ( Osmundaceae) and vegetable fern (Diplazium esculentum) (Athyriaceae ) are
the varieties eaten.

Fossil Fuels
Ferns are economically important in an indirect way. Ferns were the dominant plant in the
landscape many millions of years ago. When they died, they formed a thick layer of foliage
and detritus, along with other trees and foliage. These layers now are deep underground, and
have been subjected to heat and pressure for millions of years, eventually becoming coal, which
has tremendous economic importance.

Fertilizers
The mosquito fern (Azolla pinnata) is barely recognizable as a fern. It is small and aquatic,
floating on ponds and still waters. It has the ability to fix nitrogen and make it available to other
plants, and this ability has led to its extensive use with water crops such as rice. Azolla pinnata
has a symbiotic association with nitrogen-fixing, blue-green algae namely – Anabaena azollae
Strasburger. Due to this property, the agronomic potential of Azolla as biofertilizer for rice has
been recognized in many countries including India, Philippines, USA, Sri Lanka and Thailand.
It has been also found that by applying Azolla the soil fertility is improved by increasing total
nitrogen, available organic carbon, phosphorous and potassium. Azolla has also been used as
food supplement in fresh or dried or silage form for a variety of animals including pigs, cattle,
rabbits, ducks, chicken and fish. Other uses of Azolla include hydrogen production, biogas
production, as an ingredient in soap production and to certain extent as human food.

Medicine
Though, lot of studies focusing on the medicinal properties of plants, especially on
angiosperms, are available, unfortunately limited amount of studies have been done to explore
the medicinal potentialities of the pteridophytes.

The leaf and root decoction of commonly occurring Adiantum lunulatum (Pteridaceae) syn.
Adiantum philippense has been found to be very effective in the treatment of chest complaints.

The fresh fronds of Blechnum orientale ( Blechnaceae) are used as a poultice for boils in
Malaya; the rhizome is used as an anthelmintic in China, eaten during scarcity of food in
Malaya, as cure for intestinal worms, bladder complaints in India, Polynesia and as diaphoretic,
aromatic in Philippines. The rhizome and roots of Cheilanthes tenuifolia are used by the tribals
as general tonic.

In the case of Dicranopteris linearis (Gleicheniaceae), the rhizome is used as anthelmintic in

Assam while the fronds are used for asthma in Madagascar. The rhizome of Drynaria
quercifolia (Polypodiaceae) is bitter and is used as antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, for treating
constipation, diarrhea, ulcers and other inflammations. The decoction of plant is used in
typhoid fever and fronds are useful in treating swellings. The young shoots of Lygodium
flexuosum, (Lygodiaceae) a common climbing fern species, are used as vegetables whereas the
rhizome of the plants is boiled with mustard oil and locally applied in rheumatism, sprains,
scabies, ulcers, eczema and cuts.
Among the ferns known so far, perhaps the bracken fern (Pteridium revolutum syn. P.
aquilinum) ( Dennstaedtiaceae) has the most varied economic and medicinal uses owing to its
wide distribution. The rhizome of the plant is astringent, anthelmintic and is useful in diarrhea
and inflammation of gastric and intestinal mucous membranes. The decoction of rhizome and
fronds is given in chronic disorders of viscera and spleen. In times of scarcity the rhizomes are
boiled or roasted and eaten or ground into powder for making bread. The rhizomes mixed with
malt are used for brewing a kind of beer and are also employed as a feed for stock, especially
pigs. The tender fronds of the fern are used as vegetables and also employed in soups. The
dried fronds are employed as packaging materials and have also been tried as a source of paper
pulp. The bracken ferns have also served as dye yielding plants across the world. The colonists
in Plymouth made an olive green dye out of bracken tops mordanted with alum and copper
whereas the boiled roots of the ferns, which turn black, have been used as chief black pattern
material by the Washo, Mono and Yokut Indians.

Besides having various medicinal properties, the pteridophytes are also employed for a variety
of commercial and environmental purposes.

Some other uses are -

Ferns provide natural vegetation that's important to both wildlife and birds. Various animals
use the fronds as food while birds and small creatures use the plants for cover.

Wildlife and birds use ferns to hide from predators. They also use ferns as cover and a place to
rest. Amphibians also use ferns as cover, especially when the plants are located near wetlands,
ponds or other waterways.

Some ferns, such as western sword fern, also known as Christmas fern, provide wildlife with
an important food source. Black bear, mountain beaver, elk and deer rely on the fronds for
food. In Central Oregon, the ferns make up one of the most frequently used foods eaten by
Roosevelt elk. People can also eat the fronds in early spring when the plants produce new
growth.
Pteridophytes are used in the horticulture. The different species of Selaginella are grown as
the garden plants. Ruhmora adiantiformis is called the florist’s fern; since their leaf resists
wilting they are used in the cut flower arrangements.

Some of the ferns are used in handicrafts; petioles of certain ferns are used for making
basketry and bracelets.

Pteridium leaves are used for making the green dye.

Club mosses are used as a dry industrial lubricant since its microscopic spore contains non-
volatile oils. The spores are also used as flash powder in photography and also as finger
print powder in forensic investigation.

Bacteria in Agriculture
The benefits done by bacteria to the agriculture and industries are listed below:
1. Agriculture:
Many species of saprophytic and symbiotic bacteria add to the fertility of the soil and provide
nitrogen to the plants.

(a) Ammonifying bacteria:

Bacillus subtilis, B. mycoides, B. ramosus, etc., act upon the dead animal and plant tissues and
decompose their complex organic compounds like proteins into ammonium compounds. They
are also known as putrefying bacteria.

