Psychology Theories

Much of what we know about human thought and behavior has emerged thanks to various psychology
theories. For example, behavioral theories demonstrated how conditioning can be used to learn new
information and behaviors. Psychology students typically spend a great deal of time studying these different
theories. Some theories have fallen out of favor, while others remain widely accepted, but all have contributed
tremendously to our understanding of human thought and behavior. By learning more about these theories,
you can gain a deeper and richer understanding of psychology's past, present and future.

Behavioral Theories
Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all
behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Advocated by famous psychologists such as John B. Watson and
B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories dominated psychology during the early half of the twentieth century. Today,
behavioral techniques are still widely used in therapeutic settings to help clients learn new skills and behavior
What is Behaviorism?
Behaviorism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based on the belief that behaviors
can be measured, trained, and changed. Behaviorism was established with the publication of Watson's classic
paper "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913).
Behaviorism can perhaps be best summed up by the following quote from the famous psychologist John B.
Watson. Watson is often considered the "father" of behaviorism:
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors."
--John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930
What exactly did Watson mean?
Simply put, strict behaviorists believed that all behaviors were the result of conditioning. Any person,
regardless of his or her background, could be trained to act in a particular manner given the right conditioning.
From about 1920 through the mid-1950s, behaviors grew to become the dominant force in psychology. Why
did behaviorism become such a powerful force in psychology for so much of the early twentieth-century?
"Behaviorism was the soil nourishing early American social science," explained author John A. Mills in his 1998
book Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology.
"It is also clear that the research practices and theorizing of American behaviorists until the mid-1950s were
driven by the intellectual imperative to create theories that could be used to make socially useful predictions,"
he also suggested.

The Basics of Behaviorism

So what exactly is behaviorism? What do behavioral theories entail? Behaviorism, also known as behavioral
psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through
conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our
responses to environmental stimuli shape our actions.
According to this school of thought, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no
consideration of internal mental states. It suggests that only observable behaviors should be considered since
internal states such as cognitions, emotions, and moods are too subjective.
As Watson's above quote suggests, strict behaviorists believe that any person could potentially be trained to
perform any task, regardless of things like genetic background, personality traits, and internal thoughts (within
the limits of their physical capabilities). All it takes is the right conditioning.

Types of Behavioral Conditioning

There are two major types of conditioning:
1. Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is
paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus.
Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the
naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and
the conditioned response.
Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a major influence on the school of thought in psychology
known as behaviorism. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning
 process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring
stimulus.
Behaviorism is based on the assumption that learning occurs through interactions with the environment.
Two other assumptions of this theory are that the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental
states such as thoughts, feelings, and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior.
It's important to note that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally occurring
reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally
occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental
stimulus (the presentation of food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response.
In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is important to be familiar with the
basic principles of the process.

The Classical Conditioning Process

Classical conditioning basically involves forming an association between two stimuli resulting in a learned
response. There are three basic phases of this process:
Phase 1: Before Conditioning
The first part of this process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a response.
Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally occurring stimulus. During this
phase of the processes, the unconditioned stimulus (USC) results in an unconditioned response (UCR). At this
point there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no effect - yet. It isn't until this neutral stimulus is paired
with the UCS that it will come to evoke a response.
 The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response.
For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this
example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.
 The Unconditioned Response (UCR)
The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the
unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the
unconditioned response.

Phase 2: During Conditioning

During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly
paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association between the previously
neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed. At this point the neutral stimulus become known as the conditioned
stimulus (CS).
 The Conditioned Stimulus
The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the
unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our earlier example,
suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the
whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the
smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle
is the conditioned stimulus.

Phase 3: After Conditioning

Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned stimulus alone
will come to evoke a response even in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. The resulting response is
known as the conditioned response (CR).
 The Conditioned Response
The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the
conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.

Examples of Classical Conditioning

It can be helpful to look at a few examples of how the classical conditioning process operates both in
experimental and real-worlds settings:

Classical Conditioning a Fear Response

One of the most famous examples of classical conditioning was John B. Watson's experiment in which a fear
response was conditioned in a young boy known as Little Albert. The child initially showed no fear of a white
 rat, but after the presentation of the rat was paired repeatedly with loud, scary sounds, the child would cry
when the rat was present. The child's fear also generalized to other fuzzy white objects.
Let's examine the elements of this classic experiment. Prior to the conditioning, the white rat was a neutral
stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus was the loud, clanging sounds and the unconditioned response was the
fear response created by the noise. By repeatedly pairing the rat with the unconditioned stimulus, the white rat
(now the conditioned stimulus) came to evoke the fear response (now the conditioned response).
You can learn more about this famous study in this overview of the Little Albert experiment as well as some
more information on the controversy about Little Albert.
This experiment illustrates how phobias can form through classical conditioning. In many cases, a single
pairing of a neutral stimulus (a dog, for example) and a frightening experience (being bitten by the dog) can
lead to a lasting phobia (being afraid of dogs).

Classically Conditioning Taste Aversions

Another example of classical conditioning can be seen in the development of conditioned taste aversions.
Researchers John Garcia and Bob Koelling first noticed this phenomenon when they observed how rats that
had been exposed to a nausea-causing radiation developed an aversion to flavored water after the radiation
and the water were presented together. In this example, the radiation represents the unconditioned stimulus
and the nausea represents the unconditioned response. After the pairing of the two, the flavored water is the
conditioned stimulus, while the nausea that formed when exposed to the water alone is the conditioned
response.
Later research demonstrated that such classically conditioned aversions could be produced through a single
pairing of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. Researchers also found that such
aversions can even develop if the conditioned stimulus (the taste of the food) is presented several hours before
the unconditioned stimulus (the nausea-causing stimulus). Why do such associations develop so quickly?
Obviously, forming such associations can have survival benefits for the organism. If an animal eats something
that makes it ill, it needs to avoid eating the same food in the future to avoid sickness or even death. This is a
great example of what is known as biological preparedness. Some associations form more readily because
they aid in survival.
In one famous field study, researchers injected sheep carcasses with a poison that would make coyotes sick
but not kill them. The goal was help sheep ranchers reduce the number of sheep lost to coyote killings. Not
only did the experiment work by lowering the number of sheep killed, it also caused some of the coyotes to
develop such a strong aversion to sheep that they would actually run away at the scent or sight of a sheep.

Classical Conditioning in the Real World

In reality, people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however, numerous real-world
applications for classical conditioning. For example, many dog trainers use classical conditioning techniques to
help people train their pets.
These techniques are also useful in the treatment of phobias or anxiety problems. Teachers are able to apply
classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom environment to help students overcome
anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant
surroundings helps the student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these
situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.

2. Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that

occurs through reinforcements and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. When a desirable result
follows an action, the behavior becomes more likely to occur again in the future. Responses followed by
adverse outcomes, on the other hand, become less likely to happen again in the future.

Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that

occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is
made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. For example, when a lab rat presses a
blue button, he receives a food pellet as a reward, but when he presses the red button he receives a mild
electric shock. As a result, he learns to press the blue button but avoid the red button.

B.F Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to
generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of
learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day. His theory was heavily influenced by the work of
psychologist Edward Thorndike, who had proposed what he called the law of effect. According to this principle,
 actions that are followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by
undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise - actions that are followed by reinforcement will be
strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. If you tell a funny story in class and everybody
laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that story again in the future. Conversely, actions that result in
punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely to occur again in the future. If you
tell the same story again in another class but nobody laughs this time, you will be less likely to repeat the story
again in the future.
Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors: respondent behaviors and operant behaviors.
Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your hand back from
a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. You don't have to learn these behaviors,
they simply occur automatically and involuntarily.
Operant behavior, on the other hand, are those under our conscious control. Some may occur spontaneously
and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that then influence whether or not they occur
again in the future. Our actions on the environment and the consequences of those action make up an
important part of the learning process.
While classical conditioning could account for respondent behaviors, Skinner realized that it could not account
for a great deal of learning. Instead, Skinner suggested that operant conditioning held far more importance.
Skinner had often invented many different devices during his boyhood and he put these skills to work during
his studies on operant conditioning. He created a device known as an operant conditioning chamber, most
often referred to today as a Skinner box. The chamber was essentially a box that could hold a small animal
such as a rat or pigeon. The box also contained a bar or key that the animal could press in order to receive a
reward.
In order to track responses, Skinner also developed a device known as a cumulative recorder. The device
recorded responses as a upward movement of a line so that response rates could be read by looking at the
slope of the line.

