Introduction

English has become a global language. In the belief of worldwide, learning and knowing
English language guarantees a better life through enhanced social and economic opportunities.
Grammar rules and vocabulary can simply be taught to eager learners as they can use English for
social and economic advancement.
The importance of English as a global language is unquestionable and to become a
competent user of this language is the demand of the time. English language learning in the
simplest way can be to integrate and use them through suitable strategies as the situation
demands.
Language is a way of communication among people. People all over the world mostly
speak at least one language which is their native, but there is a tendency to learn more languages
in order to be able to communicate with people from different countries. Learners need
motivation which gives them the energy and desire to spend time on learning. Language
knowledge helps us to express our wishes, beliefs, opinions. Nowadays there is a global need for
language learning, which is a process of acquiring the system of sounds, words, phrases,
sentences in the written as well as spoken form and using this system appropriately. The task of
languages teachers is to hand on information concerning foreign language, it means grammatical
rules, vocabulary, learning strategies, etc. and showing the learners how to deal with it, helping
them practise it, motivating them, correcting their mistakes, etc. The process of language
learning – as mentioned above - also contains learning grammatical rules which give the learners
the idea of correct combination of the words and forming sentences.
Communication plays an important role in human’s life. In communication, language is
the most important means to be used when interacting with others to exchange information,
knowledge and ideas. Every country has its own language and its citizens are expected to be able
to use the language well. In the globalization era, people are expected to master more than one
language. Besides their own mother-tongue language, they are also expected to master at least a
foreign language, such as English. Since English is used widely in the world today, it is
undeniable that people have to master it. According to some statistics, more than 85% of
information in the world today is abstracted in English.

1
 People start learning languages for various reasons. Adult people usually need it for their
job. They want to learn the language and improve their level when they know it is connected
with their promotion. Such people learn the language because of extrinsic motivation. We can
talk about the extrinsic motivation also in the case of pupils and students who did not choose
learning languages voluntarily but they have to study it at school they attend. Sometimes they are
not interested in the language at all and when we ask them why they learn the language, their
answer may be: “Because I want to pass the test, or because I want to have good marks.”
Different group of people have an intrinsic motivation. It means that the needs of learning
languages come from themselves. In case of English, they can be for example interested in the
culture of English-speaking countries or they simply do not want to look uneducated when they
travel abroad. The basic task for an English teacher is definitely to motivate his or her students.
He or she must show the importance of English knowledge.
But learning English is more than mastering a certain number of words and memorizing
a set of rules. Grammarians state that effective learning is achieved by interacting with each
other, either orally or in writing. This interaction gives a social aspect to grammar that brings
with it hidden social messages.
However, we cannot escape grammar, it is the backbone of any language and it must be
understood in order to communicate effectively. Every time we write or say something we are
being judged for our grammar, whether it is good or bad. So, having good grammar makes us
look intelligent, it gives us confidence in our further actions.
From discourse analysis viewpoint, grammar and especially the production and the
uttering of well-formed and grammatically correct sentences is essential to the organization of
messages, in controlling the information flow and helps maintaining a coherent point of view.
This paper is aimed to describe the objective condition of expressing Mood and Tense in
English. It includes the main categories of mood in English grammar with an overview in
Romanian grammar.
The purpose of the present paper is to give a clear framework of the main categories of
Mood in English, to present them thoroughly and with objective examples, in order for each
learner of English to be able to separate and understand them.
This paper contains an introduction, four main chapters, conclusions, and bibliography.

2
 Chapter I offers a general overview of the category of mood for which this paper stands
for and introduces certain theoretical concepts and terms which have relevance to the subject
under discussion, words like: “mood”, “voice”, person and number” and “aspect”.

Chapter II, named”The Indicative Mood”, presents the Indicative Mood, with all its
tenses, namely: Present Simple and Continuous, Present Perfect Simple and Continuous, Past
Simple and Continuous, Past Perfect Simple and Continuous, Future Simple and Continuous,
Future Perfect Simple and Continuous.
Chapter III deals with ”The Imperative Mood”. It encompasses a presentation and
comparison with Indicative mood.
Chapter IV is entitled” The Conditional Mood versus Subjunctive Mood” and deals
with the following notions: “condition”, “real and/or unreal condition”, “speculating about the
past”, and modality and modals verbs.
At the end of these four chapters, this paper wishes to realize a clearer picture of the
English grammar, respective the Mood and Tenses categories, making students more aware of the
importance of understanding and learning English in this ongoing society that is constantly
changing.

3
 CAP.I THE CATEGORY OF MOOD IN ENGLISH

Grammatical categorization consists in denoting word classes (parts of speech, i.e. nouns,
verbs, adjectives etc.) and their specific features (case of noun, aspect of verb etc.). The term of
grammatical category refers to a group of elements recognized in the description of particular
languages.
Before starting to talk about the grammatical categories of the verb, some general
characteristics of the verb must be pointed out:
 It is a part of speech that denotes a process in the wide meaning of the word; it expresses
an action, a state, the existence of things or phenomena;
 It has strong connections with the other components of the sentence;
 It performs the central role in the expression of the predicative functions of the sentence;
 It distinguishes itself from the other parts of speech by its morphological categories and
syntactic functions;
 Semantically, the verb possesses the grammatical meaning of verbalism which is the
ability to denote a process developing in time. Lexical verbs denote actions, processes or
states and serve to establish the relation between the participants in an action, process or
state, according to Biber et al (2002).
 Syntactically, the most important characteristic of the verb is its ability to form the
predicate of a sentence. It is well-known that only finite forms can perform this function
while non-finite forms can be used in any function but predicate. Furthermore, any verb
in the infinitive can be combined with a modal verb. The other parts of speech around it
are in a permanent relation of interdependency and determination to get well-formed,
grammatically correct and meaningful sentences.
 The grammatical categories of the verb are: tense, aspect, mood, voice, person, number.
The formative elements expressing these categories are grammatical affixes, inner
inflection and function words. Some categories have only synthetical forms (person,
number), others-only analytical forms (voice). There are also categories expressed by
both synthetical and analytical forms (mood, tense, aspect).
 The most universal feature of the verb is the ability to be modified by adverbs.
 It possesses quite a lot of grammatical categories: mood, voice, person and number, tense,
aspect.

1.1.Classification of verbs:

4
 Verbs may be classified in accordance with several criteria: their form; lexical meaning;
complementation.
1. Classification of verbs in accordance with their form: There are three ways of classifying
verbs on the basis of their forms: in accordance with their morphological structure, derivation,
their base forms:
1.1. Classification of verbs according to their morphological structure (or Composition)
According to their morphological structure (or composition) verbs may be classified into:
1.1.1. One-word verbs, represented by:
a) simple verbs: verbs which cannot be further subdivided into morphological elements, e.g. go,
eat, sit;
b) Compound verbs: verbs formed of two or more
morphological elements written together, e.g. broadcast, underline, blackmail;
c) derivative verbs, i.e. verbs formed by means of affixes (prefixes and suffixes): discover,
mislead, deafen, symbolize.
1.1.2. Multi-word verbs: A multi-word verb is a lexical verb which may be combined with one
or two particles to function as a verb with a unitary meaning. There are three kinds of multi-word
verbs: phrasal verbs; prepositional verbs; phrasal-prepositional verbs.
a) Phrasal verbs: A phrasal verb consists of a verb and an adverbial particle (e.g., sit down, go
away, get off, give in, etc). The verb is usually a common English verb (be, break, come, fall, get,
give, go, make put, take, turn); The adverbial particle is usually an adverbial of place (across,
away, back, down, in, off, on, out, over, up). Phrasal verbs raise two sets of problems: semantic
and syntactic.
i. The meaning of phrasal verbs.
- Quite a large number of phrasal verbs have a ‘literal’ meaning. They retain the individual
meanings of the (base) verb and the adverbial particle, i.e. the meaning of the phrasal verb is
simply a result of the meanings of the two elements (the verb and the particle), e.g. to sit down,
to run away, etc.
In some cases, the base verb retains its meaning and the particle simply adds a special
sense (so, we can fairly easily infer the meaning of the phrasal verb):
on can mean ‘forward’, as in go on, read on, etc.

