Short Wave Infrared Functional Groups of Rock-

forming Minerals
Carsten Laukamp

Report number EP115222

August 2011
Enquiries should be addressed to:

Carsten Laukamp
Centre of Excellence for 3D Mineral Mapping

CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering

26 Dick Perry Ave, Kensington, WA 6151 PO Box 1130, Bentley WA 6102, Australia

Ph: +61-8-6436 8754 Fax: +61-8-6436 8586 Web: http://c3dmm.csiro.au

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Contents
1. Introduction..........................................................................................................3
2. Mineral Groups ....................................................................................................4
2.1 Di- and tri-octahedral phyllosilicates......................................................................... 4
2.2 Sorosilicates ............................................................................................................. 8
2.3 Inosilicates ................................................................................................................ 8
2.4 carbonates .............................................................................................................. 10
2.5 sulphates ................................................................................................................ 11

References...................................................................................................................12
Appendix a – Table .....................................................................................................14

i
List of Figures

Figure 1 Visible-near (VNIR) to shortwave infrared (SWIR) reflectance spectra of selected rock
forming minerals showing band assignments of diagnostic absorption features.  -
stretching,  - bending,  - combination of stretching and bending, 2 - first overtone of
stretching fundamental, 3 - second overtone of stretching fundamental, n - arbitrary
number of respective stretching vibration according to literature. ......................................... 4

Figure 2 Schematic representation of the four layer types of phyllosilicates according to the
McEwan 1/1, 2/1 and 2/1/1 patterns (Meunier, 2005). Grey triangles - tetrahedral layer;
grey rhomb - octahedral layer; grey circle - interlayer cation................................................. 5

Figure 3 Cationic planes of three different layer types of phyllosilicates (Meunier, 2005). 1/1
minerals have two cationic planes, one tetrahedrally coordinated (1) and one octahedrally
coordinated (2). 2/1 minerals contain three cationic planes ("9Å phases"), and an
additional fourth cationic layer (interlayer sheet) when the structure is not electrically
neutral ("10Å phases"). The difference between the di-octahedral (e.g. muscovite) and tri-
octahedral (e.g. biotite) "10Å phases" is represented by the vacant third cation site in the
di-octahedral phyllosilicates. 2/1/1 minerals have two tetrahedrally and two octahedrally
coordinated layers. The octahedral layer 4 is also often referred to as the "brucite-layer",
whereas the combination of layers 1, 2 and 3 is referred to as the "talc-layer"..................... 5

Figure 4 Mineral space of mica like di-octahedral 2:1 phyllosilicates ("10Å phases"). Locations
of major absorption features in italic (values from Bishop et al., 2008; Post & Noble, 1993
and own studies). ................................................................................................................... 7

Figure 5 NIR spectra of natural amphibole powder samples. OD-bending vibrations are marked
in red (from Termin & Laukamp, in prep). .............................................................................. 9

Figure 6 Composition space of major carbonates showing exchange vectors that relate end
members for these minerals (modified after Spear, 1993). Locations of the 33CO3
absorption feature of selected minerals are given in italic (values from Gaffey, 1984, 1986).
.............................................................................................................................................. 10

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 REFERENCES

1. INTRODUCTION
The aim of this report is to deliver an overview of the functional groups in rock forming
minerals that are causing diagnostic absorption features in the short wave infrared.
Functional groups are molecular clusters responsible for fundamental vibrations in the
mid and far infrared and therefore governing the respective combinations and
overtones in the shortwave infrared (1000 - 2500nm). They can be used to explain the
occurrence of absorption features, by linking the absorption to the chemical
composition and crystallographic structure of a mineral. The functional groups are
listed in a summary table, which is attached as csv-file to this report. This overview can
be used to

 correctly assign diagnostic absorption features in the short wave infrared,

enabling more detailed evaluation of the mineral chemistry, and

 localisation of applicable seeding values for Gaussian deconvolution of

absorption features related to mineral species, groups or mixtures

Absorption bands related to bending and stretching vibrations of major rock forming
minerals, such as hydroxylated silicates, carbonates and sulphates, occur in the mid-
and far-infrared. In di-octahedral phyllosilicates (e.g. white mica) for example,
stretching fundamentals are located around 3642cm-1 (2746nm) to 3581cm-1 (2793nm)
and bending vibrations are located around 924cm-1 (10823nm). Absorption features in
the short wave infrared are mainly related to overtones of stretching vibrations and
combinations of stretching and bending vibrations. Combinations of the stretching and
bending fundamentals of the Al2-O-H feature diagnostic for di-octahedral phyllosilicates
can therefore be calculated at 4566cm-1 (2190nm, ~ muscovite, paragonite) to 4505cm-
1
(2220nm, ~ phengite), which is confirmed by experimental results (for summary see
Martinez-Alonso et al., 2002). The first overtone of the Al2-O-H feature is located in the
7100cm-1 (1400nm) region. It is shifted to longer wavelengths compared to the double
frequency of the stretching fundamental, as the OH-group behaves as an anharmonic
oscillator (Burns & Strens, 1966).