Components of Operant Conditioning

Some key concepts in operant conditioning:
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of
reinforcers:
1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In
situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of
something, such as praise or a direct reward.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a
behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered
unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in
the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:
1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of
an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an favorable event or
outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing
homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or
promotions.
In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior, but operant
conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of a desirable outcome or the application
of a negative outcome can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be
told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a
decrease in disruptive behaviors.
Cognitive Theories
Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-
making, thinking, and attention.
 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
According to psychologist Jean Piaget, children progress through a series of four critical stages of cognitive
development. Each stage is marked by shifts in how kids understand the world. Piaget believed that children
are like "little scientists" and that they actively try to explore and make sense of the world around them.
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that
included four distinct stages:
 The sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2
 The preoperational stage, from age 2 to about age 7
 The concrete operational stage, from age 7 to 11
 The formal operational stage, which begins in adolescence and spans into adulthood.

Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children. Based on his observations, he
concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called
Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."
Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves
changes in cognitive process and abilities.
In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to
changes in mental operations.
Piaget's interest in child cognitive development was influenced by watching his 13-month-old nephew, Gerard,
at play. By chance, Piaget observed the toddler playing with a ball. When the ball rolled under a table where
the boy could still see it, Gerard simply retrieved the ball and continued playing. When the ball rolled under a
sofa out of his sight, however, the child began looking for it where he had last seen it. This reaction struck
Piaget as irrational.
Piaget came to believe that children lack what he referred to as the object concept - the knowledge that objects
are separate and distinct from both the individual and the individual's perception of that object.
Jean Piaget set out to study his daughter Jacqueline as she developed through infancy, toddlerhood, and
childhood. He quickly noted that during the early months of his daughter's life, she seemed to believe that
objects ceased to exist once they were out of her sight. At nearly a year, she started to search actively for
objects that were hidden from her view although she made mistakes similar to the one Gerard made. By 21
months, Jacqueline had become skilled at finding hidden objects and understood that objects had an existence
separate from her perception of them.
Piaget's observations of his nephew and daughter reinforced his budding hypothesis that children's minds were
not merely smaller versions of adult minds. Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and
develops through a series of stages. Older children don't just think faster than younger children, he suggested.
Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus
older children.
A Look at Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
 The Sensorimotor Stage: During this stage, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory
experiences and manipulating objects. It was his observations of his daughter and nephew that heavily
influenced his conception of this stage. At this point in development, a child's intelligence consists of their
basic motor and sensory explorations of the world. Piaget believed that developingobject permanence or
object constancy, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was
an important element at this point of development. By learning that objects are separate and distinct
entities and that they have an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then
able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

 The Preoperational Stage: At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and
taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the ideal of
constancy. For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then
give a child the option of choosing two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a
compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the
preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

 The Concrete Operational Stage: Kids at this point of development begin to think more logically, but their
thinking can also be very rigid. They tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts. At this
point, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and
 feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to
them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

 The Formal Operational Stage: The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability
to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become
capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world
around them.
It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process; that
is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead,
Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through
these four stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age 2;
there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.
To better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive development, it is important first to
examine a few of the important ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget. The following are some of the factors
that influence how children learn and grow:
Fundamental Concepts
Schemas - A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing.
Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.
In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that
knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously
existing schemas.
For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience
has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then
that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously
existing schema to include these new observations.
Assimilation - The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as
assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and information
slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case
of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.
Accommodation - Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of
new information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas,
or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this
process.
Equilibration - Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress
through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous
knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration
helps explain how children can move from one stage of thought into the next.
Final Thoughts
One of the most important elements to remember of Piaget's theory is that it takes the view that the creation of
knowledge and intelligence is an inherently active process. "I find myself opposed to the view of knowledge as
a passive copy of reality," Piaget explained. " I believe that knowing an object means acting upon it,
constructing systems of transformations that can be carried out on or with this object. Knowing reality means
constructing systems of transformations that correspond, more or less adequately, to reality."
Developmental Theories
Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and learning. If
you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can
provide useful insight into individuals and society.

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologists who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of
development. While his theory was influenced by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory
centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development.

What is Psychosocial Development?

 Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in
psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike
Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social experience across the
whole lifespan.
One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity.
Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our
ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions
with others. As we face each new stage of development, we face a new challenge that can help further
develop or hinder the development of identity.
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that help
shape and guide a person's behavior. The formation of identity is something that begins in childhood and
becomes particularly important during adolescence, but Erikson believed that it is a process that continues
throughout life. Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures
and continues to grow as we age.
In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions.
Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life.
If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego
strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In
Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop
that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure. If
people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will
serve them well for the rest of their life. If they fail to deal effectively with these conflict, they may not develop
the essential skills needed for a strong sense of identity and self.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

 The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age and
is the most fundamental stage in life.
 Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of
the child's caregivers. At this point in development, the child is utterly depending upon adult caregiver for
everything - food. love, warmth, safety, nurturing. Everything. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and
love, the child will come to feel that he or she cannot trust or depend upon the adults in his or her life.
 If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are
inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for.
Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
 Of course, no child is going to develop a sense of 100 percent trust or 100 percent doubt. Erikson believed that
successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens,
children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness
that danger may be present.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

 The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is
focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. At this point in development, children are
just starting to gain a little bit of independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and
making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents
and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.
 Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning
was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a
feeling of control and a sense of independence.
 Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.
 Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a
sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
 Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is
the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.
Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
 During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing
play and other social interactions.
 Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these
skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
 When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality
known as purpose emerges.
Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
 This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
 Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
 Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and
belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt
their abilities to be successful.
 Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as
competence or a belief our own abilities to handle the tasks set before us.
Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
 During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.
 Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from
this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of
their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
 Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's
standards and expectations.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

 This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
 Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who
are successful at this step will form relationships that are committed and secure.
 Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of
personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those
with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression.
 Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting,
meaningful relationships with other people.
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
 During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
 Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in
their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
 Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments,
watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important
accomplishments of this stage.
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
 This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
 Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many
regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
 Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this
phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain
wisdom, even when confronting death.

The Strengths of Erikson's Theory

One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad framework from which to view
development throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings
and the important influence that social relationships have on development. Researchers have found evidence
supporting Erikson's ideas about identity and have further identified different sub-stages of identity formation.
Some research also suggests that people who form strong personal identities during adolescence are better
capable of forming intimate relationships during early adulthood.
Limitations of Psychosocial Theory
What kinds of experiences are necessary to successfully complete each stage? How does a person move from
one stage to the next? One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for resolving
conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not well described or developed. The theory fails to detail
exactly what type of experiences are necessary at each stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and
move to the next stage.

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

The theory of psychosexual development was proposed by the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and
described how personality developed over the course of childhood. While the theory is well-known in
psychology, it is also one of the most controversial.
So how exactly does this psychosexual theory work? Freud believed that personality developed through a
series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain
erogenous areas.
This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences
play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life.
So what happens during each stage? What if a person fails to progress through a stage completely or
favorably? If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result. If
certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage,fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on
an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For
example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral
stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

1. The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year

Erogenous Zone: Mouth

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and
sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating and the infant derives pleasure from oral
stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent
upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops a sense of trust and
comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon
caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or
aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.
2.The anal stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years

Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel
movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily
needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet training.
Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes
and help children feel capable and productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage
served as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.
However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage. Some
parents instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an
approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the
individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too
 early, Freud believed that ananal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly,
rigid, and obsessive.

3.The Phallic stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years

Erogenous Zone: Genitals

During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to
discover the differences between males and females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus
complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father.
However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud
termed castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls.
Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the
other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women
remain somewhat fixated on this stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it
both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of
inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to as womb envy.