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 up, off, out can mean ‘completely’, ‘thoroughly’, as in eat up, drink up, finish off, tire out
(=exhaust completely)
In a fairly large number of phrasal verbs, the particle can be omitted without changing
the meaning of the sentence. However, the sentence sounds a good deal better (or more natural)
with the particle, for instance:
Turn round and see who is behind us.
She usually wakes up at about six.
- The meaning of the phrasal verb cannot be inferred from the individual meanings of the (base)
verb and the adverbial particle.
The meaning of the phrasal verb is much more opaque or ‘idiomatic’. The particle
changes the meaning of the base verb to such an extent, that we have to learn their meanings as a
single unit, almost without association with the base verb: to make out (= to decipher, to
understand), to let down (to disappoint), to come round (= to regain consciousness), to turn up (=
to appear, arrive).
Phrasal verbs are quite common in spoken, informal English. In more formal style they
are sometimes replaced by one-word verbs (if there is a synonym):
We decided to carry on. (= continue)
The two girls fell out. (= quarrelled)
Don’t give away any information. (= reveal)
Don’t leave out anything important. (= omit)
A large number of phrasal verbs are polysemantic and, depending on the context, they
can have a literal or idiomatic meaning. For instance, bring up:
Bring the piano / visitor up. (the phrasal verb has a literal meaning, i.e. carry it (the piano)
up, bring him (the visitor) upstairs;
They brought Tom up as their own child. (the phrasal verb has an idiomatic meaning: to
raise, to educate)
ii. In addition to problems concerning their meaning, transitive phrasal verbs, (i.e. phrasal
verbs that take a direct object) also raise syntactic problems:
- When the direct object is expressed by a noun, the noun object is placed either before or after
the adverbial particle (or: the adverbial particle can either come before or after the noun object):
They turned the offer down. / They turned down the offer.

6
 They managed to put the fire out. /… to put out the fire.
The verb and particle may be separated by a fairly short noun phrase. If the direct object
is expressed by a long noun phrase, the particle is placed immediately after the verb (the object is
placed after verb + adverbial particle):
They turned down lots of perfectly good suggestions.
When the direct object is expressed by a (personal) pronoun, the adverbial particle is placed
after the object, i.e. a pronoun object always comes before the adverbial particle:
They turned it down. / They managed to put it out.
b) Prepositional verbs
A verb may also form a combination with a preposition (e.g. call on, look for, look after,
etc.). The verb and the preposition express a single idea:
I’m looking for my keys. (= seeking)
She takes after her grandmother. (= resembles)
Like all prepositions they are always used with objects (noun phrases/ pronouns). The noun
phrase following the preposition is termed prepositional object. In fact, the purpose of the
preposition is to link the (noun phrase) object to the verb. With prepositional verbs, the objects
are always placed after the preposition, for instance:

Look at the picture. / Look at it.

I’m waiting for Mary. / I’m waiting for her.

In some cases phrasal verbs with objects look identical to verbs followed by a
prepositional object (prepositional verbs). But we can see they are different when we use a
pronoun as an object. For instance, run down:
He ran down his own wife. / He ran her down (phrasal verb)
He ran down the hill. / He ran down it (verb+ preposition)
c) Phrasal - Prepositional verbs are combinations consisting of three parts: a base verb, an
adverbial particle, and a preposition (e.g. look forward to, look down on, catch up with, put up
with, etc.). They are partly phrasal verbs and partly prepositional verbs. The purpose of the
adverbial particle is to change the meaning of the base verb. The purpose of the preposition is to
link the noun phrase object to the verb. Both particle and preposition come immediately after the
verb. Phrasal - prepositional verbs are quite common in informal spoken English. They can often
be replaced by a single-word verb in more formal English:
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 The car ran out of petrol. (= finish supplies);

I get on with my teachers very well. (= to have a friendly relationship with);

I refused to put up with his rudeness any longer (=tolerate);

I’ve got a bad cold. You’d better keep away from me. (= avoid)

Other phrasal - prepositional verbs are: to cut down on (= reduce), to look up to (=respect), to
face up to (= confront), to stand up for (= defend), etc.

d) Idiomatic expressions: combinations of verb + other parts of speech, especially nouns, e.g.
give way (= yield), make haste (= hurry, hasten), make fun of / poke fun at (= ridicule), etc. In
these expressions, the verb itself has a diminished lexical value, while the main semantic load is
carried by the nominal element.
1.2. Classification of verbs in accordance with their derivation. Verbs can be derived from other
parts of speech through affixation and conversion.
a) Affixation is the device by means of which a verb can be derived from other parts of speech
through suffixes and prefixes.

Some of the most productive verb-forming suffixes are:

-ize: analyse/A.E. analyse, recognize, modernize, characterize

-ify: certify, simplify, clarify, magnify

-en: it is a very productive suffix added to adjectives or nouns. It has the causative meaning =
“to cause something to be”. Eg broaden, deafen, deepen, soften, widen, shorten; strengthen,
lengthen, heighten.

Prefixes are used to a lesser extent to form verbs from other parts of speech.
Nevertheless, one of the most productive verb-forming prefixes is en- added to adjectives or
nouns: enlarge, enable, ensure, enrich; endanger, enjoy, encircle, enrage, encourage, entrust.

b) Conversion refers to the derivational process by which a word belonging to a part of speech
is changed into another part of speech, without the addition of an affix.

- Quite a large number of nouns can be converted to verbs: to paper (a room), to park (a car), to
service (a car), to process (leather, cheese, data). Most nouns representing various parts of the

8
body can be used as verbs: to head (an expedition, revolt), to elbow (one’s way through a crowd),
to eye (someone with suspicion).

1.2. The Category of Mood

The category of mood is the most controversial category of the verb. It must be
distinguished from “grammatical tense” or “grammatical aspect”. It expresses the nature of
connection between the process denoted by the verb and the actual reality, either presenting the
process as a fact that happened, happens or will happen, or treating it as an imaginary
phenomenon.
Mood is a grammatical concept in which a speaker/writer can express that a sentence is
factual, a command, a formal request, a wish or a false or improbable condition.
E.g.: 1. My sister goes to work by train. (a fact)
2. Would you like a cup of coffee? (a formal request)
3. I wish I were a millionaire! (a wish)
4. If it hadn’t rained, we would have gone into the country. (Improbable condition).
It is often described as the category that refers to the objective evaluation of the truth of
the statement by the speaker. As such, mood can be divided into two types: Realis, which
presents the content of an utterance as a fact and corresponds mainly to Indicative; and Irrealis,
which presents the content of an utterance as non-factual and encompasses Conditional,
Optative, Desiderative, and other hypothetical moods. Some grammarians state that because
Mood and Speech Act/Sentence Type are closely related, the grammatical correlates of Speech
Act (i.e. Sentence Type) are sometimes referred to as Mood (Interrogative Mood, Imperative
Mood).
Mood is one of the kinds of modality, which can be expressed also by lexical means
(modal verbs and modal words) and intonation (melody). Mood modality is based on the
opposition reality unreality. It follows from this that the functional opposition underlying the
category as a whole is constituted by forms of oblique mood meaning, i.e. those of unreality,
contrasted against the forms of direct mood meaning, i.e. those of reality, the former being the
strong member, and the latter being the weak member of the opposition.