Typical visible-near (VNIR) to shortwave infrared (SWIR) reflectance spectra of

selected rock forming minerals and assignments of diagnostic absorption features are
shown in Figure 1. Absorption feature assignments are assembled from literature or
based on own calculations (e.g. Termin & Laukamp, in prep). The lower and upper
limits refer to the extent of the wavelength positions reported or calculated for each
infrared functional group (see appendix 1: table). It should be noted that there are more
predicted absorption bands, based on combinations and overtones of fundamentals,
than the number of absorption features observed in experimental studies (e.g.
+(Mg)2OH in mica-like di-octahedral phyllosilicates, Martinez-Alonso et al., 2002).
That is each functional group causes an absorption band in the mid or far infrared and
the combination of the frequencies of these absorption bands lead to absorption
features in the SWIR. To highlight the difference, fundamental vibrations are always
expressed as "absorption bands", whereas combinations are expressed as "absorption
features" in this report. This report provides an overview of SWIR functional groups of
REFERENCES

major rock forming minerals, summarised in the attached table (Appendix 1). It is not a
comprehensive overview of all absorption features in the SWIR. Cited literature does
not comprise all of the related publications and the reader is referred to further
references mentioned in the cited publications. Please see also the mineral
spectroscopic literature on \\Fswa1-per\cem-share1\C3DMM\Mineral_literature and
references listed in CSIRO report 199R (Walls et al., 1997).

Figure 1 Visible-near (VNIR) to shortwave infrared (SWIR) reflectance spectra of selected rock forming
minerals showing band assignments of diagnostic absorption features.  - stretching,  - bending,  -
combination of stretching and bending, 2 - first overtone of stretching fundamental, 3 - second overtone
of stretching fundamental, n - arbitrary number of respective stretching vibration according to literature.

2. MINERAL GROUPS

2.1 Di- and tri-octahedral phyllosilicates

Di- and tri-octahedral phyllosilicates represent a major group of rock forming minerals
that shows diagnostic absorption features in the SWIR. The phyllosilicates were
separated in 5 major groups, based on their layer structure:

 di-octahedral 1:1 phyllosilicate ("7Å phase"): e.g. kaolinite

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 REFERENCES

 tri-octahedral 2:1 phyllosilicate ("9Å phase"): e.g talc

 di-octahedral 2:1 phyllosilicate ("10Å phase"): e.g. muscovite, phengite,

celadonite

 tri-octahedral 2:1 phyllosilicate ("10Å phase"): e.g. biotite

 tri-octahedral 2:1:1 phyllosilicate ("14Å phase"): e.g. chlorite

This separation is partially adopted from Meunier (2005) who summarises four principle
layer types of phyllosilicates according to the McEwan 1/1, 2/1 and 2/1/1 patterns
(Figure 2, Figure 3), but extended these by considering the number of octahedral sites
filled in the respective phyllosilicates, which bears important information about the
contained infrared functional groups.

Figure 2 Schematic representation of the four layer types of phyllosilicates according to the McEwan 1/1,
2/1 and 2/1/1 patterns (Meunier, 2005). Grey triangles - tetrahedral layer; grey rhomb - octahedral layer;
grey circle - interlayer cation.

Figure 3 Cationic planes of three different layer types of phyllosilicates (Meunier, 2005). 1/1 minerals have
two cationic planes, one tetrahedrally coordinated (1) and one octahedrally coordinated (2). 2/1 minerals
contain three cationic planes ("9Å phases"), and an additional fourth cationic layer (interlayer sheet) when
the structure is not electrically neutral ("10Å phases"). The difference between the di-octahedral (e.g.
REFERENCES

muscovite) and tri-octahedral (e.g. biotite) "10Å phases" is represented by the vacant third cation site in the
di-octahedral phyllosilicates. 2/1/1 minerals have two tetrahedrally and two octahedrally coordinated layers.
The octahedral layer 4 is also often referred to as the "brucite-layer", whereas the combination of layers 1,
2 and 3 is referred to as the "talc-layer".

