FROM PREHI STORY TO THE INVENTION ) THE 4 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF NUMBERS Georces |IFRAHTHE UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF NUMBERS FROM PREHISTORY TO THE INVENTION OF THE COMPUTER GEORGES IFRAH Translated from the French ‘by Dawid Bellos, . F. Harding, Sophie Wood, and Ian Monk ®) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York * Chichester * Weinheim + Brisbane * Singapore + TorontoForyou my wile ‘the admirably patient wines of the ays and agonies that this had abour has procured me oF whic you have been subjected, overs many ears. For your tenderness and for theintligence of your ertcisms. For you, Hanna, o whom this book and its author owes much. ‘And for you, Gabrielle and Emmanuel ‘my daughters, my pasion. ‘stnokisrtden aster bey Wy Sonsini, led aay ee Fpl Fane ie Habre dee yen bert oo a pad ina inn B88by The Hai Prod opr 019812 tone an. "fen opr 8 Tear Pee ‘Tham abr pedi pet pan Common sollte hens Mey eCatre Atta wih heeeptin 130-6 an 240 Lie pl, need ep eso Nopetettiacaon may bepreded red inasetiel temetniediny frme yy ena deren ec ping edging hee pe frase Sen 0a Bl 75 Ute Sate opgh oa te ha en prin oe bes othr toh et tbe sae ery the Cog Cans Cee, toned De Den MAE O71) 75066087) OETEL Hehe athe or remind beat eas Depa be Wy San 5d ee ‘New NY sora, 2) Saf) COR cl PERNREWTE.COM ‘hpi nde opine end ernie a mate oe ssl eons parison nae neon tein re pcan hkeorode eps? ecu posal pr heh of ogres aang i Pb Date tah Core Wie nie ete gh) ‘eee fmm» fom ein he netic ef compte / Cpa tne Oni alr Hang Sr Wot din lec og cea ‘San O30 Gage 1, Namo Tae quunrs 200SUMMARY TABLE OF CONTENTS counrren canPren counrren coneren cnrren couarren CHAPTER 0 (CHAPTER ccuaPren (CHAPTERS ‘CHAPTER 6 ‘CHAPTER Foreword v Listof Abbreviations vi Introduction xv Where "Numbers" Come Fom Explaining the Origins: Ethnological and Psychological “Approachestothe Sources of Numbers Base Nombersand the Bith of Numbersjtems “The atest Caluating Machine The Hand ow CroMagnon Man Counted “aly Sticks: Acountng or Beginners Namberson Strings Nombe, ale and Money Numbers ofumer “The Enigma ofthe Sexagsima Base ‘The Development of Written Numerals in Elam and Mesopotamia ‘The Deipherment of veshoutandyearold System ow he Sumerian Did Their Sums “Mesopotamian Numbering afer the Eclipse of Sumer ‘TheNumbersf Ancient Eaypt Countingin the Times ofthe Cretan and Hite Kings Grockand Roman Numerals Ltersand Numbers ‘The Invention of Alphabetic Numerals 23 a ae 66 8 nm " a 96 ma 1m 182 we 182 22 aCHAPTER ‘oHAPTER 22 ‘cuaerER 23 ‘CHAPTER 26 ‘CHAPTER 25 CHAPTER 26 ther Alphabetic Numbersjtems Mac Mystic, Divination, nd Other Secrets ‘The Numbers of Chinese Csation ‘The Amaring Achievement ofthe Mays ‘TheFinal Stage of Numeric Notation PART Indian Civilisation: the Cradle of ‘Modetn Numerals. PARTI Dictionary ofthe Numeral Symbols oflndian Civilisation Indian Numerals nd Cakeulaton in the Islamic Word The Slow Progress ofIndo-Arabic Numerals in ‘Western Europe Beyond Perfection Bibliography 601 Index of Names and Subjects 616 240 248 2 su sm seFOREWORD ‘The main sim of this wosolume work isto provide in simple and accesible tes the fill complete ans tal and ay questions hat anyone might want to ask about the history of numbers and of counting from prehistory tothe age of computers, More than en years go, an American translation of the predecessor of The Unnersa History of Numbers appested unde he ie From One ta Ze, teanslated by Lowel Baie (Viking 1885). The