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A B
Schematic for
simulation of
C A1 AM
A
V1 transmission
5uV B
AM 1kHz 100 Hz 1 V/V
0 V
with noise. Generated AM signal.
V2
WHITE_NOISE
A B
Schematic for
V1 C A1 simulation of
5uV A
FM 1kHz 100 Hz
B
FM transmission
1 V/V
0 V
with noise.
V2
WHITE_NOISE
Transmitted FM signal plus noise.
Frequency of FM signal,
fFM(t) = fC + k vM(t) =
fC + kFM AM cos (2 fMt),
follows the fluctuations in
an information signal.
Magnitude (V)
5
0 Modulation
-5 1 index β = 3
-10
-15
Time (ms)
15
10
Magnitude (V)
5
0
Modulation
index β = 6
-5 1
-10
-15
Time (ms)
Observe: 1 fC
fC
1. The higher the modulation 1.2
1
index, the greater the number of 0.8
frequencies the FM signal
contains.
0.6
0.4 β =1
0.2
2. We have placed the amplitude 0
shown here at β = 0.
1
0.8
(Remember that by definition: mf 0.6
≡ β.) 0.4
0.2 β =6
0
D. Mynbaev, EET 2140 Module 14, Spring 2008 8
1
BW FM
Frequency spectrum and bandwidth of an FM signal
The bandwidth of a sinusoidal FM signal can be calculated as
BWFM = 2nfM,
where n is the highest order of a side frequency and fM is of course the
modulating frequency. From the figure at the previous slide, you can see that for β =
1, we have four side frequencies on each side; that is, n = 4. Hence, in this case,
BWFM = 2 x 4 fM = 8fM. In fact, the highest- and the lowest-order side frequencies are
equal to fn = fC + n fM and fn = fC - n fM, respectively. Bandwidth, by definition, is
the range of frequencies a given signal occupies. Therefore, to compute the
bandwidth, we need to subtract the lowest frequency from the highest. In our case,
we obtain: BWFM = fC + n fM – (fC - n fM) = 2nfM.
Note that, in contrast to amplitude modulation, the bandwidth of an FM signal
depends on the modulation index and, therefore, relies on the modulating signal.
However, it is the peak frequency deviation, Δf, that determines the FM bandwidth.
Higher-order side frequencies usually have very small amplitudes. Thus, in
reality, we overestimate the bandwidth we need for practical use. If we neglect those
frequencies whose amplitudes are not more than 5% of the amplitude of an un-
modulated carrier signal, we can use approximate formula:
BWFM ≈ 2(β + 1)fM or BWFM ≈ 2(β + 1) fM = 2(Δf + fM) = 2(kFM AM + fM)
This formula is called Carson’s rule.
D. Mynbaev, EET 2140 Module 14, Spring 2008 9
Frequency spectrum and
bandwidth of an FM signal XSC1
Waveform of an FM signal
G
T
A B
XSA1
V1
R1 1kOhm
FM 1V 100k Hz 10k Hz
IN T
FM
Ge n
Voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO)
kFM (Hz/V)
vM(t) vFM(t)
G
T
A B
Variable control input VCO 8
1kOhm
R1
4 V CC
RST
7 3
DIS OUT Output
6
2 THR
2.8V 320pF
C
FM demodulator
vFM(t) vM(t)
Imax (A)
Imin (A)
v (V)
K (Hz/V)
G Resonant
A B
T
circuit
converts
2kOhm
frequency
R1
variations
FM 5V 100k Hz 2kHz
1m H
L1
1nF
C1 into
amplitude
variations.
G
T
A B
1 2
2kOhm D
R1
1 2
2kOhm D 2nF
R1 Cc
VPD = KPD (Θin – ΘVCO) = constant VPD = KPD (fin – fVCO) = variable
Two same-
frequency Output PD voltage,
VPD (V)
signals with
different Output voltage
phases as Voltage VPD Vout = KPD KLPF
seen by PD = KPD (Θin – ΘVCO) x (Θin – ΘVCO)
Phase detector (PD) Low-pass filter
KPD (V/rad) KLPF (V/V)
Output PD voltage,
VPD (V)
Output voltage
Two signals with Voltage vPD vout = KPD KLPF
different frequencies = KPD (fin – fVCO) x (fin – fVCO)
as seen by PD Phase detector (PD) Low-pass filter
KPD (V/rad) KLPF (V/V)
Case 2 – Input and VCO signals have different frequencies. VCO is set to generate a sinusoidal signal with frequency fVCO. A
phase detector (PD) compares the frequencies of an input signal, fin, and the VCO signal, fVCO,and produces an error voltage
VPD proportional to their difference. This error voltage after filtering is applied to the VCO, which adjust the VCO signal’s to
make fin – fVCO = 0. Since the difference fin – fVCO keeps changing, voltage vout changes accordingly. (Remember,
frequency is a derivative of phase, f = dΘ/dt; hence, phase is an integral of frequency. VCO does this integration.
Voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO)
kFM (Hz/V)
vM(t) vFM(t)
An FM demodulator has to recover the original (information) signal from incoming FM signal.
FM demodulator
FM demodulator
vFM(t) vM(t)
If we could reproduce at the demodulator side the voltage that has controlled the VCO in FM modulator, we
would obtain the information (modulating) signal. But this is exactly what PLL is doing!
Output PD voltage,
demodulator
Output voltage
VPD (V)
vout = KPD KLPF vM,
where vM is
information
Voltage VPD (modulating signal:
~ KPD (fFM – fVCO) vM = AM cos (2 fMt).
Phase detector (PD) Low-pass filter
FM input signal: KPD (V/rad) KLPF (V/V)
vFM = AC cos(2π fC +
kFM AM cos (2 fMt).
fFM(t) = fC + VCO initial signal:
kFM AM cos (2 fMt). vVCO = AVCO cos(2πfVCO)
A phase detector (PD) compares the frequency of an input FM signal with the frequency generated by a VCO
and produces a voltage VPD proportional to their difference. After filtering, this voltage becomes proportional
to an information (modulating) signal and this is the detected information signal. This voltage also forces the
VCO to track an input FM frequency, thus keeping the process running.
G
FM T
Recovered
Input A B Mod Signal
V CO
FM 10V 100kHz 5kHz