The five layer types and the multiple combinations of the respective types in
interlayered phyllosilicates can lead to a large variety of absorption bands in the SWIR.
Only the combination bands related to the main functional groups of the di- and tri-
octahedral phyllosilicates in the SWIR are discussed here.

Kaolin group minerals, as the main representative of the dioctahedral "7Å-phases"

shows a characteristic doublet consisting of a major feature fixed at around 4530cm-1
(2209nm) associated with a secondary feature at around 4630cm-1 (2160nm) (Frost &
Johansson, 1998). This doublet can be decomposed into four absorption bands, with
the three short wavelength ones related to stretching vibration of the inner hydroxyl
groups (Al2OHi - i.e. hydroxyl groups bond to the tetrahedral layer, Figure 2) and the
major long wavelength one related to stretching vibration of the outer hydroxyl group
(Al2OHo) (Frost & Johansson, 1998). Changes in the shape of this characteristic
doublet are related to changes in structure and crystallinity of the kaolin group mineral
(Cudahy, 1997, and references therein). Kaolin can also display a weak to medium
absorption feature at 4468cm-1 (2238nm) related to +(AlFe3+)2OH, where its intensity
increases with increasing ferric iron content. Other combination bands in kaolin group
minerals are located at around 4202cm-1 (2380nm), overlapping with 515cm-1(M)3OH
of amphiboles and talc, as well as at around 4292cm-1 (2330nm), overlapping with for
example Mg-rich carbonates and Fe2+-rich amphiboles.

Talc belongs to the group of tri-octahedral 2:1 phyllosilicates ("9Å phase"). The general
composition of talc can be expressed as Si4O10M3(OH)2 with a Mg-only occupation of
the M-sites in the talc sensu stricto endmember and replacement of Mg by ferrous iron
in minnesotaite. In pure talc a characteristic doublet can be observed in the 2320nm
wavelength region that comprises the combination of the stretching at 3676cm-1
(2720nm) (Petit et al., 2004), with the bending at 650cm-1 (15384nm) and at 690cm-1
(14492nm) respectively. The two resulting absorption bands are located at 2300 and
2279nm respectively, overlapping with the Mg-rich endmembers of the actinolite and
hornblende series, due to their structural similarity. Also the third major absorption
band of talc located at about 4200cm-1 (2380nm) (515cm-1(M)3OH) overlaps with Mg-
rich amphiboles such as tremolite. To separate talc from these amphiboles, a weak
triple feature (2077/2127/2172nm) characteristic for talc can be used.

Di-octahedral 2:1 phyllosilicate ("10Å phase") comprise the large group of white micas
(e.g. paragonite, muscovite, phengite, celadonite) as well as smectites (e.g.
montmorillonite). The dominant absorption feature of these AlOH-bearing
phyllosilicates is due to (Al2OH). The octahedral Al can be exchanged by Fe2+ or
Mg (R2+ in Figure 3), and the related charge imbalance is compensated by exchange of
the tetrahedral Al by Si. Changes in the Tschermak exchange vector (AlVIAlIV(Fe,Mg)-
1Si-1) are reflected in shifts of the AlOH feature, which shifts to longer wavelengths with
increasing replacement of AlVI by divalent cations (Figure 4). It should be noted that
interlayer cations in mica (Figure 3) have no influence on the position of the
combination features (Martinez-Alonso, 2002). Therefore the separation of Na-micas

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 REFERENCES

(e.g. paragonite) from Na-void micas (e.g. muscovite) is not possible with non-lab
based infrared spectrometers. Smectites show the same shift of the Al-O-H absorption
band, with beidellite representing the Al-rich smectites and montmorillonite
representing the Al-poor smectites. However, smectites and mica-like minerals of the
same octahedral composition show a different location of the OH-absorption bands,
located at shorter wavelengths (ca. 2200) for smectites and longer wavelengths (ca.
2220) for illite (Crowley & Vergo, 1988; Martinez-Alonso et al., 2002). Therefore during
interpretation of AlOH-bearing samples, the mineral should be identified first as Al-
smectite or mica, before the octahedral composition can be determined. A second
diagnostic absorption feature of white micas is located at 4255cm-1 (2350nm) (Figure
4), which is absent in smectites and can therefore be used to differentiate the two
mineral groups. This absorption feature becomes more prominent with increasing
contents of ferrous iron or Mg.