present book ~ transated afresh ~ Is many ies larger, and seeks not only to provide a historia rnarative, but ao, and mest importantly, to serve a 2 comprehensive, thematic encyelopsedi of ambers snd counting. tcan be ead aa whole, ‘ofcourse; bu ican also be consulted as sourcebook on gener tpies (or example the May, the numbers of Ancient Egypt Arabic counting or Greek acrophoics) and on quite specif problems (the proper names of| the nine meizea pics, the role of Gerbert of Auril how to do a ong Avision ona dust abacus. ands). “Two maps a provided in this fs volume to help the reader ind what hor height want to know. The Summary Table af Contents above gives general overview. The Index of names and subjects, romp. BIB, provides ‘more detailed map to this volume. ‘The bibliography hasbeen divided into two sections: sources araiable in English; and other sources. lathe text, references to work Ise in the bibliography give just the autor name and the date of publication, avoid unnecessary reptiton. Abbreviations usedin the teat in the captions to the many iustatons, and in the bibliography of this volume are explained bloLIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Were appropri, coerce flerinfrmaton nthe Bbioropy ar gien in thor“: AUTHOR” A TheAmtan pst Mes, Wicoin AGM Afi Gc de Matheat de (ON motes uu awit nT AANL Atti dell Accademia Pontificia de’ Nuovi Lincei Rorme AGW Abhandlungen der Gesellschaft der oe Oe Niuean iting AMS Amalseniiqessrioms Daas SKC Amaefttitan of Comping TEE News |AASOR Ault American Scho of Oriental AES Arkin forthe ry ofthe xa Scenes fea Canbidgeaa AA niin see aot ee AEE Amen st of cal gees New NY pole aneinnicrii yar AMS Arties moa diced sane Pas [ACI Appendizeal Corpus cripconem ‘AIM. Artif inteligence Magaine ied ccawunnnt A Acta ACL Ani he Comptaton aban of SA AmecarumalfArdciogy — eno V Harvard University (Cambridge, MA APH American journal of Pilogy ‘New York, NY Act toni Cn Ts Seenevcennven Ps Anmuanlanalyftg Nevo NY ACOR Acta Orientalia Batavia AIS American Journal of Science "New York, NY ADA bande de dc Adie paepaenanient mae Wissenschaften zu Berlin . theo * Chicago, IL. ADFU —Auyrabungen der detschen AK Alladta Brussels FeccanpenechghnUnkiris Ban AKRG een decease D0 Amoeba Ay Cenc Ping betn ADOGA Ausgrabungen der deutschen Orient AM — American Machinist Geach in Abas AMA Asia Major Leipzig & London ADP Ainslie Canes AM lage Miaeanstan Ban ADSM am fate Manscips snare {Mme Maceatia ont AEG Apps ri ln qa ft sete Mahan repro tis Mia ANS Anatolian Studies London ASC Am emis Sci Caton Pai ARO Amal ie fo dir seecavven ae cuter ARO Andi Onn Gut sm AGA sepa anda akden OMT Ae Creede Tetmes Neston AGM —Abhandlungen cur Gauhiche der Mathemai epgASME ASNA ASOR ASR ast ASTRI ar aru voz avr American Oriental Sees Arabi Papyrin the Egyptian Library Arabica Ree dituds arabes AnnualReport of he American Buea of Bthnolgy Annual Reportofthe Bara ofthe Smtuoian nsttation Archon Archeooia Archaea Archaalogy Armes Aries ples de Mark Archiv Oren Atoms Sadies Annals da service de anti de Ege AsyroogicheBibthel Archaic Sure of Ege Archaeal Survey of ado Anal i cies tematic fiche Annuaire del sci fanaie de uiomatique et arhilpie American Schoo of Archaic Rech Annaler de sence phase atures Abandlungen am schcicerischen Recht Asgrilga Studer Arches uses des tadtonpopalaies Astronomicindinne Annales des Tommnicatons Arcs Tete Uruk Zeichner Archaschen Teas Urak New Haven, Leyden Washington, DC Washington, DC Rome Rome Landon ‘New York,NY ais Prague Princeton. NL 