9
 Means of expressing modality: lexical (modal verbs), lexico-grammatical(modal
words), morphological (mood), syntactic (structure of the sentence), phonetic (intonation).
Linguists distinguish between objective modality (expressed by mood-forms) and subjective
modality (expressed by lexical and lexico-grammatical means). The category of mood is proper
to finite forms of the verb. It is closely connected with the syntactic functions of the predicate.
The category is revealed both in the opposition of forms and syntactic structures. So the category
of Mood has strong syntactic relation of the significance. Linguists distinguish from 2 to 16
moods in Modern English. The reasons are as follows:
1. The category of mood is in the state of development. Some forms have a limited
sphere of use (he, be), new forms are coming into the system (let).
2. There is no direct correspondence of meaning and form. There are no special
forms for expressing unreal actions (with the exception of the forms “he be, he were”). The same
forms are used to express facts and non-facts: “should/would do/did”. They are treated either as
homonymous or as polysemantic.
3. It is difficult to distinguish between mood auxiliary and modal verbs: “may, let’.
All the scholars organize the opposition of 2 moods: Indicative and Imperative. Indicative is
represented by a system of categories, i.e. tense, aspect, voice etc. It is a fact-mood or a direct
mood. The best description of the category of mood is given by R.J.Binnick (1991) in his book
on “Time and the Verb”: ‘It has in part to do with (very roughly) the speaker’s ‘attitude’ toward
what is said—it may be asserted, hypothesized, expressed as a wish, and so on—is usually
marked by the use of ‘modal’ auxiliary verb as may, might, should(…) Modal sometimes is used
to refer to a formal category of the verb, and sometimes to a meaning category marked by such a
form”.
4. In conclusion, while it is not concerned with temporal relations, it interacts both
with tense and aspect.

1.2.1. The English Moods

English grammar books written by non-English authors enumerate the following moods in
English: the indicative, subjunctive, imperative, infinitive and gerund. Ioana Ştefănescu
(Ştefănescu) 1following English models, speaks only about the indicative and the subjunctive.

1
Stefănescu, Ioana. 1984. Lectures in English Morphology. The Nominal and Verbal Categories of English,

Bucureşti: T.U.B.

10
 She considers that the infinitive, gerund and imperative constructions have a completely
different syntactic status; they are produced from whole sentences under some syntactic
operations. The infinitive and the gerund are called in English non-finite forms.

In the traditional grammars, the notional definition of the category of mood was supposed
to cover the semantic distinction between factual and non-factual or theoretical. So, the
indicative mood in dependent clauses as well as the gerund “normally express factual
meaning”.

It’s a pity that you refused such an offer.

It’s nice being young.

The present subjunctive, the to+infinitive construction and the imperative express non-
factual or theoretical meaning.

The usual enumeration found in the Romanian grammars of English comprises the
indicative, the subjunctive, the conditional and the imperative. A semantic characterization of
these moods is made up: 2

a.The indicative mood shows that the speaker considers the action as real.

b. The conditional mood shows that the speaker considers the action as
conditioned or desirable.

c.The subjunctive mood: the speaker considers the action as a supposed fact.

d.The imperative mood denotes an order, a piece of advice, a request.

Quirk3 does not speak about mood at all. He has not a special chapter concerning this
grammatical category. He inserts the notion of mood in the study of the finite and non-finite
verb phrases. So, in his opinion, finite verb phrases have mood, which indicates the speaker’s

2
Leviţchi, Leon. 1970. Limba engleză contemporană, Morfologie, Bucureşti: E.D.P. Leviţchi 1979, p. 172).

3
Quirk, Randolph, Greenbaum, Sidney. 1978. A University Grammar of English, London: Longman(Quirk 1972, p.

71)

11
 attitude to the predication. “In contrast to the unmarked indicative mood, we distinguish the
marked moods imperative, to express a command, and subjunctive, to express a wish,
recommendation, and so forth.”4 .And he continues by saying that both the imperative and the
present subjunctive consist of the base form of the verb.

Come here at once!

The committee suggests that he come in tie and jacket

However, he reserves a short paragraph for underlining some important features of the
subjunctive mood. Quirk looks upon the subjunctive mood as unimportant in the contemporary
English and that is why it is normally replaced by other constructions. He describes it in three
separate statements.

a.The mandative subjunctive in that-clauses has only one form, the base verb.
This subjunctive is productive, to the extent that it can be used with any verb in subordinate
that-clauses when the main clause contains an expression of recommendation, resolution
demand, surprise and so on. (demand, require, move, insist, suggest, ask etc.). The use of this
subjunctive occurs chiefly in formal style (and especially in American English) where in less
formal contexts one would rather make use of other stylistic devices, such as to-infinitive or
should+infinitive.

It is necessary that every member inform himself of these rules. (formal

subjunctive).

It is necessary that every member should inform of these rules.

There was a suggestion that Brown be dropped from the team.

There was a suggestion to drop Brown from the team.

b. . The formulaic subjunctive also consists of the base verb but is only in
clauses in certain set expressions that have to be learnt as whole.

Come what may, we will go ahead.

God save the Queen!

4
Quirk, Randolph, Greenbaum, Sidney. 1978. A University Grammar of English, London: Longman(Quirk 1972, p.
72).

12
 So be it then!

Heaven forbid that…

5
Be that as it may…

c. The were-subjunctive is hypothetical in meaning and is used in conditional and

concessive clauses and in subordinate clauses after optative verbs like wish. This subjunctive is
restricted to one form: were. It occurs in the 1st and 3rd person singular past of the verb be,
matching the indicative was, which is the more common in less formal style.

If I were rich,….

was

He spoke to me as if I were deaf.

was

I wish I were dead.

was

Actually, a. and b. describe one and the same form (the base form) used with two distinct
values, whereas c. mentions the other subjunctive form (the were form). Thus, the
classification criteria are mixed.
In this paper it will be presented the Indicative mood, the Imperative mood, the
Conditional and the Subjunctive mood.

5
Quirk, Randolph, Greenbaum, Sidney. 1978. A University Grammar of English, London: Longman, Quirk, p. 75)

13
 CAP. II THE INDICATIVE MOOD

The Indicative, the mood of assertion, represents the occurrence expressed by the verb as
a fact, in direct relation to verifiable reality. It is also called the mood of reality as it renders
tenses divided into past, present and future. By tense we understand the correspondence
between the form of the verb and our concept of time, and by aspect we understand the manner
in which a verbal action is experienced or regarded. If the action is complete, the
simple/common/indefinite aspect is used. If it is in progress at a given moment, the
continuous/progressive/expanded aspect is used. 6

Some grammarians hold that, in English, there is also a third aspect of the verb showing
that an action is repeated. They call this aspect the frequentative form. It is made up of will,
for the present:

Children will be children.

When the cat is away, the mice will play.

And of would/used to, for the past:

When my brothers were on holiday, they would/used to get up at nine o’clock.

2.1. The Simple Present

It expresses repeated/habitual/permanent actions. Such actions are usually accompanied by the

adverbs: every (day/week/year/month, etc.), never, occasionally, often, sometimes, seldom, twice
a week, usually, etc.

We go to school every morning. (repeated)

Father smokes too much. (habitual)

Jane works in a big factory. (permanent)

It expresses eternal/general truths, or to make statements of general validity:

Ice melts in the sun.

6
Stefănescu, Ioana. 1984. Lectures in English Morphology. The Nominal and Verbal Categories of English,
Bucureşti: T.U.B

14
 The sun rises in the East and sets in the West.

Present simple expresses also an official planned action or an action belonging to a settled
programme:

The championship starts next Saturday. (will start)

To express a future action:

a) In a conditional clause:

If your cousin comes here tomorrow, we’ll go to the cinema.

b) In a time clause whose action is simultaneous with another future action:

Tom will like English grammar, when he understands it.

In proverbs, sayings and in exclamatory sentences beginning with here or there:

Despair gives courage to a coward.

Here they come!

There goes the train!

Also, in Direct Speech, to introduce quotations.

“Shakespeare says:....... . “

2.2. The Present Continuous

 This tense is used to express an action which started before the present moment, which is
in progress at the moment of speaking, and which will terminate in the future. This form
of the verb indicates that the duration of the action is limited. The feeling of immediate
present is often emphasized by just and now:
The sun is shining in the sky now.
The pupil is just writing the exercise.
 It expresses a temporary action:
We usually go to work by bus, but today we are going by cab.
 To express a definite arrangement in the near future. It is, perhaps, the most usual way to
present somebody’s immediate plans:
What are you doing tomorrow?