4. The latent period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty

Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The development of
the egoand superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter
into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into other
areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions.
This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
5. The genital stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death

Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the
opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during
this stage. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced,
warm, and caring.
The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.
Evaluating Freud's Psychosexual Stage Theory

Freud's theory is still considered controversial today, but imagine how audacious it seemed during the late 1800s and early
1900s. There have been a number of observations and criticisms of Freud's psychosexual theory on a number of grounds,
including scientific and feminist critiques:
 The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female psychosexual development.
 His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot
be tested. The research that has been conducted tends to discredit Freud's theory.
 Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood
experience? The length of time between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between
the two variables.
 Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections of
his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of children.
 The Id, Ego and Superego
According to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, personality is composed of three elements.
These three elements of personality - known as the id, the ego and the superego - work together to create
complex human behaviors.
The Id
 The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
 This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes of the instinctive and primitive behaviors.
 According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of
personality.
The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and
needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or tension. For example, an
increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink. The id is very important early
in life, because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she will
cry until the demands of the id are met.
However, immediately satisfying these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were ruled entirely
by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing things we want out of other people's hands to
satisfy our own cravings. This sort of behavior would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable. According
to Freud, the id tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the primary
process, which involves forming a mental image of the desired object as a way of satisfying the need.
The Ego
 The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality.
 According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be
expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.
 The ego functions in both the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially
appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon
or abandon impulses.
In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification--the ego will
eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place.
The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through the secondary process, in which the ego
tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental image created by the id's primary process.
The Superego
The last component of personality to develop is the superego.
 The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals
that we acquire from both parents and society - our sense of right and wrong.
 The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.
 According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.
There are two parts of the superego:
1. The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for good behaviors. These behaviors include those which
are approved of by parental and other authority figures. Obeying these rules leads to feelings of pride,
value and accomplishment.
2. The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society. These
behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments or feelings of guilt and
remorse.
The superego acts to perfect and civilize our behavior. It works to suppress all unacceptable urges of the id
and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather that upon realistic principles. The superego
is present in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious.

The Interaction of the Id, Ego and Superego

With so many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise between the id, ego and superego.
Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability to function despite these dueling forces. A person
with good ego strength is able to effectively manage these pressures, while those with too much or too little
ego strength can become too unyielding or too disrupting.
According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and the superego.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

 Piaget described a two-stage process of moral development, while Kohlberg's theory of moral development
outlined six stages within three different levels. Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral
development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan.

"The Heinz Dilemma"

Kohlberg based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children. A series of moral
dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also interviewed to determine the reasoning
behind their judgments of each scenario.
The following is one example of the dilemmas Kohlberg presented"
Heinz Steals the Drug
"In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors
thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The
drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid
$200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.

The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get
together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him
to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make
money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should the
husband have done that?" (Kohlberg, 1963).
Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz was wrong or right, but in
the reasoning for each participant's decision.
The responses were then classified into various stages of reasoning in his theory of moral development.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

 Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment
The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but adults are also
capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute.
Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.
 Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based
on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action
was the choice that best-served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development,
but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

 Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships
Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development is focused on
living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and
consideration of how choices influence relationships.
 Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making
judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty and
respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

 Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights
At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules
of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these
standards.
 Stage 6 - Universal Principles
Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with
laws and rules.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:

 Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral
thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions.
 Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have pointed out that
Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept as justice when making moral
choices. Factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part
in moral reasoning.
 Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy? Individualist cultures emphasize
personal rights while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community.
Eastern,collectivist cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not account
for.

Humanist Theories
Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity during the 1950s. While earlier theories often
focused on abnormal behavior and psychological problems, humanist theories instead emphasized the basic
goodness of human beings. Some of the major humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the more basic needs at the bottom[1]

The hierarchy of needs is one of the best-known theories of motivation. Created by psychologist Abraham
Maslow, the hierarchy is often displayed as a pyramid, with the most basic needs at the bottom and more
complex needs at the peak.
The four lowest-level needs are what Maslow referred to as D-needs (or deficiency needs). These needs are
due to a lack of something and need to be satisfied in order to avoid unpleasant feelings and to move on to
higher level needs.
The uppermost needs in the hierarchy are referred to B-needs (being needs or growth needs) and involve the
desire to grow as an individual and fulfill one’s own potential.
Learn more about Maslow’s needs starting at the lowest level, which are known as physiological needs.

1.Physiological Needs

The basic physiological needs are probably fairly apparent – these include the things that are vital to our survival. Some
examples of the physiological needs include:
 Food
 Water
 Breathing
 Homeostasis
In addition to the basic requirements of nutrition, air and temperature regulation, the physiological needs also include such
things as shelter and clothing. Maslow also included sexual reproduction in this level of the hierarchy of needs since it is
essential to the survival and propagation of the species.
2.Security and Safety Needs
 Safety and security needs make up the second level of the hierarchy. Photo Credit: David Jakle / Image Source / Getty
Images

As we move up to the second level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the requirements start to become a bit more complex.
At this level, the needs for security and safety become primary. People want control and order in their lives, so this need
for safety and security contributes largely to behaviors at this level.
Some of the basic security and safety needs include:
 Financial security
 Heath and wellness
 Safety against accidents and injury
Finding a job, obtaining health insurance and health care, contributing money to a savings account, and moving into a
safer neighborhood are all examples of actions motivated by the security and safety needs.
Together, the safety and physiological levels of the hierarchy make up what is often referred to as the basic needs.
3. Social Needs
Social needs make up the third level of the needs hierarchy. Photo Credit: Peathegee Inc / Blend Images / Getty Images

The social needs in Maslow’s hierarchy include such things as love, acceptance and belonging. At this level, the need for
emotional relationships drives human behavior. Some of the things that satisfy this need include:
 Friendships
 Romantic attachments
 Family
 Social groups
 Community groups
 Churches and religious organizations
In order to avoid problems such as loneliness, depression, and anxiety, it is important for people to feel loved and
accepted by other people.
Personal relationships with friends, family, and lovers play an important role, as does involvement in other groups that
might include religious groups, sports teams, book clubs, and other group activities.

4.Esteem Needs

At the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy is the need for appreciation and respect. When the needs at the bottom three
levels have been satisfied, the esteem needs begin to play a more prominent role in motivating behavior.
In addition to the need for feelings of accomplishment and prestige, the esteem needs include such things as self-
esteem and personal worth. People need to sense that they are valued and by others and feel that they are making a
contribution to the world.
Participation in professional activities, academic accomplishments, athletic or team participation, and personal hobbies
can all play a role in fulfilling the esteem needs.
People who are able to satisfy the esteem needs by achieving good self-esteem and the recognition of others tend to feel
confident in their abilities. Those who lack self-esteem and the respect of others can develop feelings of inferiority.
Together, the esteem and social levels make up what is known as the psychological needs of the hierarchy.

5.Self-Actualization Needs
Self-actualizing needs are at the fifth level of the needs hierarchy. Photo Credit: Philip and Karen Smith / The Image Bank
/ Getty Images

At the very peak of Maslow’s hierarchy are the self-actualization needs. "What a man can be, he must be," Maslow
explained, referring to the need people have to achieve their full potential as human beings.
According to Maslow’s definition of self-actualization:
"It may be loosely described as the full use and exploitation of talents, capabilities, potentialities, etc. Such people seem to
be fulfilling themselves and to be doing the best that they are capable of doing... They are people who have developed or
are developing to the full stature of which they capable."
As he was developing his theory, Maslow studied the biographies of famous historical individuals who he believed were
good examples of self-actualized people. These figures included Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln,
and Frederick Douglass.

Personality Theories
Almost every day we describe and assess the personalities of the people around us. Whether we realize it or not, these
daily musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to what personality psychologists do. Personality
psychology looks at the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the best known
theories in psychology are devoted to the subject of personality.

( SAME ) Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

 (SAME) Psycho sexual Development

The Big Five Personality Dimensions

Many contemporary personality psychologists believe that there are five basic dimensions of personality, often referred to
as the "Big 5" personality traits. The five broad personality traits described by the theory are extraversion, agreeableness,
openness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism.
Previous trait theories suggested a various number of possible traits, including Gordon Allport's list of 4,000 personality
traits, Raymond Cattell's 16 personality factors, and Hans Eysenck's three-factor theory.
However, many researchers felt that Cattell's theory was too complex and Eysenck's was too limited in scope. As a result,
the five-factor theory emerged to describe the basic traits that serve as the building blocks of personality.

What Are the Big Five Dimensions of Personality?

Today, many researchers believe that they are five core personality traits. Evidence of this theory has been growing over
the past 50 years, beginning with the research of D. W. Fiske (1949) and later expanded upon by other researchers
including Norman (1967), Smith (1967), Goldberg (1981), and McCrae & Costa (1987).
The "big five" are broad categories of personality traits. While there is a significant body of literature supporting this five-
factor model of personality, researchers don't always agree on the exact labels for each dimension. However, these five
categories are usually described as follows:

1. Extraversion: This trait includes characteristics such as excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and
high amounts of emotional expressiveness.
1. Agreeableness: This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and
other prosocial behaviors.
2. Conscientiousness: Common features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse
control and goal-directed behaviors. Those high in conscientiousness tend to be organized and mindful of details.
3. Neuroticism: Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, irritability,
and sadness.
4. Openness: This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to
have a broad range of interests.
It is important to note that each of the five personality factors represents a range between two extremes. For example,
extraversion represents a continuum between extreme extraversion and extreme introversion. In the real world, most
people lie somewhere in between the two polar ends of each dimension.