1856 Giro Lei london New Dei Rome Pas Ann Arbor M yon er tcp. IL sis Pais aAB BAE ulin decademie de eique Brusels ible Agia Buses [BAM Blin ofthe American Mau of Natural AMS BARS ARSE mR Lem aR BMB MET BMIRS: MGM RAL Bsa sc History [New York. NY ulin fhe American Mathematical Society Bulletin de Académie polonisedes Scenes Warsaw ulin de Académie real des wencest ale etre de Braces Brussels aletinofthe American Schaal of Orta Reach ‘Ann Arbo, Mi ulin du Ob frag dea médaile Pave alin ofthe Calta Mathematical Society Caleta ulin des cnet matinatigues Paris uletn de Eels Bane Ore Paris tan ete sureglschen Pile Lelpaig Abt fr Tcikgashiche Vienna ulin de eraphic historique et descriptive Pats ulin hspanique Bordeaux ilthiquedhumaniomes de Reaisance Geneva len de att fama atigites vintales Cairo uletinf the iat of Mathematical Applications ulin ofthe fob Ryland irary Manchester, UK ulti dion de priser de matimatigacs Paris el Laboratories Record Marry, NJ iblitca Mathematica ulin for Mathematics and Biophysics ulin du Mune dthnlogie de Tada Bigaphicl Memoirs of Flies of he Royal ‘sity tendon ulin ofthe Maras Government Miseam Maas olin de li Real Acadoms dele Mitoia Madi ulin dela Soci damp Pari ulin cetfigue aisSEIN sre see BSP Bs! Bs SMA ASME asa SNAF soas: ast can. CARH cant cape caw oe cent cars ccc ac ae alin de Soci encouragement pour indasrienainaale ‘ulin de a Soci angie Ele Bulan del Soi fais de phesophie ‘Buln ea Soci prohistorigue franaie Bistc Sinica ‘Bulan dea Soci mathimatige de race ‘Ballin descecesmathimatigs ek ‘stromag etn di ibgrfiae dstaria dle wie mtematiche fiche ulin dela Sait de deine mentale let dela Sai nationale det antiguas de France uletinof th Schoo of Oretland “Aican Stas al Sten Technology Contbutin to American Archaea Conbution to American Anthypolegy and History The Cambridge Ancient istry Corps of abi and Prin Irptions Bihar Carnegie station Chronique dpe, in: Bullen perdu ela Fondation yin dela eine Fliabth Contras Comparative rap Studies A Catalogue of Grek Canin the Brith Macon China Review Conpes des Inscriptions du Cambodge Comps inscription enacaron Pats Pass Pats Pats Pats Pass Pr Rome Paris Paris London Maer Hl NJ Washington, DC Washington, DC Cambridge. UK, 1963 Pains Washington, DC ruses Copenhagen wecorots 1970 4G Conpuinsriptionim gaecarum CL Gonpusinaciption tdicoram UN Conpesnsriptionum Indira CL Conpuinsiptionum latina (1S. ——Conpuinaciptionumseiticaram IW Coinsfthevisk War CCNAE Contains to Noth American Ethnalgy NP Corpus Nummorum Pletinensiom COWA. ReaineChronlgesin Old World Archesogy CH Clic Philo PIN Le Cabin des pingons de nprimeie ational CR lsc Review RAL Compe des stances de Acai des Iscrpion et Ble Lets (RAS. Comptes eas des sances de Acad desSenes RCI Comptes nas Dew Cos intrational de Matimatigue de Paris CRGL Compress du Groupe ligustigue esha etgue CRSP Compe eat dea Sci impeiale orton de aletine (CSKBM. Catalogu of Sanit Buddit Manat inthe Bish Masur CCSMBM Ctl of Siac Manuscripts inthe rth Maxam (CTBM, Caner Tes frm Babylonian Tals inthe British Mac De Templede Dendara DAA Denkmaeraus Agpten und Athopion London, Benars & Caleta, 1888-1929 spa Bet, 1861-1943, Pais, 1889-1932 ‘Washington, DC Jerusalem Chicago. tL Paris, 1963, Paris Pass Pais London London, 1896jo DMG DR bs se bv BING a Bs Dictionnaire arcu dele Bible Dictionnaire de Académie frangaise Death Alou Expeition (abies del Dégation rcilogigue fraaiseea ron Dicionsie des antiguitsgrecues et Denke de Aten Reichs Mase von airs Dicionaire arcu des