Figure 4 Mineral space of mica like di-octahedral 2:1 phyllosilicates ("10Å phases"). Locations of major
absorption features in italic (values from Bishop et al., 2008; Post & Noble, 1993 and own studies).

Di-octahedral 2:1 phyllosilicates, such as muscovite, have in contrast to the tri-

octahedral 2:1 phyllosilicates (e.g. biotite) a vacant third cation site. Both, tri-octahedral
2:1 phyllosilicates ("10Å phase") and tri-octahedral 2:1:1 phyllosilicates ("14Å phase"),
such as chlorites show characteristic absorption features at around 4444cm-1 (2250nm)
and 4274cm-1 (2340nm). In chlorites the (Mg,Fe2+)2OH (interlayer OH related
REFERENCES

vibrations = brucite-layer) shifts from about 2248nm to 2261nm (Bishop et al., 2008)
from the clinochlore to the chamosite endmember respectively. Also the
(Mg,Fe2+)3OH (inner OH of 2:1 talc layer) at around 2350nm can shift according to
the Mg# of chlorite. Different to chlorites, the shorter wavelength feature in biotite is
due to ([AlFe3+],[AlMg])2OH.

2.2 Sorosilicates
Epidote is the only sorosilicate considered in this report. The general formula of the
epidote group can be expressed as A1A2M1M2M3[O/OH/SiO4/Si2O7]. The epidote
series comprises a solid solution series ranging from clinozoisite (Ca2Al3Si3O12(OH)) to
pistasite (Ca2Fe3+Al2Si3O12(OH)) as the two endmembers of the AlFe3+-1 solid solution.
Each OH-group in epidote is bonded to two M-sites, which are occupied by varying
amounts of Al and Fe3+. In literature band assignments of hydroxyl bending
fundamentals are discussed controversially (mainly due to overlaps with Si-O valence
vibrations; for references see Liebscher, 2002), but calculations of the diagnostic
overtones and combinations confirm theoretical locations suggested by Petrusenko et
al. (1992), which state two major hydroxyl related bending fundamentals at 1045cm-1
(9569nm) and 975cm-1 (10256nm) respectively. Combination of these bending
fundamentals with the main stretching vibration located at 3365cm-1 (nm) (Langer &
Raith, 1974) are located at 4410cm-1 (2267nm) and 4255cm-1 (2350nm) respectively.
The first overtone of the main stretching fundamental is located around 6450cm-1
(1550nm). The wavelength position of the first overtone (2(Al,Fe3+)2OH) was used by
Roache et al. (2010) to infer the distribution of epidote series minerals in hyperspectral
drill core data from the Eastern Goldfields (i.e. clinozoisite ≥ 1552.5 vs. epidote ≤
1552.5). However, the overall range of the first overtone is not well established yet.

2.3 Inosilicates
Amphiboles are the only inosilicates considered in this report and are classified in
various amphibole series based on internationally accepted recommendations (Veblen,
1981):

 actinolite series (e.g. tremolite, actinolite)

 hornblende series

 alkali amphiboles (e.g. riebeckite)

 Fe-Mn-Mg amphiboles (e.g. cummingtonite)

This classification is not always supportable when interpreting SWIR absorption

features though. Major SWIR absorption features of amphiboles occur in the 2320nm
and 2380nm wavelength region, overlapping with di- and tri-octahedral phyllosilicates
containing ferric iron, as well as talc and kaolinite. In the actinolite and hornblende
series, the first main absorption feature at 4348cm-1 (2320nm) can be decomposed into

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 REFERENCES

8 bands, which are due to combinations of hydroxyl stretching fundamentals ranging