Big 5 Personality Research

McCrae and his colleagues have also found that the big five traits are also remarkably universal. One study that looked at
people from more than 50 different cultures found that the five dimensions could be accurately used to describe
personality.
Based on this research, many psychologists now believe that the five personality dimensions are not only universal; they
also have biological origins. Psychology David Buss has proposed that an evolutionary explanation for these five core
personality traits, suggesting that these personality traits represent the most important qualities that shape our social
landscape.

Final Thoughts
Always remember that behavior involves an interaction between a person's underlying personality and situational
variables. The situation that a person finds himself or herself in plays a major role in how the person reacts. However, in
most cases, people offer responses that are consistent with their underlying personality traits.
These dimensions represent broad areas of personality. Research has demonstrated that these groupings of characteristics
tend to occur together in many people. For example, individuals who are sociable tend to be talkative. However, these
traits do not always occur together. Personality is a complex and varied and each person may display behaviors across
several of these dimensions.

The Conscious and Unconscious Mind

The Structure of the Mind According to Freud
Psychoanalytic theory of the conscious and unconscious mind is often explained using an iceberg metaphor. Conscious
awareness is the tip of the iceberg, while the unconscious is represented by the ice hidden below the surface of the water.
 sychoanalyst Sigmund Freud believed that behavior and personality derives from the constant and unique interaction of
conflicting psychological forces that operate at three different levels of awareness: the preconscious, the conscious, and
the unconscious.
What do these terms mean? What exactly happens at each level of awareness?

The Mind According to Freud

Many of us have experienced what is commonly referred to as a Freudian slip.
These misstatements are believed to reveal underlying, unconscious thoughts or feelings. Consider this example:
James has just started a new relationship with a woman he met at school. While talking to her one afternoon, he
accidentally calls her by his ex-girlfriend's name.
If you were in this situation, how would you explain this mistake? Many of us might blame the slip on distraction or
describe it as a simple accident. However, a psychoanalytic theorist might tell you that this is much more than a random
accident.
The psychoanalytic view holds that there are unconscious, inner forces outside of your awareness that are directing
your behavior. For example, a psychoanalyst might say that James misspoke due to unresolved feelings for his ex or
perhaps because of misgivings about his new relationship.
The unconscious includes thoughts, emotions, memories, desires, and motivations that lie outside of our awareness, yet
continue to exert an influence on our behaviors nevertheless.
Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalytic theory.
While his ideas were considered shocking at the time and continue to create debate and controversy even now, his work
had a profound influence on a number of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, literature, and art.
The term psychoanalysis is used to refer to many aspects of Freud’s work and research, including Freudian therapy and
the research methodology he used to develop his theories. Freud relied heavily upon his observations and case studies of
his patients when he formed his theory of personality development.

Freud's Three Levels of Mind

Before we can understand Freud's theory of personality, we must first understand his view of how the mind is organized.
According to Freud, the mind can be divided into three different levels:
1. The conscious mind includes everything that we are aware of. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we
can think and talk about rationally. A part of this includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness
but can be retrieved easily at any time and brought into our awareness. Freud called this the preconscious.
2. The preconscious mind is the part of the mind that represents ordinary memory. While we are not consciously
aware of this information at any given time, we can retrieve it and pull it into consciousness when needed.
3. The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that outside of our conscious
awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain,
anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experience, even
though we are unaware of these underlying influences.
Freud likened these three levels of mind to an iceberg. The top of the iceberg that you can see above the water represents
the conscious mind. The part of the iceberg that is submerged below the water but is still visible is the preconscious. The
bulk of the iceberg lies unseen beneath the waterline and represents the unconscious.
Each person also possesses a certain amount of psychological energy that forms the three basic structures of personality:
the id, the ego, and the superego. These three structures have different roles and operate at different levels of the mind. In
the next article in this series, learn more about the functions of each of these structures.

What Is Personality?
Almost everyday we describe and assess the personalities of the people around us. Whether we realize it or not, these
daily musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to what personality psychologists do.
While our informal assessments of personality tend to focus more on individuals, personality psychologists instead use
conceptions of personality that can apply to everyone. Personality research has led to the development of a number of
theories that help explain how and why certain personality traits develop.

Definitions of Personality
While there are many different theories of personality, the first step is to understand exactly what is meant by the
term personality. The word personality itself stems from the Latin word persona, which referred to a theatrical mask work
by performers in order to either project different roles or disguise their identities.
A brief definition would be that personality is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviors
that make a person unique. In addition to this, personality arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent
throughout life.
Some other definitions of personality:
 "Personality refers to individuals' characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior, together with the
psychological mechanisms -- hidden or not -- behind those patterns. This definition means that among their
colleagues in other subfields of psychology, those psychologists who study personality have a unique mandate: to
explain whole persons."
(Funder, D. C., 1997)
 "Although no single definition is acceptable to all personality theorists, we can say that personality is a pattern of
relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person's
behavior."
(Feist and Feist, 2009)

Components of Personality
So what exactly makes up a personality? As described in the definitions above, you would expect that traits and patterns
of thought and emotion make up an important part. Some of the other fundamental characteristics of personality include:
 Consistency - There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially, people act in the
same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.
 Psychological and physiological - Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also
influenced by biological processes and needs.
 It impacts behaviors and actions - Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our
environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.
 Multiple expressions - Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in our thoughts,
feelings, close relationships and other social interactions.
Theories of Personality
There are a number of different theories about how personality develops. Different schools of thought in psychology
influence many of these theories. Some of these major perspectives on personality include:
 Type theories are the early perspectives on personality. These theories suggested that there are a limited number of
"personality types" which are related to biological influences.
 Trait theories viewed personality as the result of internal characteristics that are genetically based.
 Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, and emphasize the
influence of the unconscious on personality. Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stage
theory and Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.
 Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment.
Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and
feelings into account. Behavioral theorists include B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson.
 Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the development of
personality. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Personality Vs. Traits and Character

 "Having closed in on a sense of what personality is, it may be helpful to compare the concept to others with related
meanings. Two concepts that quickly come to mind are 'temperament' and 'character.' In everyday language these
terms are sometimes used more or less interchangeably with 'personality,' and historically they have often been used
in contexts where, in more recent times, 'personality' would be employed. Within psychology, however, they have
somewhat distinct meanings. Temperament usually refers to those aspects of psychological individuality that are
present at birth or at least very early on in child development, are related to emotional expression, and are presumed
to have a biological basis... Character, on the other hand, usually refers to those personal attributes that are relevant
to moral conduct, self-mastery, will-power, and integrity."
(Haslam, N., 2007)

Trait Theory of Personality

The Trait Approach to Personality
If someone asked you to describe the personality of a close friend, what kind of things would you say? A few things that
might spring to mind are descriptive terms such as outgoing, kind and even-tempered. All of these represent traits. What
exactly does this term mean? A trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave
in certain ways. The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the study of personality.
The trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed of these broad dispositions.
Unlike many other theories of personality, such as psychoanalytic orhumanistic theories, the trait approach to personality
is focused on differences between individuals. The combination and interaction of various traits forms a personality that is
 unique to each individual. Trait theory is focused on identifying and measuring these individual personality
characteristics.

Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory

In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that one English-language dictionary alone contained more than 4,000 words
describing different personality traits. He categorized these traits into three levels:
 Cardinal Traits: These are traits that dominate an individual’s whole life, often to the point that the person
becomes known specifically for these traits. People with such personalities often become so known for these traits
that their names are often synonymous with these qualities. Consider the origin and meaning of the following
descriptive terms: Freudian, Machiavellian, narcissistic, Don Juan, Christ-like, etc. Allport suggested that cardinal
traits are rare and tend to develop later in life.
 Central Traits: These are the general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality. These central
traits, while not as dominating as cardinal traits, are the major characteristics you might use to describe another
person. Terms such as intelligent, honest, shy and anxious are considered central traits.
 Secondary Traits: These are the traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences and often appear only
in certain situations or under specific circumstances. Some examples would be getting anxious when speaking to a
group or impatient while waiting in line.

Raymond Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

Trait theorist Raymond Cattell reduced the number of main personality traits from Allport’s initial list of over 4,000 down
to 171, mostly by eliminating uncommon traits and combining common characteristics. Next, Cattell rated a large sample
of individuals for these 171 different traits. Then, using a statistical technique known as factor analysis, he identified
closely related terms and eventually reduced his list to just 16 key personality traits. According to Cattell, these 16 traits
are the source of all human personality. He also developed one of the most widely used personality assessments known as
the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).