15
  To express futurity, especially with verbs of movement like: to come, to arrive, to go, to
leave:
Our friends are arriving tomorrow.
He is going to London on Friday.
 To express a frequent repetition of an activity which has a distinct meaning of annoyance,
irritation, sarcasm. In this case, the verbs are usually combined with such adverbs as:
always, constantly, continually, for ever:
He is always borrowing money from his friends but never gives it back.
Why are the children being so noisy today?
2.2.1. Verbs not used in the Continuous aspect
1. Verbs of perception: to feel, to hear, to notice, to see, to smell, to taste.
But when the verbs of perception are used with meanings which are different from their “basic”
ones, they may be used in the continuous aspect:
Ex: I am seeing my dentist on Friday. (= to meet)
2. Verbs expressing mental activities: to agree, to believe, to distrust, to doubt, to find, to
foresee, to forget, to guess, to imagine, to know, to mean, to mind, to remember, to recognize,
to recollect, to regard, to suppose, to think(that), to trust, to understand, etc.
3. Verbs expressing wish: to desire, to intend, to want, to wish.
4. Verbs expressing attitudes, feelings, emotional states: to abhor, to adore, to detest, to
dislike, to displease, to like, to love, to hate, to love, to please, to prefer, etc.
5. Verbs expressing possession: to belong to, to have, to hold, to keep, to owe, to own, to
possess, etc.
6. Verbs expressing a state, a condition: to appear, to be, to consist(of), to contain, to differ, to
deserve, to equal, to exist, to resemble, to seem, to suit, etc.
7. Miscellaneous verbs: to compare, to expect, to matter, to result(from), to suffice, etc.
8. Modal verbs.
2.3. The Past Tense Simple
According to the way in which they form the past tense and past participle, English verbs are
divided into regular and irregular.
Regular verbs are those verbs that make the Past tense and the past participle by adding the
suffix –ed to their short infinitives: dance- danced; stop- stopped; try- tried; want; wanted.

16
Irregular verbs are those verbs that do not make the Past Tense and Past Participle by adding
the suffix –ed, but have their own forms: to begin- began-begun; to give- gave- given; to see-
saw- seen.
Past Tense Simple expresses an action or state that wholly completed at some moment or during
some period in the past. In fact, The Simple Past Tense is a narrative tense. In this case, a past
tense adverbial such as when, then, yesterday, last week, last month, last year, that day, the
other day, once, in 1989, on Sunday, ago, etc. occurs in the sentence:
Yesterday I met my old friend Jack.
When did the train arrive?
Sometimes, the time becomes definite as the result of a question and an answer in the Present
Perfect:
Where has Tim been?
He has been to the cinema.
What film did he see?
Although the time of the action in the last sentence is not given, it is understood that it occupied
a period of time now terminated.
Some proper names, by reason of their definite meaning, may provide the conditions for the Past
Tense:
Shakespeare wrote thirty-seven plays.
Past Tense Simple also expresses:
 A past habit, or a repeated action in the past:
Grandmother drank three cups of coffee a day. (habit)
In this case used to or would may also be employed.
We went to the theatre every Friday evening. (repeated action)
We would/used to go to the theatre every Friday evening.
 In Indirect Speech to express a Present Tense from Direct Speech:
“We live in a big house”, the girl said.
The girl said they lived in a big house.
 To introduce somebody’s words in Direct Speech:
“Where are the children?”, mother asked.
 In conditional clauses, to express a Present Conditional:

17
 My friend would help me if she were here.
 After the verb wish or after as if/as though; if only; would rather (when the subjects are
different); it’s (high) time:
I wish I were on holiday now.
He is speaking as if he knew everything about the accident.
It’s (high) time my son learnt English, too.
The construction would rather holds a special place. It is followed by a Past Tense if the subjects,
as already shown, are different:
Our neighbours would rather we didn’t make so much noise in the afternoon.
But, if the two subjects are not different, the Short Infinitive must be used:
Paul would rather stay here than go there.
Mention must be made of the fact that in the last cases, the Past Tense form of the verbs is not
used to indicative tense, but rather supposition, implying non-fulfilment or desirability. They are
actually subjunctives.
 To express a future action, in a time clause, which is simultaneous with another one
expressed by Future-in-the-past:
He promised me that he would tell me the truth when he knew it.
The Translation of the Simple Past Tense into Romanian
1. Perfect simplu;perfect compus:
When he opened the door, he saw a dog.
Cand a deschis usa, vazu un caine.
2. Imperfect:
The little boy was very tired.
Baietelul era foarte oboist.
3. Conjunctiv perfect:
Helen said she felt lonely before she met him.
Elena a spus ca se simtea singura inainte sa-l fi intalnit.
4. Conditional prezent:
I would read that book if he gave it to me.
As citi cartea aceea daca el mi-ar da-o.
5. Prezent:

18
I didn’t know she loved music.
Nu stiam ca ii place muzica.
6. Viitor:
The girl said that she would come here when she was free.
Fata a spus ca va veni aici cand va fi libera.
2.4. The Past Tense Continuous
 Past Tense Continuous expresses an action in progress at a certain moment in the past:
I remember that at 8 o’clock my brother was watching TV.

 To indicate that an action was going on (like a “background”) at a time when something
else, more important or more dramatic (the “foreground” action) took place:
While Mary was crossing (the “background” action) the road yesterday, she saw (the
“foreground” action) a flying saucer in the sky.
 To show that two or more actions were going on at the same time in the past:
While mother was cooking, father was reading a newspaper, and the kittens were playing
on the carpet.
 In Indirect Speech, to express a Present Continuous form from Direct Speech.
 To signify a future arrangement seen from a past moment.
 With always to express a repeated action in the past which annoys the speaker:
The two pupils were always laughing during my classes.
 In conditional clauses, to express a Present Conditional in progress:
What would you say if the boys were sleeping now?

2.5. The Present Perfect Simple

An action or state prior to the moment of speaking may be expressed both by the Past Tense
and by the Present Perfect. But, while the Past Tense presents the action without referring to
the present moment, the Present Perfect links that past action with the present. This means
that when we have the Past Tense, we think of the time when something happened or we
narrate a sequence of events at a given time. So, the Present Perfect is used:
 When we are no longer interested in the time when the past action took place, but its
result into the present

19
 I have visited an interesting museum.
 When the past action continues in the present, and, perhaps, it will go on into the future,
too:
Many pupils have learnt in this school.
 To expresses completed activities in the immediate past. In this case, the verb is generally
accompanied by: just, lately, recently, of late, latterly, till now, up to now, so far, up to the
present, during the last week, the last few days, these twenty minutes, etc:
The train has just left.
We have not seen Jack lately.
One should not confuse this use of just with the use of the adverb just meaning barely or
nearly. When having these meanings, it can occur with different tenses:
Mike just wanted to help.
 With words denoting an incomplete period of time: today, this week, this month, this
year, all day, all night, this morning, etc.:
Last week we wrote three letters, but this week we have written only one.
Mention must be made of the fact that this morning, all night, all evening, come with the Past
Tense if they express a complete period of time. Thus, we shall say:
I have seen a good film this morning. (We are before 12 o’clock at noon.)
I saw a good film this morning. (We are in the afternoon or in the evening.)
 How long, when concerned with a period of time extending into the present:
How long have you studied abroad?

Contrast with Past simple

Past simple is used with time expressions which refer to definite times. The time may be stated
or understood. Compare:
I've bought a new car. (indefinite)
/ bought the car after all. (implied definite: the car we talked about)
Choice between past simple and present perfect for recent events may depend on the attitude of
the speaker. This in turn may depend on whether the speaker feels distant in time or place from
the event.
I've left my wallet in the car. I'm going back to get it.