(b) Nitrifying bacteria:

Nitrosomonas oxidise the ammonium compounds into nitrites in presence of free oxygen and
Nitrobacter oxidise nitrites into nitrates in the presence of free oxygen. Thus ammonifying and
nitrifying bacteria increase the amount of nitrogenous compounds in the soil. Dead plants,
animals and dung, etc., are converted into humus by the action of putrefying bacteria. This
humus itself acts as fertilizer for plants.
(c) Nitrogen fixing bacteria:
They are Azotobacter, Clostridium and Rhizobium spp. They fix free nitrogen of the soil and
make it available to the plants. The first two bacteria live freely in soil and fix the atmospheric
nitrogen in the form of nitrogenous compounds in the soil. The third one is a symbiotic type.

They live in the root nodules of leguminous plants, take the free atmospheric nitrogen and fix
it within its tissues. These bacteria enable plants to grow in soil where no nitrogenous fertilizers
are available. The leguminous plants make the soil rich in nitrogen, and therefore used as green
manures.

Nitrogen fixation:
The phenomenon of nitrogen fixation takes place by special type of bacteria which fix free
atmospheric nitrogen gas into ammonia by means of symbiosis with leguminous plants. The
bacteria taking part in this process are Rhizobium leguminosarum (Rhizobiaceae) which live in
soil. These bacteria produce IAA (Indol-Acetic Acid) due to which the root hairs curl. These
rod-like bacteria penetrate through the tip of the root hair forming a continuous ‘infection
thread’ that enters the cortical region within twenty-four hours.

During its passage through the root hair, the infection thread gets surrounded by a cellulose
wall. This wall is secreted by the host as a reaction to the infection. The infection thread
ramifies in the cortical region and the bacterial rods are released in the cytoplasm of the cells
which are stimulated.

These cells enlarge and multiply to form the characteristic nodules all over the root system. On
the outside, the root nodule possesses a cortical layer which is followed by an actively
proliferating meristematical region, then the vascular system enclosing in the centre the
bacterial zone possessing abundantly the branched rods of Rhizobium leguminosarum.

These bacteria absorb atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the host plant in the form
of ammonia which is being converted into nitrates. In turn, the bacteria get shelter and
carbohydrate-nutrition from the leguminous plant. On the death and decay of root nodules the
rhizobia are again set free in the soil; the decomposition of roots adds nitrates into the soil thus
increasing fertility of the soil.
Azotobacter is also found in the soil; this fixes the nitrogen gas of the atmosphere in the
presence of carbohydrates. This fixation of free nitrogen from the atmosphere through
ammonia into free nitrates and again their conversion into ammonia and free nitrogen takes
place by means of nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria, along with other organisms. This process
is termed nitrogen cycle.

2. Industry:
A large number of saprophytic bacteria are employed in the manufacture of various industrial
products.

(a) Butter making industry:

Saprophytic bacteria such as Lacto bacilli popularly known as starters make the milk sour and
produce various flavours. These bacteria are largely employed in butter industry for ripening
milk and producing flavours in butter.

(b) Cheese making industry:

Bacteria are employed in this industry. First the casein of milk is coagulated and then it is
ripened by certain bacteria. Bacteria make the case in spongy, soft and give it characteristic
taste and flavour.

Pasteurization:
Heating milk at 62°C for 30 minutes or at 71°C for 15 seconds.

(c) Vinegar making industry:

Bacillus aceti convert the sugar solution into vinegar.

(d) Alcohol and acetone manufacture:

Butyl alcohol and acetone are manufactured by the action of bacteria on molasses.

(e) Tobacco curing:

Crude dry tobacco leaves pass through curing and ripening processes before they are ready for
use. Bacteria are employed in both these processes and the peculiar taste and smell in the
tobacco is due to the bacterial activity. For this purpose molasses and alcohol are added to
tobacco.

(f) Tea curing:

Crude tea leaves are acted upon by certain bacteria. The process is known as curing, which is
employed to impart a peculiar taste and flavour to the leaves. For this purpose alcohol is added
to tea leaves.

(g) Leather tanning:

The hides and skins after drying, salting and clearing are steeped in fluids containing specific
bacteria. The process of fermentation goes on for some time and then they are transferred to
tan-pits and are further allowed to be fermented. This whole process is known as tanning and
the bacteria employed in the process are obtained from cowdung and the excreta of dogs and
poultry.

(h) Fibre retting:

Retting is the process of separating fibres from-the plant tissues. Bacteria are employed in this
industry, which cause decay of the softer tissues and render fibres easily separable
mechanically. Fibres of flax, hemp, jute, coconut and other fibrous plants are obtained by
immersing the specific plant organs in stagnant pond water where bacteria develop and cause
retting.

(i) The sewage work:

In order to remove solid and semi-solid constituents of sewage it is allowed to putrify.
Putrifying bacteria are allowed to act upon sewage under anaerobic conditions. It gets decayed
and liquefied. It is now filtered and the liquid is either drained out to the river or used as manure
in fields. For this purpose, in the soak pits the horse dung is filled up.

(J) Ensilage:
It is the process of preserving green fodder in pits. Certain bacteria help in the preservation of
fodder.

(k) Medicines:
Antitoxins are the chemical substances produced in the host tissues in response to the attack of
parasitic bacteria. Different vaccines and serums now prepared from these antitoxins are used
in the treatment of specific ailments. The antibiotics such as streptomycin, aureomycin,
Chloromycetin, etc., are obtained from certain actinomycetous bacteria.