Eysenck’s Three Dimensions of Personality

British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based upon just three universal trails:
1. Introversion/Extraversion:
Introversion involves directing attention on inner experiences, while extraversion relates to focusing attention
outward on other people and the environment. So, a person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved, while
an individual high in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing.
2. Neuroticism/Emotional Stability:
This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is related to moodiness versus even-temperedness. Neuroticism refers to
an individual’s tendency to become upset or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally
constant.
3. Psychoticism:
Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck added a personality dimension he called
psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and
may be antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic and manipulative.

The Five-Factor Theory of Personality

Both Cattell’s and Eysenck’s theory have been the subject of considerable research, which has led some theorists to
believe that Cattell focused on too many traits, while Eysenck focused on too few. As a result, a new trait theory often
referred to as the "Big Five" theory emerged. This five-factor model of personalityrepresents five core traits that interact
to form human personality. While researchers often disagree about the exact labels for each dimension, the following are
described most commonly:
1. Extraversion
2. Agreeableness
3. Conscientiousness
4. Neuroticism
5. Openness

Assessing the Trait Approach to Personality

While most agree that people can be described based upon their personality traits, theorists continue to debate the number
of basic traits that make up human personality. While trait theory has objectivity that some personality theories lack (such
as Freud’s psychoanalytic theory), it also has weaknesses. Some of the most common criticisms of trait theory center on
the fact that traits are often poor predictors of behavior. While an individual may score high on assessments of a specific
 trait, he or she may not always behave that way in every situation. Another problem is that trait theories do not address
how or why individual differences in personality develop or emerge.

Social Psychology Theories

Social psychology is focused on helping us understand and explain social behavior. Social theories are generally centered
on specific social phenomena, including group behavior, prosocial behavior, social influence, love and much more.
1.The actor-observer bias is a term in social psychology that refers to a tendency to attribute one's own actions to
external causes, while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes. Essentially, people tend to make different
attributions depending upon whether they are the actor or the observer in a situation.
The actor-observer bias tends to be more pronounced in situations where the outcomes are negative.
For example, in a situation where a person experiences something negative, the individual will often blame the situation
or circumstances. When something negative happens to another person, people will often blame the individual for their
personal choices, behaviors and actions.
2. Altruism is one aspect of what social psychologists refer to as prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior refers to any
action that benefits other people, no matter what the motive or how the giver benefits from the action. Remember,
however, that pure altruism involves true selflessness. While all altruistic acts are prosocial, not all prosocial behaviors are
completely altruistic.
For example, we might help others for a variety of reasons such as guilt, obligation, duty, or even for rewards.
3.The term bystander effect refers to the phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely
people are to help a person in distress.
Ex.When an emergency situation occurs, observers are more likely to take action if there are few or no other witnesses.
Being part of a large crowd makes it so no single person has to take responsibility for an action (or inaction).
4. Compliance refers to changing one's behavior due to the request or direction of another person. It is going along with
the group or changing a behavior to fit in with the group, while still disagreeing with the group. Unlike obedience, in
which the other individual is in a position of authority, compliance does not rely upon being in a position of power or
authority over others.
5. Conformity involves changing your behaviors in order to "fit in" or "go along" with the people around you. In some
cases, this social influence might involve agreeing with or acting like the majority of people in a specific group, or it
might involve behaving in a particular way in order to be perceived as "normal" by the group.
6.The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think
about his or her character. Essentially, your overall impression of a person ("He is nice!") impacts your evaluations of that
person's specific traits ("He is also smart!").
One great example of the halo effect in action is our overall impression of celebrities.
Since we perceive them as attractive, successful, and often likeable, we also tend to see them as intelligent, kind, and
funny.
7. Heroism involves a behavior or action on behalf of another person or for a moral cause. They identify four key
elements of heroism:
 It's voluntary
 It is done in the service of people or communities in need
 It involves some type of risk, either physical, social, or in terms of quality of life
 It is done without the need for recompense or material gain
8. LeadershipTheories: 8 Major Leadership Theories
1. "Great Man" Theories
Have you ever heard someone described as "born to lead?" According to this point of view, great leaders are simply born
with the necessary internal characteristics such as charisma, confidence, intelligence, and social skills that make them
natural-born leaders.
Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born, not made. These
theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great
Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military
leadership.
2. Trait Theories
Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make
them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by
leaders.
For example, traits like extraversion, self-confidence, and courage are all traits that could potentially be linked to great
leaders.
If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not
leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership. There are plenty of people who
possess the personality traits associated with leadership, yet many of these people never seek out positions of leadership.
3. Contingency Theories
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which
particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, noleadership style is best in all
situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers and
aspects of the situation.
4. Situational Theories
Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. Different styles
of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making. For example, in a situation where the leader
is the most knowledgeable and experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate. In other
instances where group members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective.
5. Behavioral Theories
Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Consider it the flip-side
of the Great Man theories. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental
qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.
6. Participative Theories
Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account.
These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant
and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the
input of others.
7. Management Theories
Management theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of supervision, organization and group
performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used
in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished. Learn
more about theories of transactional leadership.
8. Relationship Theories
Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between leaders and
followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher
good of the task. These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his
or her potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.
9. Love is a basic human emotion, but understanding how and why it happens is not necessarily easy. In fact, for a
long time, many people suggested that love was simply something to primal, mysterious, and spiritual for science to
ever fully understand.
10.Obidience
11. Prosocial behaviors are those intended to help other people. Prosocial behavior is characterized by a concern
about the rights, feelings and welfare of other people. Behaviors that can be described as prosocial include feeling
empathy and concern for others and behaving in ways to help or benefit other people.
12. What exactly is the rule of reciprocity and how does it work?
Answer:
This rule operates on a simple principle: We tend to feel obligated to return favors after people do favors for us. When
your new neighbors bring over a plate of cookies to welcome you to the neighborhood, you might feel obligated to return
the favor when they ask you to take care of their dog while they are on vacation.

Examples of Reciprocity in Action

Just how powerful is the rule of reciprocity? In 1974, sociologist Phillip Kunz conducted an interesting experiment. He
mailed out handwritten Christmas cards with a note and photograph of him and his family to approximately 600 randomly
selected people. All of the recipients of the cards were complete strangers. Shortly after mailing the cards, responses
began trickling in. All total, Kunz received nearly 200 replies. Why would so many people reply to a complete stranger?
This is the rule of reciprocity at work. Since Kunz had done something for them (sent a thoughtful note during the holiday
season), many recipients felt obligated to return the favor.
13. According to psychologist Gordon Allport, social psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods "to
understand and explain how the thought, feeling and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or
implied presence of other human beings" (1985).
Social psychology looks at a wide range of social topics, including group behavior, social perception,leadership,
nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and prejudice. It is important to note that social psychology is not just about
looking at social influences. Social perception and social interaction are also vital to understanding social behavior.

Learning Theories
Learning theories focus on how people learning and acquire new knowledge. This is an interdisciplinary topic of interest
that often draws upon information from psychology, education, instructional design, and other areas.
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

1. Visual and Spatial Judgment

People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good a visualizing things. These individuals are often good with
directions as well as maps, charts, videos and pictures.
Characteristics of Visual-Spatial Intelligence
Enjoy reading and writing
Good at putting puzzles together
Good at interpreting pictures, graphs and charts
Enjoys drawing, painting and the visual arts
Recognizes patterns easily

Potential Career Choices

Architect
Artist
Engineer

2. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence
People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when writing and speaking. These
individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information and reading.
Characteristics of Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence
Good at remembering written and spoken information
Enjoys reading and writing
Good at debating or giving persuasive speeches
Able to explain things well
Often uses humor when telling stories

Potential Career Choices

Writer / Journalist
Lawyer
Teacher

3. Logical and Mathematics Intelligence

People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns and logically
analyze problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers, relationships, and patterns.
Characteristics of Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Excellent problem-solving skills
Enjoys thinking about abstract ideas
Likes conducting scientific experiments
Good and solving complex computations

Potential Career Choices

Scientist
Mathematician
Computer programmer
Engineer
Accountant
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement, performing actions and
physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye coordination and dexterity.
Characteristics of Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Good at dancing and sports
Enjoy creating things with their hands
Excellent physical coordination
Tends to remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing

Potential Career Choices

Dancer
Builder
Sculptor
Actor

5. Musical Intelligence

Rhythm and Music

People who have strong musical intelligence are good and thinking in patterns, rhythms and sounds. They have a strong
appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance.
Characteristics of Musical Intelligence
Enjoy singing and playing musical instruments
Recognizes musical patterns and tones easily
Good at remembering songs and melodies
Rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm and notes

Potential Career Choices

Musician
Composer
Singer
Music Teacher
Conductor

6. Interpersonal Intelligence

Strengths: Understanding and Relating to Other People

Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good understanding and interacting with other people. These
individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires and intentions of those around them.