20
Here the speaker may be about to return, and feels that the event is connected with the present.
I left my wallet in the car. I'm going back to get it.
The speaker may feel separated in time from the event, or be further away.
2.6. Present perfect continuous (progressive) can refer to a range of meanings, depending on
the time expression used and the context.
 A state which lasts up to the present moment
I've been waiting for you for three hours!
 An incomplete activity
I've been cleaning the house but I still haven't finished.
 To emphasise duration
I've been writing letters all morning.
 A recently finished activity
I've been running. That's why I look hot.
 A repeated activity
I've been taking French lessons this year
Contrasts with present perfect simple:
There may be little contrast when some state verbs are used.
How long have you lived here?
How long have you been living here?
Some verbs (especially sit, lie, wait and stay) prefer the continuous form.
There may be a contrast between completion and incompletion, especially if the number of items
completed is mentioned.
 Completed: emphasis on achievement
I've ironed five shirts this morning.
 Incomplete, or recently completed: emphasis on duration
I've been ironing my shirts this morning.
Meaning with present perfect verb forms is associated with certain time expressions.
Contrast with past simple may depend on the choice of time expression.
Past simple: referring to a specific finished time. yesterday, last week, on Sunday
Present perfect: with 'indefinite' time expressions meaning 'up to now'.

21
since 1968, already Many time expressions are not associated with a specific verb form, since
they refer both to finished time or time up to the present, depending on the speaker's perspective.
I haven't seen Helen recently.
I saw Jim recently.
Others include: for, never, before, all my life, for a long time, today, all day, every day
These may be used with either past simple or present perfect.

2.7. Past Perfect Simple

We use the past perfect when we are already talking about the past, and we want to go back to an
earlier past time ('double past').
By the time I got to the station, the train had left.
Compare this with:
The train left five minutes before I got to the station.
When we talk about a sequence of past events in the order that they happened, we more
commonly use the past simple, especially with quick, short actions.
Past perfect simple is used with just, already, hardly/barely/scarcely and no sooner, to show
that the past action was finished a little time before another past action:
Mary told us that her brother had just left.
We did not know that he had already repaired his car.
I had hardly/scarcely entered the room when somebody knocked at the door.

2.8. Past Perfect Continuous (progressive)

The same contrasts between past simple and past continuous (see previous
section) can be made in past perfect verb forms for events further back in the
past.
I had been living in a bed-sitter up to then.
While I had been talking on the phone, Jimmy had escaped.
The whole place was deserted, but it was obvious that someone had been
living there. They'd been cooking in the kitchen for a start, and they hadn't
bothered to clear up the mess.
• Past perfect is also common in reported speech..

22
• Past perfect is not used simply to describe an event in the distant past.
• Used to
This often contrasts with the present. The contrast may be stated or understood.
/ used to go swimming a lot (but I don't now).
The negative form is either:
/ didn't use to or / used not to (rare for some speakers).
The form / didn't used to may also be found. This is usually considered incorrect, unless we
consider used to as an unchanging semi-modal form. There is no present time reference possible.
• Would
This is used to describe repeated actions, not states. It describes a habitual activity which was
typical of a person.
Every week he'd buy his mother a bunch of flowers.
Used to would also be possible here. Compare:
I used to like cowboy films.
Would is not possible here.
Would is more common in written language and often occurs in reminiscences.
• These describe events intended to take place, but which did not happen.
/ was going to phone you, but I forgot.
I was thinking of going to Italy this year, but I haven't decided.
I was about to do it, but I started doing something else.
Jack was to have taken part, but he fell ill.
• The contrasting past event is often understood, but not stated.
How are you? I was going to phone you ... (but I didn't).
These are common with wonder.
I was wondering if you wanted to come to the cinema.

2.9. Future Tenses

There are several ways of expressing future actions in English and the choice among them is on
whether the action is planned, intended, scheduled, expected, imminent, etc.7 So, future actions
can be expresses by:

7
Bădescu, Alice. 1984. Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti: Editura Stiinţifică şi Enciclopedică.

23
  Will is normally known as the predictive future, and describes known facts, or what we
supposes true.
I'll be late home this evening.
The company will make a profit next year.
This can also take the form of an assumption.
That'll be Jim at the door. (This means that I suppose it is Jim.)
Will is also used to express an immediate decision.
I’ll take this one.
 Be going to describes intentions or plans. At the moment of speaking the plans have
already been made.
I'm going to wait here until Carol gets back.
Going to is also used to describe an event whose cause is present or evident.
Look at that tree! It's going to fall.
Compare the following with the examples in the first bullet point:
I'm going to be late this evening. I've got lots of paperwork to finish off.
The figures are good. I can see the company is going to make a profit this year.
Decisions expressed with going to refer to a more distant point in the future.
 Present continuous describes fixed arrangements, especially social and travel
arrangements. A time reference is usually included. Note the strong similarity to the
going to future. / am having a party next week and / am going to have a party next week
are communicating the same message.
 Future continuous describes an event which will be happening at a future point.
Come round in the morning. I'll be painting in the kitchen.
It can also describe events which are going to happen anyway, rather than events which we
choose to make happen.
I won't bother to fix a time to see you, because I'll be calling into the office anyway several times
next week.
In some contexts future continuous also sounds more polite than will.
Will you be going to the shops later? If you go, could you get me some milk?
It can also be used to refer to fixed arrangements and plans.
The band will be performing live in Paris this summer.

24
This has both simple and continuous forms, and refers to time which we look back at from a
future point.
In two year's time I'll have finished the book.
By the end of the month, I'll have been working for this firm for a year
It can also be used to express an assumption on the part of the speaker.
You won't have heard the news, of course. (This means that I assume you have not heard the
news.)
 Is/are to be
This is used to describe formal arrangements.
All students are to assemble in the hall at 9.00.
 Be about to, be on the point of, be due to, just/just about to
Be about to and be on the point of both refer to the next moment.
/ think the play is about to start now.
Mary is on the point of resigning.
Be due to refers to scheduled times.
The play is due to start in five minutes.
Ann's flight is due at 6.20.
Just can be used to describe something on the point of happening.
Hurry up! The train is just leaving/just about to leave.
 Present simple and present perfect
Present simple is used to refer to future time in future time clauses.
When we get there, we'll have dinner.
Present perfect can also be used instead of present simple when the completion of the event is
emphasized.
When we've had a rest, we'll go out.
Present simple is also used to describe fixed events which are not simply the wishes of the
speaker.
Tom retires in three years.
Similarly, calendar references use the present simple.
Christmas is on a Tuesday next year.
Hope

25
This can be followed by either present or future verb forms.
I hope it doesn't rain. I hope it won't rain.
Other verbs followed by will.
Most verbs of thinking can be followed by will if there is future reference.
These include: think, believe, expect, doubt.
I expect the train will be late. I doubt whether United will win.
Shall
The use of shall for first person in future reference is generally considered to be restricted to
British English and possibly declining in use. For some speakers, shall is used in formal speech
and in written language

26
 CHAPTER III THE IMPERATIVE

The Imperative is the mood that expresses a command, an order, an invitation, etc. Unlike
Romanian, where the Imperative has forms only for the second person singular and plural, in
English it has forms for all the persons, singular and plural.
 For emphasis, do may be used in the second person, affirmative, too:
Do sit down!
Do be careful!
 The second person imperative usually has no subject, although the implied subject is you.
This is more evident when a tag or a reflexive pronoun is added:
Listen to me, will you!
Behave yourself!
Another form of impatient command begins with will:
Will you come here!
 The subject of the imperative occurs especially when we want to specify the ones that
have obey the command:
You two go to the blackboard! (not some other persons)
Tom and Alice, sit down!
Come here. Albert!
 Indefinite pronouns (everybody, somebody, someone) as the subject of an imperative
may be placed either before or after it:
Someone give us a helping hand!
Answer the phone somebody!
 Intonation may play an important part in using the Imperative, that is it can make a plain
imperative sound polite. Thus, the use of a rising or a fall-rise tone weakens the
imperative force of a command, while the falling tone can change what is normally a
formula into an impatient command:
Be careful!
Go there, please!
 Another way to weaken the force of an imperative is to use the word please or the tag
question will you/won’t you/why don’t you:

27
Please speak louder!
Don’t interrupt him, please!
Listen carefully, won’t you!
 In the last example, won’t you changes the imperative into an invitation.
Help yourself with another piece of pie, why don’t you!
The word just is frequently used with will you or before an Imperative to show that something is
considered unusual or remarkable:8
Just look at that painting, will you!
Just watch that football player!
In many cases it is more tactful to use a request instead of a command
3.1. Imperative clauses (Be quiet!)
We use imperative clauses when we want to tell someone to do something (most commonly for
advice, suggestions, requests, commands, orders or instructions).