from 3673cm-1 (2723nm) (Mg3OH) to 3625cm-1 (2759nm) (Fe2+3OH) with two major
bending fundamentals located at 690cm-1 and 650cm-1 (Termin & Laukamp, in prep).
A doublet around 2320nm can be observed in for example Mg-rich endmembers of the
actinolite series (i.e. tremolite in Figure 5), whereas actinolites of an intermediate Mg#
show a broad feature (actinolite/hbl in Figure 5) in the same wavelength range. The
second main absorption feature located at around 4200cm-1 (2380nm) is possibly
related to combination of the main hydroxyl stretching fundamentals with a bending
vibration at 525cm-1. The location of these two major absorption features is mainly
related to the abundance of Mg and Fe2+ occupying the M1 and M3 sites, as these are
the only cation sites connected to the OH group responsible for the respective
absorption bands (Termin & Laukamp, in prep). The M2 and M4 sites, as well as the
12-fold coordinated A-position don't have an impact on the location of the major
absorption feature that could be measured with non-lab based technologies (e.g. ASD,
HyLogging). Therefore, detectable differences between the actinolite series and the
hornblende series cannot be expected. Only the Mg# (or replacement of Mg or Fe2+ by
other cations on the M1 and M3 sites) results in a clear shift or different shape of the
main absorption features of amphiboles in the 2280 to 2420nm wavelength range.
Preliminary studies on cummingtonite and riebeckite suggest the possibility to separate
the actinolite and hornblende series from Fe-Mn-Mg amphiboles and alkali amphiboles
respectively.
3690!
3659!
3(MgM)OH
+ 2MgFeOH
+ 3672 3672
525 3MgOH 3MgOH
2δOD (?) 525
2δOD (?) + +
690 650
H2O-bearing sample δOH δOH 3672
3MgOH
+
525
δOD (?)

tremolite
tremolite
actinolite/hbl

amphibole
cummingtonite
tremolite

Figure 5 NIR spectra of natural amphibole powder samples. OD-bending vibrations are marked in red
(from Termin & Laukamp, in prep).
REFERENCES

2.4 carbonates
Carbonates show several diagnostic absorption features in the SWIR, which all show
considerable changes in location and shape, mainly depending on the amount of Mg,
Fe and Mn replacing Ca. A composition space of major carbonate minerals is shown in
Figure 6. The main diagnostic absorption feature in the SWIR (33CO3; for summary
see Gaffey, 1986) is located between 4273cm-1 (2340nm) and 4348cm-1 (2300nm) and
shows a characteristic left hand asymmetry (Figure 1), pointing to a secondary, smaller
feature on the short wavelength limb of the same feature, probably centred in the 2230
- 2275nm wavelength region. With increasing amount of Mg and Fe the 33CO3 shifts
to shorter wavelengths (Figure 6, Gaffey, 1986). The 33CO3-feature and its secondary
associated feature can be mimicked by a mineral mixture comprising materials
featuring [Al,Fe3+]/[Mg,Fe2+]2OH (e.g. di- and trioctahedral phyllosilicates) and
[Mg,Fe2+]3OH (e.g. amphiboles).

Figure 1 also highlights two other medium to weak, but diagnostic absorption features
in calcite, located at around 5025cm-1 (1990nm) and 5350cm-1 (1870nm) respectively.
These two features appear always as pairs in carbonates and, though decreasing in
intensity with increasing Mg or Fe content, they display as well a blue-shift with
increasing replacement of Ca by Mg and Fe. Due to their overlap with the major
OH/H2O feature at around 1900nm these features can be obliterated, but found to be
very useful when the true nature of a left hand absorption feature in the 2340nm region
is questionable.

Figure 6 Composition space of major carbonates showing exchange vectors that relate end members for
these minerals (modified after Spear, 1993). Locations of the 33CO3 absorption feature of selected
minerals are given in italic (values from Gaffey, 1984, 1986).

10
 REFERENCES

2.5 sulphates
The main diagnostic absorption feature of sulphates that is not overlapping with SWIR
functional groups of other major rock forming minerals is located in the 5748cm-1
(1740nm) region in case of gypsum and alunites, and in the 5405cm-1 (1850nm) region
in case of jarosite. The former feature is either due to OH/H2O & rotational
fundamentals or S-O overtones (Cloutis et al., 2006). Absorption features overlapping
with SWIR functional groups of other minerals are the S-O related ones located at
around 2170, 2220 and 2280nm (Cloutis et al., 2006) and overtones and combinations
related to Fe-O-H at circa 1480nm and 2250nm. Similar to other mineral groups, the
wavelengths of these features can shift considerably across the SWIR, depending on
their composition.
REFERENCES

REFERENCES
Bishop, J., Lane, M., Dyar, M., and Brown, A., 2008, Reflectance and emission
spectroscopy study of four groups of phyllosilicates: smectites, kaolinite-serpentines,
chlorites and micas: Clay Minerals, v. 43, p. 35-54.

Bishop, J. L., Murad, E., Madejova, J., Komade,l P., Wagner, U. & Scheinost, A., 1999,
Visible, Moessbauer and infrared spectroscopy of dioctahedral smectites: Structural
analyses of the Fe-bearing smectites Sampor, SWy-1 and SWa-1, 11th International
Clay Conference, p. 413-419.