Characteristics of Interpersonal Intelligence

Good at communicating verbally
Skilled at nonverbal communication
See situations from different perspectives
Create positive relationships with others
Good at resolving conflict in groups

Potential Career Choices

Psychologist
Philosopher
Counselor
Sales person
Politician

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence

Strengths: Introspection and Self-Reflection

Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional states, feelings
and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including day-dreaming, exploring relationships with
others and assessing their personal strengths.
Characteristics of Intrapersonal Intelligence
Good at analyzing their strengths and weaknesses
Enjoys analyzing theories and ideas
Excellent self-awareness
Clearly understands the basis for their own motivations and feelings

Potential Career Choices

Philosopher
Writer
Theorist
Scientist

8. Naturalistic Intelligence

Strengths: Finding Patters and Relationships to Nature

 Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more resistance than his original seven
intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and
are often interested in nurturing, exploring the environment and learning about other species. These individuals are said to
be highly aware of even subtle changes to their environments.
Characteristics of Naturalistic Intelligence
Interested in subjects such as botany, biology and zoology
Good at categorizing and cataloging information easily
May enjoy camping, gardening, hiking and exploring the outdoors
Doesn’t enjoy learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature

Potential Career Choices

Biologist
Conservationist
Gardener
Farmer

Learning Styles Based on Jung's Theory of Personality

Have you ever felt like you learn best in a particular way? These learning styles impact how well we learn under certain
conditions. Some students learn best by hearing information, while others learn best by seeing it. A number of different
theories have emerged to describe how students prefer to learn best.
One learning style theory is based on the work of analytical psychologist Carl Jung, who developed a theory of
psychological types designed to categorize people in terms of various personality patterns.
Jung’s theory focuses on four basic psychological functions:
1. Extraversion vs. Introversion

What Is an Extraverted Learning Style?

The first component of the Jungian learning style dimensions indicates how learners interact with the outside
world. Extraverted learners enjoy generating energy and ideas from other people. They prefer socializing and working in
groups. Learning activities that benefit extraverted learners include teaching others how to solve a problem,
collaborative/group work, and problem-based learning.
If you enjoy teaching others, participating in a group and learning by experience, you are probably an extraverted learner.

Number of Extraverted Learners

Approximately 60% of learners are extraverted learners.

Characteristics of Extravert Learners

 Learns best through direct experience
 Enjoys working with others in groups
 Often gathers ideas from outside sources
 Willing to lead, participate and offer opinions
 Jumps right in without guidance from others

What Is an Introverted Learning Style?

While introverted learners are still sociable, they prefer to solve problems on their own. Introverted learners enjoy
generating energy and ideas from internal sources, such as brainstorming, personal reflection, and theoretical exploration.
These learners prefer to think about things before attempting to try a new skill. If you enjoy solitary studying, individual
work, and abstract ideas, you are probably an introverted learner.

Number of Introverted Learners

Approximately 40% of learners are introverted learners.

Characteristics of Introvert Learners

 Prefers to work alone
 Enjoys quiet, solitary work
 Often generates ideas from internal sources
 Prefers to listen, watch and reflect
 Likes to observe others before attempting a new skill
2. Sensation vs. Intuition

What Is a Sensing Learning Style?

Sensing learners are focused on aspects of the physical environment. Jung described these individuals as being interested
in the external world. They tend to be realistic and practical, preferring to rely on information gained through experience.
While people with a sensing learning style enjoy order and routine, they also tend to be very quick to adapt to changing
environments and situations.

Number of Sensing Learners

Approximately 65% of learners have a sensing learning style.

Characteristics of Sensate Learners

 Focuses on the present
 Practical and reasonable
 Utilizes experience and common sense to solve problems
 Keenly observe the surrounding world

What Is an Intuitive Learning Style?

Intuitive learners tend to focus more on the world of possibility. Unlike sensing learners who are interested in the here and
now, intuitive learners enjoy considering ideas, possibilities, and potential outcomes. These learners like abstract thinking,
daydreaming, and imagining the future.

Number of Intuitive Learners

Approximately 35% of learners are intuitive learners.

Characteristics of Intuitive Learners

 Prefers to work in short sessions, rather than finishing a task all at once
 Enjoys new challenges, experiences and situations
 More likely to look at the big picture rather than the details
 Like theories and abstract ideas

3. Thinking vs. Feeling

What Is a Thinking Learning Style?

Individuals with a thinking learning style tend to focus more on the structure and function of information and objects.
Thinking learners utilize rationality and logic when dealing with problems and decisions. These learners often base
decisions on personal ideas of right, wrong, fairness, and justice.

Number of Thinking Learners

Approximately 55% of males and 35% of females have a thinking learning style.

Characteristics of Thinking Learners

 Interested in logic and patterns
 Dislike basing decisions on emotions
 Bases decisions on reason and logic

What Is a Feeling Learning Style?

People with a feeling style manage information based on the initial emotions and feelings it generates. Individuals with
this learning style are interested in personal relationships, feelings, and social harmony. If you base decisions on emotions
and dislike conflict, you might have a feeling learning style.

Number of Feeling Learners

Approximately 45% of males 65% of females are feeling learners.

Characteristics of Feeling Learners

 Interested in people and their feelings
 In tune with their own emotions and those of other people
 Base decisions on immediate feelings
 Generates excitement and enthusiasm in group settings
4. Judging vs. Perceiving

What Is a Judging Learning Style?

Judging learners tend to be very decisive. In some cases, these learners may actually make decisions too quickly before
learning everything they need to know about a situation. These learners prefer order and structure, which is why they tend
to plan out activities and schedules very carefully. If you are highly organized, detail-oriented, and have strong opinions,
you might be a judging learner.

Number of Judging Learners

Approximately 45% of people are judging learners.

Characteristics of Judging Learners

 Do not like ambiguity or mystery
 Tend to be firm in their decisions
 Very organized and structured
 Strong opinions
 Generally follows the rules

What Is a Perceiving Learning Style?

Perceiving learners tend to make decisions impulsively in response to new information and changing situations. However,
these learners tend to focus more on indulging their curiosity rather than making decisions. Unlike judging learners who
tend not to change their minds, perceiving learners prefer to keep their options open. If you tend to start many projects at
once (often without finishing any of them), avoid strict schedules, and jump in to projects first without planning, you
might be a perceiving learner.

Number of Perceiving Learners

Approximately 55% of people are perceiving learners.

Characteristics of Perceiving Learners

 Often make impulsive decisions
 Change decisions based on new information
 Dislike structure and organization
 Tends to be very flexible and adaptable
 Sometimes has trouble making decisions

This theory later led to the development of the now-famous Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.
In addition to influencing personality assessment, Jung's dimensions can also be used to assess and describe various
learning styles. While each dimension represents a unique aspect of a learning style, it is important to remember that your
own individual learning style may include a combination of these dimensions. For example, your learning style might
include elements of extroverted, sensing, feeling, and perceiving learning styles.

Social Learning Theory

What is Social Learning Theory?

The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and
development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct
reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.
While the behavioral theories of learning suggested that all learning was the result of associations formed by conditioning,
reinforcement, and punishment, Bandura's social learning theory proposed that learning can also occur simply by
observing the actions of others.
His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people.
Known asobservational learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors.

1. People can learn through observation.

Observational Learning
In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed
in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the
children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had
previously observed.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
1. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
2. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television
programs, or online media.

2. Mental states are important to learning.

Intrinsic Reinforcement
Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. He
described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment.
This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories.
While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a
'social cognitive theory.'

3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.

While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that
people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.

What Is Motivation?
Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation is what
causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.
It involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In everyday usage, the
term motivation is frequently used to describe why a person does something.
For example, you might say that a student is so motivated to get into aclinical psychology program that she spends every
night studying.
"The term motivation refers to factors that activate, direct, and sustain goal-directed behavior... Motives are the "whys" of
behavior - the needs or wants that drive behavior and explain what we do. We don't actually observe a motive; rather, we
infer that one exists based on the behavior we observe."
(Nevid, 2013)
Psychologists have proposed a number of different theories of motivation, including drive theory, instinct theory, and
humanistic theory.