We can use them to tell people to do or not to do things. They usually don’t have a subject –
they are addressed to the listener or listeners, who the speaker understands to be the subject.
We use the base form of the verb:

Have fun.

Enjoy your meal.

Stop talking and open your books.

Don’t be late.
Warning:

We use the imperative carefully. It is a very direct form and we don’t generally use it to make
requests or commands or to give instructions.
We can use just, please or if you wouldn’t mind to make an imperative sound less direct:

Open the window a little more, please, if you wouldn’t mind.

Not: Open the window. (too direct)

[Two friends]
A:Ann, are you ready?
8
Bădescu, Alice. 1984. Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti: Editura Stiinţifică şi Enciclopedică.

28
B:Just give me a minute, please.

3.2. Imperative with subjective pronouns

For emphasis, we can use you in an imperative clause:

A: Can I leave the room?
B: No. You stay here.
In negative imperatives of this type, you comes after don’t:

Maria, don’t you try to pay for this. I invited you for lunch and I insist on paying.
Warning:

Be careful when using subject pronouns in imperative clauses, as they can sound very direct.
We can also use words like someone, somebody, no one, nobody, everyone, everybody,
especially in speaking:

Somebody call a doctor. Quick!

Everybody sit down, please.

3.3. Imperative with DO
Warning:

When we use the emphatic do auxiliary, it makes an imperative sound more polite and more
formal:9

[at the beginning of a meal]

Do start. (formal)

Do sit down and make yourself comfortable.

We can use emphatic do in short answers without a main verb:
A: Can I use your phone to call a taxi?
B: Do, of course, by all means. It’s there on the desk.

3.4. Imperative with LET (let’s)

We use let to form first person and third person imperatives.

First person

9
Bădescu, Alice. 1984. Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti: Editura Stiinţifică şi Enciclopedică.

29
Let me see. What should I do?

Let’s start at nine-thirty tomorrow, please. Okay?

Warning:

In more formal contexts, we use the full form let us:

[at the beginning of a meeting]

Let us begin by welcoming our new members.

We can use emphatic do with let’s in formal contexts:

Do let’s try to be more environmentally friendly.

Very often we use let’s (let us) when we are referring to the first person singular (me):

I can’t find my keys. Let’s see, where did I last have them? (or Let me see, …)

We can use let’s on its own in short responses, meaning ‘yes’, when we respond to a
suggestion:
A:Shall we stop now and have a coffee break?
B:Let’s.
Third person

Third person imperatives are not common; they are formed with let + him/her/it or a noun
phrase:

[B is joking]
A:
How will Patrick know which house is ours?
B:
Let him knock on all the doors until he finds ours!

3.4. Negative imperatives

To make negative imperatives, we use the auxiliary do + not + the infinitive without to. The
full form do not, is rather formal. In speaking, we usually use don’t:

[a public notice]

Do not use the lift in the event of fire.

30
Don’t tell anyone that I was here.

We can use don’t on its own in short responses:

A:Shall I show everyone the old photo of you?
B:No, don’t. It’s terrible!

CHAPTER IV THE SUBJUNCTIVE VERSUS THE CONDITIONAL MOOD

31
 The subjunctive mood is non-assertive, it presents non-factual, hypothetical statements. By
using the subjunctive, the speaker considers the action not as real (as existing in reality) but as
hypothetical (as existing in his mind as a possibility, necessity, supposition, doubt, wish, purpose,
etc). Unlike the indicative clauses, the subjunctive clauses lack deictic temporal orientation, i.e.
they are not actualized in time.

The synthetic subjunctive has forms for the present, past, perfect. An important thing that
must be pointed out is that the so-called ‘tenses’ of the Subjunctive are improperly called so,
since they do not mark temporal distinctions as the indicative mood does. The ‘tenses’ of the
subjunctive are used to indicate remoteness from reality in various degrees. The present and past
subjunctive are both employed for present time reference with the difference that the present
subjunctive expresses a greater degree of probability than the past subjunctive (which expresses
doubt).

It is necessary that he be here. (present time reference)

I wish he were here. (present time reference)

Also in the analytic(al) subjunctive:

It is a pity you should miss such an opportunity.

It is a pity you should have missed such an opportunity. (anteriority with respect to a
reference

point)

The absence of these temporal distinctions in the subjunctive mood helps us understand why
the subjunctive describes only possible, not yet actualized (courses of) events.
4.1. THE FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

The subjunctive mood is represented by two forms: the synthetic forms, referred to as the
synthetic subjunctive; the analytic(al) forms, referred to as the analytic(al) subjunctive or
periphrastic subjunctive.

32
 4.1.1. THE SYNTHETIC SUBJUNCTIVE

This form is called synthetic on account of the fact that it does not contain other means, i.e.
auxiliaries in its composition. The synthetic subjunctive is usually defined as a form which is
dying out as an independent mood. Indeed, the simple synthetic forms have lost most of their
distinctive endings, so they cannot always be distinguished from the forms of the indicative
mood. The synthetic subjunctive has forms for the present, the past, the perfect.

4.1.1.1. THE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE (THE OLD FORM)

Form: it is identical in form with the base form of the verb (short infinitive): ask, be.

Its meaning shows an event which can be fulfilled in time and which is thus assumed possible.

Distribution: The present subjunctive occurs in both independent sentences and subordinate
clauses.

a) Independent Sentences (‘Formulaic’ subjunctive)

The present subjunctive in independent sentences is not a productive, living form in modern
English. It occurs in some set phrases (formulaic expressions):

i. wishes:

Long live peace!; God bless you! Heaven help us!

The living, productive form of expressions of this concept is may + verb:

God save the Queen! = May God save the Queen!

ii. oaths, curses:

The devil take him!; Damn you!

iii. Expressions denoting urge, advice:

So be it!; Suffice it to say that…;

Far be it (from me to criticize you)

b) Subordinate clauses (‘Mandative’ subjunctive)

33
 i. The present subjunctive is used in nominal that-clauses (subject, object, attributive-appositive
clauses) when the main clause contains an adjective, a verb or a noun which expresses the
meaning of order, demand, suggestion:

(1) Subject clauses, after constructions of the type: It is + adjective (advisable, essential,
necessary, important, etc):

It is essential that the mission not fail.

It is / was necessary that he go there.

(2) Object clauses, after verbs like demand, desire, insist, order, propose, recommend, require,
suggest, urge, etc.:

They demand / demanded that the committee reconsider its decision.

He proposed that they hold a meeting.

We insist that he not make the telephone call.

In subjunctive clauses, a negation element is always placed directly before the main verb; thus,
no addition of the do operator is possible.

(3) Attributive-appositive clauses, after abstract nouns belonging to the same semantic field:
demand, request, suggestion, proposal:

There was a proposal that he be elected chairman.

ii. The present subjunctive is also used in some adverbial clauses:

(4) Adverbial clauses of condition:

If any person be found guilty he shall have the right of appeal.

If this be error and upon me proved/I never wrote nor no man ever loved (Shakespeare)

(5) Adverbial clauses of concession:

Though everyone desert you I will not.