techniques Dictionnaire dela ciation inden Dictionnaire dela cation romaine Demotices Gosia De Geis egum Anglo ibe Derksen isos i the Judean Dee of dan uments in Myenean Grek Divination aration Der Sci Dicionaryof Sec igraphy Dictionnaire de Trova Le Temple ja des estas Enolopacia Britannica nlp oda des ries plains leona epirapicgrocae lial Engineering pivapia grea Fpigaphia indica Eyl de sam Pais: Hara, 1970 Bedi Pais Pri Accel, 1963 seecrnepsnic Clarendon ress, Orford Pais: Le Seal, 1974 Pai, 7 ich London Pais Pais aleuta Leyden, 1908-1938, B—Enycopeadia fdr [EMDR Entwicug der Mathematik in der DDR MW Enguterdu Middle wallone ENG Payincring EP Enaylopiiedela Pade EPP Eerie ea pyc des pple FRE Enyclopadiaof Religions and Eth ESIP Fetus Sytimesidoraphiquset prague xpresives ESL LBipaceti tre ISM. Buyepiides sine matimatigues EST Enclopiiinternatinale de science deechnigues BUR Farge EXP Expedition FAP Fonts tq Ponte Be Fesgabe fir edna Banner EHP Facsimile ofan Byption Hira opyras FIN Das Matemater Vins im ist est Abia anNadi FMAM Field Maseum of atral History FMS Faibmitlatelihe Sudin GIES Glasgow tsiute of Engineers and hipbuildersin Scotand GKS Das Grahdentmal des nie Sabu Re GLA Deserrithmaica practise peas Hear Glaran stone LO Glob GGORILA Re des inrptins nine A GT Gana by Sepa GTS. Ganitasirasamgrahaby Mahdvira Jeraslem Bein, 1974 Pasi Pais Paris A. Colin, 3968 Edinburgh & New York, 1908-1921 Paris UGE, 1977 Paris, 1908 Paris, 1872 Pilea, PA see: AAT (1983) Chicago Bein Pais, 1554HAN Hinde Arabic Numerals ESP Heyer Archives berbie ct ulin de ita des Hotes Etude marosies HE Historical rogments NAG "Hommage 6 Giterboc in Anatian Stubs GE Handbuch derrchchen pigrphik NGS Histoire pnéale des scienees UCT Hae Library Colection of Caniform Tablas HMA Historia mathematica MAL Handbokof Middle Americen Indians NE Handbuch de Nodemichen Epirophik HOR Handbuch de Orentalisik HP HiatichePlgraphie HPMBS. The History and Placrraphy of Mourpon ‘rahi Spt How Union Colege Anu. S.HLBlank HUcA, 1A nian Aniguary IDERIC Inst dudes et derecherches Interethnigueseinterculuclls Te) tel xpration our SIS. Indian Eiraply and South indian Srpts THE Lar cpt hebracsde spa THQ. Indian Historical Quarterly UES International journal of Evivamental Shs WHS Indian Journal of Histor of Sciece IMCC Listes genres des scriptions Moramens Champa td Cambadge NEP nian Eira INM fade Noesand Monorephe Istanbul, 1974 New Haven, CT Austin, 7X Leyden & Cologne Bombay Nee Jeewsalern Caleta a I 80s var ASA, 1as8 B wes JA 7 r JH mA ys INES, xs as RAS, RAS DietescenAsahaddons, Knigvon Asien sesoncen oral Orta Stuis Indice Palaesgraphic seeraunuen Inscription Reel, Documents from the ime ofthe Bibl, he Misha adtheTlud Inscriptions sates Champa etd Jerusalem, 1973 Cambodge seersanTi i, rehire des scenes Journal asitique Pasi Journal of the Athlone of ret Britain Journal ofthe American Orin Sociay Baltimore, MD Ioural of Appi Pcoligy Journal ofthe American Satie scan Journal ofthe Asia Soity fengel Caleta Fis Bin se: RONG aN Journal ofthe Bombay branch ofthe Raye ‘AsiatiSociy Bombay oral of Cuneiform Sates Neve Haven, Jounal of Eptian Archaclgy London Soural of the rani nite ‘Jahrbuch iter die Forchrte der Mathematik Journal of Hele Stes London Jur of the tte of etaries Ioaral ofevish tis London oural of oar Ester Studies Chicago, tL Jornal and Pocedings ofthe Asiatic Seciety of Bengal Catuta Jnl ofthe Roel iat Society London ara of the Roya Asai Scety of Bega Journal ofthe Royal Asati Soi of rat Britain and Ind