Components of Motivation
Anyone who has ever had a goal (like wanting to lose ten pounds or wanting to run a marathon) probably immediately
realizes that simply having the desire to accomplish something is not enough. Achieving such a goal requires the ability to
persist through obstacles and endurance to keep going in spite of difficulties.
There are three major components to motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.
Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class.
Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist, such as taking morepsychology
courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a significant investment of time, energy, and resources.
Finally, intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one student might
coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly, participate in discussions and take advantage of
research opportunities outside of class.

Theories of Motivation
So what are the things that actually motivate us to act? Psychologists have proposed a number of different theories to
explain motivation:
 Instincts: The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by instincts, which are fixed and
inborn patterns of behavior. Psychologists including William James, Sigmund Freud, and, William McDougal have
proposed a number of basic human drives that motivate behavior.
 Drives and Needs: Many of our behaviors, such as eating, drinking, and sleeping, are motivated by biology. We
have a biological need for food, water, and sleep, therefore we eat, drink, and sleep. Drive theory suggests that
people have basic biological drives and that our behaviors are motivated by the need to fulfill these drives.
 Arousal Levels: The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors that
help them maintain their optimal level of arousal. A person with low arousal needs might pursue relaxing activities,
while those with high arousal needs might be motivated to engage in exciting, thrill-seeking behaviors.

Extrinsic Vs. Intrinsic Motivation

Different types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic motivations are those
that arise from outside of the individual and often involve rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition or
praise. Intrinsic motivations are those that arise from within the individual, such as doing a complicated cross-word puzzle
purely for the personal gratification of solving a problem.

MOTIVATION is the force that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes us to take
action, whether to grab a snack to reduce hunger or enroll in college to earn a degree. The forces that lie beneath
motivation can be biological, social, emotional, or cognitive in nature.
Researchers have developed a number of different theories to explain motivation. Each individual theory tends to be
rather limited in scope. However, by looking at the key ideas behind each theory, you can gain a better understanding of
motivation as a whole.

Instinct Theory of Motivation

According to instinct theories, people are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are evolutionarily
programmed to do so. An example of this in the animal world is seasonal migration. These animals do not learn to do this,
it is instead an inborn pattern of behavior.
William James created a list of human instincts that included such things as attachment, play, shame, anger, fear, shyness,
modesty, and love. The main problem with this theory is that it did not really explain behavior, it just described it. By the
1920s, instinct theories were pushed aside in favor of other motivational theories, but contemporary evolutionary
psychologists still study the influence of genetics and heredity on human behavior.

Incentive Theory of Motivation

The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards. For example, you might
be motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward of being paid. Behavioral learning concepts such as
association and reinforcement play an important role in this theory of motivation.
Drive Theory of Motivation
According to the drive theory of motivation, people are motivated to take certain actions in order to reduce the internal
tension that is caused by unmet needs. For example, you might be motivated to drink a glass of water in order to reduce
the internal state of thirst.
This theory is useful in explaining behaviors that have a strong biological component, such as hunger or thirst. The
problem with the drive theory of motivation is that these behaviors are not always motivated purely by physiological
needs. For example, people often eat even when they are not really hungry.

Arousal Theory of Motivation

The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people take certain actions to either decrease or increase levels of arousal.
When arousal levels get too low, for example, a person might watch an exciting movie or go for a jog. When arousal
levels get too high, on the other hand, a person would probably look for ways to relax such as meditating or reading a
book. According to this theory, we are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, although this level can vary
based on the individual or the situation.
Humanistic Theory of Motivation
Humanistic theories of motivation are based on the idea that people also have strong cognitive reasons to perform various
actions. This is famously illustrated in Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which presents different motivations at
different levels. First, people are motivated to fulfill basic biological needs for food and shelter, as well as those of safety,
love, and esteem. Once the lower level needs have been met, the primary motivator becomes the need for self-
actualization, or the desire to fulfill one's individual potential.

Final Thoughts
While no single theory can adequately explain all human motivation, looking at the individual theories can offer a greater
understanding of the forces that cause us to take action. In reality, there are likely many different forces that interact to
motivate behavior.

The Incentive Theory of Motivation

Are Actions Motivated by a Desire for Rewards?
There are a many different reasons why we do things. Sometimes we are motivated to act because of internal desires and
wishes, but at other times our behaviors are driven by a desire for external rewards. The incentive theory is one of the
major theories of motivation and suggests that behavior is motivated by a desire for reinforcement or incentives.

How Does Incentive Theory Work?

In contrast with other theories that suggest we are pushed into action by internal drives (such as the drive-reduction theory
of motivation, arousal theory, and instinct theory), incentive theory instead suggests that we are pulled into action by
outside incentives.
 You can liken incentive theory to operant conditioning. Just as in operant conditioning, where behaviors are performed in
order to either gain reinforcement or avoid punishment, incentive theory states that your actions are directed toward
gaining rewards.
What type of rewards?
Think about what type of things motivate you to study hard and do well in school. Good grades are one type of incentive.
Gaining esteem and accolades from your teachers and parents might be another. Money is also an excellent example of an
external reward that motivates behavior. In many cases, these external rewards can motivate you to do things that
you might otherwise avoid such as chores, work, and other tasks you might find unpleasant.
Obviously, not all incentives are created equal and the rewards that you find motivating might not be enough to inspire
another person to take action. Physiological, social, and cognitive factors can all play a role in what incentives you find
motivating. For example, you are more likely to be motivated by food when you are actually hungry versus when you are
full. A teenage boy might be motivated to clean his room by the promise of a coveted video game, while another person
would find such a game completely unappealing.
"The value of an incentive can change over time and in different situations," notes author Stephen L. Franzoi in his
text Psychology: A Discovery Experience. "For example, gaining praise from your parents may have positive incentive
value for you in some situations, but not in others. When you are home, your parents' praise may be a positive incentive.
However, when your friends visit, you may go out of your way to avoid receiving parental praise, because your friends
may tease you."

Important Observations About Incentive Theory

 Incentives can be used to get people to engage in certain behaviors, but they can also be used to get people
to stop performing certain actions.
 Incentives only become powerful if the individual places importance on the reward.
 Rewards have to be obtainable in order to be motivating. For example, a student will not be motivated to earn a top
grade on an exam if the assignment is so difficult that it is not realistically achievable.

Drive-Reduction Theory
Hull's Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation
Drive reduction theory of motivation became popular during the 1940s and 1950s as a way to explain behavior, learning
and motivation. The theory was created by behaviorist Clark Hull and further developed by his collaborator Kenneth
Spence. According to the theory, the reduction of drives is the primary force behindmotivation. Hull was one of the first
theorists to attempt creating a grand theory designed to explain all behavior.
While the drive-reduction theory of motivation was once a dominant force in psychology, it is largely ignored today.
Despite this, it is worthwhile for students to learn more about Hull’s ideas in order to understand the effect his work had
on psychology and to see how other theorists responded by proposing their own theories.

The Arousal Theory of Motivation

The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are driven to perform actions in order to maintain an optimum level
of physiological arousal. What exactly is the optimal level of motivation? Well, it varies from one individual to the next.

Instinct Theory of Motivation

According to the instinct theory of motivation, all organisms are born with innate biological tendencies that help them
survive. This theory suggests that all behaviors are driven by instincts. Instincts are goal-directed and innate patterns of
behavior that are not the result of learning or experience. For example, infants have an inborn rooting reflex that helps
them seek out a nipple and obtain nourishment, while birds have an inborn need to build a nest or migrate during the
winter.

What Is an Instinct?
In animals, instincts are inherent tendencies to spontaneously engage in a specific pattern of behavior. Examples of this
include a dog shaking after it gets wet, a sea turtle seeking out the ocean after hatching, or a bird migrating prior to the
winter season.

Operant Conditioning
How Reinforcement and Punishment Modify Behavior

What Is Operant Conditioning?

 Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through
rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a
consequence for that behavior. For example, when a lab rat presses a blue button, he receives a food pellet as a reward,
but when he presses the red button he receives a mild electric shock. As a result, he learns to press the blue button but
avoid the red button.