Whatever be the reasons for it, we cannot tolerate disloyalty. (= Whatever the reasons for it
may

be…)

34
 The use of the present subjunctive is found in older English and in formal (official and legal)
style, e.g. in treatises, resolutions, regulations, also in elevated prose and poetry. The present
subjunctive is quite frequently used in American English.

4.1.1.2. THE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE

Form: It is identical in form with the past tense indicative mood, e.g. asked, wrote. The past
subjunctive is preserved as a form distinct from the past tense indicative only in the verb be,
which has an invariable form for all persons: were. Though in everyday speech there is a
tendency to replace the invariable subjunctive form were with was in the 1st and 3rd person sg, so
as to follow the paradigm of the past tense indicative.

Meaning. It expresses a hypothetical meaning: an unreal event or state taking place at present.
The event or state supposed to be happening at the present time is not taking place: it is
imaginary, or it runs counter to present reality.

Distribution. The past subjunctive occurs in subordinate clauses.

(1) Subject clauses: The past subjunctive occurs after the construction It is (about / high) time:

It’s time we went / were off.

It’s high time you made up your mind.

It’s about time we were leaving.

An equivalent construction of the past subjunctive after It is time… is (for -) to Infinitive.

It’s time to go. (when no subject is expressed)

It’s time for us to go.

There is a slight difference in meaning between the two constructions: The subjunctive (It’s
time we went) implies that it is already a little too late; the infinitive (It’s time for us to go)
implies that the correct time has arrived to do a certain thing.

(2) Object clauses: The past subjunctive occurs after the verbs wish, would rather, would
sooner.

35
 After wish the past subjunctive expresses an unreal situation in the present, regret about a
present action which does not occur. The past subjunctive denotes that what we would like to
happen does not take place:

I wish he were here. = I’m sorry/ I regret he isn’t here.

I wish he were coming with us. = I regret he isn’t coming.

He wishes he knew her address = He is sorry he doesn’t know.

He wished he knew her address. = He was sorry he didn’t know.

Would rather, would sooner are two constructions expressing preference = would prefer. They
are followed by a that-clause (with past subjunctive) when the subjects are different: the person
expressing the preference is not the subject of the action that follows:

S1 + would rather + S2 + past subjunctive:

I’d rather you stayed at home than went out.

She wants to fly but I’d rather she went by train.

Would rather/sooner is followed by an infinitive when the subjects of the two actions are
identical:

I’d rather stay at home than go out.

(3) Conditional clauses:

The past subjunctive occurs in conditional clauses of unreal condition which refers to the
present or future to express an imaginary, unreal situation contrary to present fact (Type2
conditional clause):

If I saw him I would give him your message.

If he were here he would speak for us.

Were is felt as rather formal and is replaced by was in colloquial English: If he was here…

Were persists, however, in some special forms:

- In the expression: if I were you…

I’d be a bit more careful if I were you.

36
- In the construction: were + (to) infinitive:

If I were to see a flying saucer I’d find it difficult to believe

The past subjunctive after if only expresses regret about an action contrary to present reality
(if only is used in a similar way to wish):

If only I were still your age!

He’s up to something: if only I knew what it is.

(4) Adverbial clauses of unreal comparison (introduced by as if, as though). The past
subjunctive expresses improbability or doubt with reference to a present action, or a hypothetical
situation simultaneous with the action in the main clause:

She treats him as if he were a child (unreal meaning: He is not a child).

He talks as if he knew everything (But he doesn’t).

He talked as if he knew everything (But he didn’t).

He felt awkward as if everyone were looking at him.

(5) Adverbial clauses of concession (introduced by even if, even though):

Even though he were ill he wouldn’t miss school.

The past subjunctive is used in both the literary and the colloquial style.10

4.1.1.3. THE PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE

It is identical in form with the past perfect indicative mood: had asked.

Meaning. It expresses events running counter to past reality.

Distribution: The perfect subjunctive occurs in subordinate clauses to express counterfactive

meaning (a situation contrary to fact).

(1) Object clauses: After the verbs wish, would rather, the perfect subjunctive expresses regret
about a past situation or about an action contrary to past reality: what we would have liked to
happen did not take place:
10
Murar, Ioana. 2004. The English Verb, Craiova: Editura Universitaria.

37
 I wish I hadn’t spent so much money (= I’m sorry I spent)

He wishes he had studied French at school.

I wish you had written to him. (= I’m sorry you didn’t write)

I wished you had written to him. (= I was sorry you hadn’t written)

I’d rather you hadn’t done it.

(2) Conditional clauses: The perfect subjunctive occurs in conditional clauses of unreal
condition which refers to the past (Type 3): If he had been here he would have helped us

In clauses introduced by if only the perfect subjunctive expresses the same meaning of regret
about an action which did not occur in the past as wish:

If only I had listened to her (= I wish I had listened to her)

If only you’d been driving more carefully!

(3) Clauses of comparison introduced by as if, as though.

The perfect subjunctive expresses improbability or doubt with reference to a past action:

I remember the movie as if I had seen it yesterday.

He talks / talked about London as though he had been there himself.

(4) Clauses of concession introduced by even if, even though:

Even if the work had been twice as difficult, I wouldn’t have refused it.

4.2.2. THE ANALYTIC(AL) SUBJUNCTIVE

Since some forms of the synthetic subjunctive are falling more and more into disuse because
of the loss of distinctive endings, such forms are in many cases replaced by periphrastic
constructions (or subjunctive equivalents) also known as the analytic subjunctive.

The subjunctive equivalents are, in essence, other means of expressing hypothetical values at
the level of the verb phrase, e.g. wishes, presuppositions, concessions, conditions, etc.

The forms of the analytic subjunctive (subjunctive equivalents) represent combinations of

modal verbs used as auxiliaries + the short infinitive (present or perfect) of the main verb (The
present infinitive for simultaneity or subsequence to the action in the main clause, the perfect

38
infinitive for anteriority). The modal auxiliary verbs used for the analytic subjunctive are:
should, may / might, can / could, will / would.

The distribution of the modal-auxiliary verbs:

4.2.2.1. SHOULD

The modal-auxiliary should occurs in:

(1) Independent sentences or main clauses:

a) to form the present/perfect conditional in the 1st person singular and plural:

I should like to see him. / I should have liked to see him.

I should help him if he asked me.

I should have helped him if he had asked me.

b) in (direct or indirect) questions introduced by who, what, why (‘rhetorical’ questions), as well
as exclamations to express an emotional attitude of surprise, irritation, annoyance:

Why should we quarrel over such a trifle?

‘What’s Tom’s phone number/’ ‘How should I know?’ (= How can you expect me to
know?)

Who should come in but the mayor himself!

(2) Subordinate clauses:

a) Subject clauses:

- After the construction It is + adjective (advisable, essential, desirable, important, necessary,

etc) the analytic subjunctive with should is usually an alternative to the synthetic subjunctive
present or to for-to infinitive:

It is essential that he should be prepared for this.

“ that he be prepared for this.

“ for him to be prepared for this.

It is important that he should not make a mistake.

39
 It is only fair that you should know.

- After the construction It is + adjective (amazing, odd, strange, surprising), or It is + noun (a

pity, a shame, a surprise, a wonder) the analytic subjunctive with should (i) is an alternative to
the indicative mood (ii):

i. It is surprising that he should resign.

ii. It is surprising that he has resigned / is resigning

i. It is a pity that he should have missed such an opportunity.

ii. It is a pity that he has missed such an opportunity.

The difference between the sentences (i.) and (ii.) is the difference conveyed by the two moods:
subjunctive and indicative. The subjunctive mood stresses the evaluation of a possible event
while the indicative mood stresses the description of a real, actual event. 11

According to G. Leech (1978: 72), the subjunctive with should conveys a non-factual meaning
which leaves open the question of the truth or falsehood of the statement. In the forms with the
subjunctive the very idea is stressed, the evaluation of a possible event, while in the forms with
the Indicative the actual fact is expressed (the description of a real, actual event). Thus, the
subjunctive form should have missed stresses a supposition, an idea, that of ‘missing an
opportunity’; we don’t know whether he missed the opportunity or not. By resorting to the
indicative (has missed), the speaker expresses a factual meaning: it is a fact that he missed the
opportunity.