Burns, R. G., Strens, R.G.J., 1966, Infrared study of hydroxyl bands in

clinoamphiboles: Science, p. 891-&.

Cloutis, E., Hawthorne, F., Mertzman, S., Krenn, K., Craig, M., Marcino, D., Methot, M.,
Strong, J., Mustard, J., Blaney, D., Bell, J., and Vilas, F., 2006, Detection and
discrimination of sulfate minerals using reflectance spectroscopy: Icarus, v. 184, p.
121-157.

Crowley, J. K., and Vergo, N., 1988, Near-infrared reflectance spectra of mixtures of
kaolin group minerals: use in clay studies: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 36, p. 310-316.

Cudahy, T. J., 1997, PIMA-II Spectral Characteristics of Natural Kaolins,

CSIRO/AMIRA Project P435, Mineral Mapping with Field Spectroscopy for Exploration,
CSIRO, p. 72.

Frost, R., and Johansson, U., 1998, Combination bands in the infrared spectroscopy
of kaolins - A drift spectroscopic study: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 46, p. 466-477.

Gaffey, S. J., 1984, Spectral Reflectance of Carbonate Minerals and Rocks in the
Visible and Near Infrared (0.35 to 2.55 MUM) and its Applications in Carbonate
Petrology, University of Hawaii, 259 p.

Gaffey, S. J., 1986, Spectral reflectance of carbonate minerals in the visible and near
infrared (0.35-2.55 µm): Calcite, aragonite and dolomite, : Am. Mineral., v. 71, p. 151-
162.

Langer, K., Raith, M., 1974, Infrared-spectra of Al-Fe(III)-epidotes and zoisites,

Ca2(Al1-Fe3+)Al2O(OH)[Si2O7][SiO4]: American Mineralogist, v. 59, p. 1249-1258.

Liebscher, A., 2004, Spectroscopy of Epidote Minerals, in Rosso, J. J., ed., Epidotes,
56, Mineralogical Society of America, p. 125-170.

Martinez-Alonso, S., Rustad, J., and Goetz, A., 2002, Ab initio quantum mechanical
modeling of infrared vibrational frequencies of the OH group in dioctahedral

12
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phyllosilicates. Part I: Methods, results and comparison to experimental data: American

Mineralogist, p. 1215-1223.

McLeod, R. L., Gabell., A.R., Green, A.A., Gardavsky, V., 1987, Chlorite infrared
spectral data as proximity indicators of volcanogenic massive sulphide mineralisation,
Pacific Rim Congress ’87: Gold Coast, Queensland, p. 321-324.

Meunier, A., 2005, Clays, Springer, 472 p.

Petit, S., Martin, F., Wiewiora, A., De Parseval, P., Decarreau, A., 2004, Crystal-
chemistry of talc: A near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy study: American Mineralogist, v.
89, p. 319-326.

Petrusenko, S. I., Taran, M.N., Platonov, A.N., Gevorkyan, S.V., 1992, The
investigation of minerals of the epidote group from deposits of Rhodopy’s area by
methods of optical and infrared spectroscopy: Reviews of the Bulgarian Geological
Society, v. 58, p. 1-9.

Post, J. L., Noble, P.N., 1993, The Near-Infrared Combination Band Frequencies of
Dioctahedral Smectites, Micas, and Illites: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 41, p. 639-644.

Roache, T. J., Huntington, J.F., Quigley, M.A., Yang, K., Walshe, J.L., Bil, B.W., Blake,
K.L., 2010, Epidote-Clinozoisite as Hyperspectral Tool in Archean Exploration, 5th
International Archean Symposium: Perth, p. 5.

Spear, F. S., 1993, Metamorphic Phase Equilibria and Pressure-Temperature-Time

Paths, Mineralogical Society of America.

Termin, K. A., Laukamp, C., in prep., Infrared reflectance spectroscopy of calcic

amphiboles, CSIRO.

Veblen, D. R., 1981, Amphiboles and other hydrous pyriboles - Mineralogy: Reviews in
Mineralogy, v. 9A.

Vedder, W., McDonald, R.S., 1963, Vibrations of OH ions in muscovite: Journal of

Chemical Physics, v. 38, p. 1583-&.

Walls, R., Cudahy, T., Yang, K., Scott, K., Huntington, J., 1997, Bibliography of
Spectroscopic Analysis of Minerals, Rocks and Soils Relevant to Mineral Exploration,
CSIRO/AMIRA Project 435, CSIRO, p. 52.
APPENDIX A – TABLE

APPENDIX A – TABLE

14
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