Components of Operant Conditioning

Some key concepts in operant conditioning:
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:
1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect
positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a
direct reward.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In
these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior
it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:
1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an
unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is
removed after a behavior occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing homework
to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions.
In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior, but operant conditioning can also
be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of a desirable outcome or the application of a negative outcome can be used
to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk
out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.
Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation occurs when we are motivated to perform a behavior or engage in an activity to earn a reward or
avoid punishment.
Examples of behaviors that are the result of extrinsic motivation include:
 Studying because you want to get a good grade
 Cleaning your room to avoid being reprimanded by your parents
 Participating in a sport to win awards
 Competing in a contest to win a scholarship
In each of these examples, the behavior is motivated by a desire to gain a reward or avoid an adverse outcome.
Extrinsic motivation refers to behavior that is driven by external rewards such as money, fame, grades, and praise. This
type of motivation arises from outside the individual, as opposed to intrinsic motivation, which originates inside of the
individual.
Think about your own motivation for reading this article. Are you trying to learn the material so that you can get a good
grade in your psychology class?
This means that you are studying the material to gain external reinforcement (getting a good grade), which means that
your behavior is extrinsically motivated.
When you want to get someone to do something, such as getting your kids to do their homework, what is the best way to
motivate them? Many people might start by offering some type of reward like a special treat or toy. This is a great
example of extrinsic motivation, since the behavior is motivated by a desire to gain an external reward. Unlike intrinsic
motivation, which arises from within the individual, extrinsic motivation is focused purely on outside rewards.
Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will
occur. Note that reinforcement is defined by the effect that it has on behavior - it increases or strengthens the behavior.
For example, reinforcement might involve presenting praise (the reinforcer) immediately after a child puts away her toys
(the response). By reinforcing the desired behavior with praise, the girl will be more likely to perform the same actions
again.
What is reinforcement?
Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will
occur. Note that reinforcement is defined by the effect that it has on behavior - it increases or strengthens the behavior.
 For example, reinforcement might involve presenting praise (the reinforcer) immediately after a child puts away her toys
(the response). By reinforcing the desired behavior with praise, the girl will be more likely to perform the same actions
again.

Types of Reinforcement
Reinforcement can include anything that strengthens or increases a behavior, including stimuli, events and situations. In a
classroom setting, for example, types of reinforcement might include praise, getting out of unwanted work, token rewards,
candy, extra playtime and fun activities.
There are two major categories of reinforcement:
 Primary reinforcement, sometimes referred to as unconditional reinforcement, occurs naturally and does not
require learning in order to work. Primary reinforcers often have an evolutionary basis in that they aid in the
survival of the species. Examples of primary reinforcers include food, air, sleep, water and sex. Genetics and
experience may also play a role in how reinforcing such things are. For example, while one person might find a
certain type of food very rewarding, another person may not like that food at all.
 Secondary reinforcement, also known as conditioned reinforcement, involves stimuli that have become rewarding
by being paired with another reinforcing stimulus. For example, when training a dog, praise and treats might be
used as primary reinforcers. The sound of a clicker can be associated with the praise and treats until the sound of the
clicker itself begins to work as a secondary reinforcer.
In operant conditioning, there are two different types of reinforcement:
 Positive reinforcement involves the addition of something to increase a response, such as giving a bit of candy to a
child after she cleans up her room.
 Negative reinforcement involves removing something in order to increase a response, such as canceling a quiz if
students turn in all of their homework for the week. By removing the aversive stimulus (the quiz), the teacher hopes
to increase the occurrence of the desired behavior (completing all homework).

What is classical Conditioning?

"Pavlov's dog" and "Pavlovian" redirect here. For the Pavlovian Upper Paleolithic culture, see Pavlovian
culture. For other uses, see Pavlov's dog (disambiguation).
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is a learning process in which
an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus; this
is achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent stimulus. The basic facts about
classical conditioning were discovered by Ivan Pavlov through his famous experiments with dogs. Together
with operant conditioning, classical conditioning became the foundation of Behaviorism, a school of psychology
that dominated psychology in the mid-20th century and is still an important influence on the practice of
psychological therapy and the study of animal behaviour (ethology). Classical conditioning is now the best
understood of the basic learning processes, and its neural substrates are beginning to be understood.
Classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Usually,
the conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a tuning fork), the unconditioned stimulus
(US) is biologically potent (e.g., the taste of food) and the unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned
stimulus is an unlearned reflex response (e.g., salivation). After pairing is repeated (some learning may occur
already after only one pairing), the organism exhibits a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus
when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. The conditioned response is usually similar to the
unconditioned response (see below), but unlike the unconditioned response, it must be acquired through
experience and is relatively impermanent.[1]
In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is not simply connected to the unconditioned response.
The conditioned response usually differs in some way from the unconditioned response, sometimes
significantly. For this and other reasons, learning theorists commonly suggest that the conditioned stimulus
comes to signal or predict the unconditioned stimulus, and go on to analyze the consequences of this
signal.[2] Robert A. Rescorla provided a clear summary of this change in thinking, and its implications, in his
1988 article "Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is."[3] Despite its wide spread acceptance,
Rescorla's thesis may not be defensible.

Stimulus-response (S-R) theories are central to the principles of conditioning. They are based on the
assumption that human behaviour is learned. One of the early contributors to the field, American psychologist
Edward L. Thorndike, postulated the Law of Effect, which stated that those behavioral responses (R) that were
most closely followed by a satisfactory result were most likely to become.

Connectionism
Elaine is a new teacher, and she recently read a book on teaching that suggested that people's success in school is
closely tied to what happens around them. If a student is rewarded for learning, he or she is likely to continue to learn,
for example. Elaine is learning about connectionism, an educational philosophy that says that learning is a product of
the relationship between stimulus and response.
That may sound pretty technical, so let's break down connectionism a little further. A stimulus is something that causes
a reaction, and a response is just a reaction to a stimulus. Think about what happens when a big piece of gooey
chocolate cake is put in front of you. The sights and smells of the cake are the stimulus, and they are very likely to
produce a response in you that involves drooling and maybe even a growling stomach.
Edward Thorndike was the psychologist who first proposed that connectionism is key to learning. Thorndike, who was
popular in the first half of the 20th century, was the first educational psychologist. That is, he was the first person to
bring together what psychologists had studied about how the human mind works and what educators knew about how
to teach.
Connectionism was Thorndike's main philosophy. He said that learning is about responding to stimuli. Believe it or not,
much of his theory is still used in classrooms today, almost a hundred years later!
Let's look closer at three laws of connectionism and how they might appear in a classroom.

Law of Effect
Remember Elaine? She's a new teacher and has read about connectionism. She wants to apply it to her classroom, but
she's not sure where to start. What can she do?
Connectionism is closely related to the word 'connect,' which is just what happens in this theory. The stimulus and its
response are connected in a person's mind, like associating chocolate cake with drooling. This connection between
stimulus and response is called a stimulus-response bond, or an S-R bond. The stronger the S-R bond, the better a
person has learned the lesson.
What does this mean for education? Imagine that every time one of Elaine's students studied, she got a good grade, and
every time she did not study, she got a bad grade. The stimulus in this case is studying, and the response is the grade.
The student has a strong S-R bond between studying and good grades. That is, the student believes that studying leads
to good grades.
The law of effect is the first of three laws of connectionism. It says that if a stimulus results in a positive outcome, it
strengthens the S-R bond, while if it results in a negative outcome, the S-R bond is weakened.
Think about Elaine's student who gets good grades when she studies. Every time she gets a good grade after studying,
the S-R bond is strengthened, and the student learns even more that studying results in getting a good grade.
On the flip side of that, every time the student gets a bad grade after not studying, the S-R bond between not studying
and good grades is weakened. The student learns that not studying does not result in good grades and is less likely to
not study in the future.
Can Elaine do things in her classroom to help strengthen S-R bonds and use the law of effect to her advantage?
Absolutely! For example, she could reward effort as well as outcome so that a struggling student who works hard gets a
reward for his work.
She could also punish bad habits so that a student who does not pay attention gets detention, or something like that.
According to the law of effect, her students will be more likely to work hard and less likely to not pay attention if she
does those things.

Law of Exercise
As we mentioned, the law of effect is one of three laws that Thorndike put forth to explain the tenets of connectionism.
The next one is one that many people will already be familiar with, though you might not call it this: the law of
exercise says that the more you do something, the better you are at it. That is, 'practice makes perfect'!
Why does this work? According to Thorndike, the more you do something, the stronger the S-R bond and the easier it
becomes. Think about Elaine's students, who are struggling with learning their multiplication tables. They can't
remember if 2 x 2 is 4 or 6!
If Elaine has them practice their multiplication with flashcards every single day, they will get better and better at it, until
it's like second nature to them. The S-R bond between seeing 2 x 2 and remembering the answer, 4, is getting stronger.