This use of should used to represent something as a neutral ‘idea’ rather than as a ‘fact’ is
termed ‘putatative’.

b) Object clauses:

- After verbs expressing command, decision, order, suggestion like agree, command, demand,
insist, order, propose, recommend, suggest, etc. the analytic subjunctive with should is an
alternative to the synthetic subjunctive present:

11
Murar, Ioana. 2004. The English Verb, Craiova: Editura Universitaria.

40
 We insist / insisted that a meeting should be held.

He proposed that we should postpone our departure.

- After some verbs – insist, agree – either the subjunctive or the indicative is used:

i. John’s father insists that he shouldn’t smoke.

ii. John’s father insists that he doesn’t smoke.

i. When the verb insist introduces an indirect command, order, the subjunctive is used (insist =
demand):

John’s father has ordered John not to smoke.

ii. When the verb insist introduces a statement, assertion, the indicative is used (insist = claim):

John’s father is of the opinion that his son does not smoke.

Note: Depending on the main verb, other structures can be used in these clauses:

- Object + infinitive structure: He ordered them to go.

- Possessive + -ing form: He insisted on their leaving in time.

c) Attributive-appositive clauses.

The subjunctive with should occurs after abstract nouns such as demand, desire, intention,
order, proposal, reason, request, suggestion, wish, etc.

There is no reason why he should be late.

His suggestion that we should postpone our journey was accepted.

d) Conditional clauses:

The analytic subjunctive with should occurs in conditional clauses as an alternative to the
present tense indicative mood (type1 cond. cl.), or to the synthetic subjunctive past (Type 2 cond.
cl.) in order to express a higher degree of improbability, more uncertainty (an action less likely to
occur):

Type 1: If he comes we shall let you know. (Indicative mood)

If he should come we shall let you know (subjunctive with should = If he happens to
come…

41
 If by any chance he comes..)

or: Should he come we shall let you know.

Should the pain return take one of these pills.

Type 2: If you were offered the job would you accept it?

If you should be offered the job would you accept it?

Should you be offered…

e) Clauses of purpose. The analytic subjunctive occurs in:

i. some clauses of affirmative purpose:

They advertised the concert so that everyone should know about it.

ii. Clauses of negative purpose introduced by so that (+ negative verb, pronoun), lest, for fear,
in case (+ an affirmative verb):

He spoke slowly so that there should be no mistakes.

They set a strong guard lest anyone should escape.

He hurried for fear he should be late.

He left early in case he should miss the last train (= so that he shouldn’t miss it)

Note: Since both clauses of purpose and clauses of result are introduced by the same
conjunction – so that -, it is the form of the verb that distinguishes them: the verb in the clause of
purpose is in the analytical subjunctive (with modal auxiliaries), while the clause of result
normally contains a verb in the indicative:

He slept with the money under his pillow so that no one should steal it. (Purpose)

He slept with the money under his pillow so that no one stole it. (Result)
4.2.2.2. MAY / MIGHT

The modal-auxiliary may / might occurs in:

(1) Independent sentences – exclamatory sentences to convey a wish, such as desire for
people’s health, happiness, or success. It is the living, productive form instead of the synthetic
subjunctive present:

42
 May you live long!

May you both be happy!

May he rest in peace! (prayer for a dead person)

(2) Subordinate clauses. If the verb in the main clause is in the present tense, either may or
might can be used in the subordinate clause (might suggests a higher degree of uncertainty); if
the verb in the main clause is in the past tense only might is used. May / might occurs in:

a) Subject clauses after the construction It is + adjective (possible, probable, likely) as an

alternative to the indicative mood:

It is possible that humans might one day live on other planets.

It is likely that it may/will rain this afternoon.

b) Object clauses after be afraid / apprehensive, fear:

I’m afraid the news may upset her.

I fear that he may catch cold.

He was afraid that I might turn down his offer.

He felt apprehensive of what might happen.

c) Clauses of concession. The analytic subjunctive with may/might is used instead of the
indicative mood to express a supposition, a more uncertain, hypothetical event. The clauses are
introduced by compound conjunctions in -ever (whoever, whatever, etc), by the phrase no matter
(who, what etc.), as:

Whatever he may say we must not change our plan.

However hard he may try, he’ll never win.

No matter what bright ideas he may have, he’s always short of money.

Try as he may, he will not pass the exam.

Because of its strong hypothetical content may + the adversative coordinating conjunction but
can express the idea of concession:

Although your job is very demanding, at least it is not boring. →

43
 Your job may be very demanding, but at least it is not boring.

Although he has promised to come, I don’t think he will. →

He may have promised to come but I don’t think he will.

d) Clauses of affirmative purpose (introduced by so that, in order that):

He is saving money so that he may /might buy a car.

Builders worked day and night in order that the house might be finished in time.

This is a rather literary structure and in modern English it is more common to use can / could,
will / would in such cases.

4.2.2.3. WILL / WOULD

Will / would occurs in:

(1) Independent sentences or main clauses to form the present or perfect conditional in the 2 nd
and 3rd persons singular and plural:

She would like to see him.

She would have liked to see him.

(2) subordinate clauses:

a) Object clauses after wish:

i. It expresses a not very hopeful wish about the future:

I wish it would stop raining (= but I don’t think it would)

I wish you wouldn’t smoke so much.

ii. preference: we want something to happen or somebody to do something:

I wish you would turn down the music.

b) Conditional clauses introduced by if only:

Oh, if only it would rain!

44
 c) Clauses of purpose introduced by so that: will is used when the verb in the main clause is in
the present tense, present perfect, imperative; would is used when the main verb is in the past
tense: 12

Send the letter airmail so that he will receive it right away

He wrote the notice in several languages so that the foreign tourists would understand it.

I hurried so that I wouldn’t be late.

d) Clauses of concession introduced by as:

Try as you will you won’t manage it.

4.2.2.4. CAN/COULD

Can / could occurs in clauses of purpose as an alternative construction to may / might. The
difference between the two modal auxiliaries is that may / might is more formal and indicates a
higher degree of uncertainty; can / could occurs in spoken English and usually indicates a more
real action.

He was saving money so that he could buy a car.13

CONCLUSIONS

12
Leviţchi, Leon. 1970. Limba engleză contemporană, Morfologie, Bucureşti: E.D.P.
13
Murar, Ioana. 2004. The English Verb, Craiova: Editura Universitaria.

45
 In this paper work it is presented a brief summary of the category of mood in English
language, seen through the eyes of a newly graduate of Philology Faculty, who has tried to elicit
the English categories of verb, focusing on the one of the most important category, the Mood.
The paper is structured into 4 main chapters that deal each with important language pattern, in
this matter.
In the first chapter, there was made a verb categorization, seen under the third most
important categories: tense, aspect and mood. There also different categories of verb, each of
them were displayed with relevant examples. The category of mood was analyssed through the 4
major moods in English: the indicative, the subjunctive, the conditional and the imperative.
Every mood has its particular features as it also in our native language, but personal and
impersonal features.
In the second chapter, the Indicative mood was presented with all its tenses and forms, as
a way of reinforcement of categorization the English tenses.
In the third chapter, the Imperative mood was displayed with all its forms and meanings,
as a way of contrast with the Indicative mood.
The last chapter, was dedicated to the last two major moods in English, the Subjunctive
and Conditional moods, and were presented as a parallel between the two of them, with all the
necessary and relevant examples in order to emphasize the difference in meaning and purpose of
each form.
This paper is meant to address the students that are learning English language and those
that graduate, as a brief and useful manual of understanding the category of mood in English.

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