LondonIRSA. Jouralefthe Raya Sey ofthe ns Landon MARB- Menai deAcdéniengalede Braces Brass IRS oral ofthe Ryall Saity [MARI Mar Amaedececes ISA Jouraldelsoitéds americans Pai ined Ps 1S uae emf stamens London MAS Monuin afte Astronomia Society JS Journal desiree dl Alemape MEM Mansi gfte Care Micun Washington,DC MCT MatemaalCnifm ats seesneuorsauen AL Kanani vmaienciten se sonen & ee KAY TheKasbmiran thar Yoda limo MD, 101 Sasol 1-5) conined a Mla dl Dato en ere. 13, KR Thelin Mine Aramaic api sesnaastane Mure iencnanhaieee Pose KS Kachin Sugons Kiigvon Assen se:t¥0N (os 4-20), Mémoires dela mision rca on ron (1-30), LAA Anmalsfrchaesegy and Antroploy Liverpool Mémoires dela degation aclu en Iran (os) TAL Lalita Sita sean trea Lat etomas re chon 1 LAUR Per Laredo! Rc tations ng dela Fact rence int arith Hamburg 1698 MG MorenndsheGeelichat BAT Lt Baboon Arona and Related MGA Matematica! Gate Te seecninenes & MIOG- Mateunge des sir tere Staaswaten Gaxhihfachang Jona DL Late Old ablnion scone eters se: HINRELSTEIN MMMM Miso Frankfurt/Main Uv Loan MMA Memais ofthe Mascam fAntipolny Ann Atbor, MI Liab hist seuoviveor MMO Maca Monarapls Philadelphia, A LOE Thee off see nanns MNRAS Mont Nolte Rp! sono LOK tolanbhigr see avonrmous Saciey MP Micon Pap ‘sn Abo, MA. MathonticheAmaln MPB— Mathenatichpysliche ithe Lipig MAA tes Mathematius arabes see-yousnnerorren PCI Miia propagation ds cies MACH sacrig ight inde swore MAF Ménard airframe as MSA Mini dels damplge Pai MAGW Mitten der Antroplgcen YMSPR_ Milner aude Sama de Pepys Geach in Wien Vienna aie MAPS. Menifthe Amero Pipl MT Mathematia Teacher Soy Padi, MTL Matemati hdcp MAR DieMathemair and Astonmen der MUS Mile deers Sent oph Herat ‘Arab unde Were see:soreRN LeNabaten sec canrineay NA Nature London [NADG Neue rchider Gellar alter least Gchichtande Hanover NAM Nowlls Annalee Mathematiques Pais NAT LaNate Pais NAW —NianwArhiwor Wishunde [NAWG _Nahrichun der Abademie der Wisemchaton a Giger Gattngen NC Numismatic Chole London [NCEAM Notice sues carci ranges ancient tmoderes serrossey NEM Notieet Eris der Mamas dela ‘ibothgue nationale Pais NMM National Mathematics Magne NNM Numismatic Nos and Monographs NewYork [Note Chritphort Notnagel Press Wienges attatinam mathematica ‘Witenberg 1645 NS Newstin Landon NYT New Yk Times NZ Numiomatick echt Vienna OED Oybrd Engh Dictionary OP Oriental site Pabications Chicago OR Orientala Rome PA Popular Arona EQ. Paletine Eplortion Quarterly London PET Perel Frtifation Tablets see naLLocn. PGIEAO Pay c desta fanais Arche orieae aio PGP Paldophiederrichichen apy) see st1D ER PHYS Piss Buenos ies PL ThePaleography of dia see: ona PIB Palegraphia teria seer nun Pus PMA PMAE PRMS PRS, PRU Psa SREP pres. Pome a6 RA RACE RARA RB BAAS RAE. aso. RE Prceding ofthe London Mathematical Sai Prt Lnguaram Oriental ‘The Placeof Minos Periodico matematco apes of the Peabody Mesum Praceding ofthe rho Socty yi Reviw Topographical Bbgraphy Pweg ft aa Sciy Le Paisryald Up Prwcedingofte Soe eal Arharsy Palin dela sce rae pine separa Phish! Pasco ofthe Ryl Sede apy the ier of Mian tection (Ql und Stade sur Gencc der Mathematik. Astronomiewed Physik Rene dAsyrnogie Archie vente Rea Academia de Ciencias Exact, scasy Naturales Rowe archivogique ara Aihmetica Rove bibique Rap ofthe Buti Soci forthe Advancement of Scene ‘Rap of the Cambridge nthoplical xpdtion the Tore Sits Rota del St Oita owed fpaleie London Berlin Cambridge MA and moss London london Caio London etn Pais Madrid Pais Saint Benne ondon Cambridge, 1807 Rome Pais