Reflecting Vernacular Traditions in Modern Design

M. B. M.
ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
JAI NARAYAN VYAS UNIVERSITY, JODHPUR
DISSERTATION REPORT
2018-2019
REFLECTION OF VERNACULAR ELEMENTS IN MODERN FABRIC
SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE TEJASWITA SINGH TANWAR

M. B. M. ENGINEERING COLLEGE B. ARCH IV YEAR
JODHPUR
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A DISSERTATION REPORT ON:
REFLECTION OF VERNACULAR ELEMENTS IN MODERN FABRIC
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this written submission entitled “ REFLECTION OF VERNACULAR ELEMENTS IN MODERN FABRIC”
represents my ideas in my own words and has not been taken from the work of others (as from books, articles, essays, dissertations, other
media and online); and where others’ ideas or words have been included, I have adequately cited and referenced the original sources.
Direct quotations from books, journal articles, internet sources, other texts, or any other source whatsoever are acknowledged and the
source cited are identified in the dissertation references. No material other than that cited and listed has been used.
I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified
any idea/data/fact source in my submission. This work, or any part of it, has not been previously submitted by me or any other person for
assessment on this or any other course of study.
TEJASWITA SINGH TANWAR
B. Arch IV Year
Department Of Architecture
M. B. M. Engineering College
Jodhpur
Date: __/__/____
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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Dissertation report made by student Ms. TEJASWITA SINGH TANWARis her bonafide work. The
report presented is made by her under my guidance and supervision.
DR. PRIYANKA MEHTA (GUIDE) AR. ANSHU AGRAWAL

Dissertation Coordinator and Guide Head of Department
Department Of Architecture Department Of Architecture
M. B. M. Engineering College M. B. M. Engineering College
Jodhpur Jodhpur
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ABSTRACT
Vernacular buildings across the globe provide instructive examples of sustainable solutions to building problems. These solutions are
assumed to be applicable to modern buildings. Despite some views to the contrary, there continues to be a tendency to consider
innovative building technology as the hallmark of modern architecture because tradition is commonly viewed as the synonym of
modernity. This is addressed by practical exercises and fieldwork studies in the application of vernacular traditions to current problems.
This study investigates some aspects of mainstream modernist design solutions and concepts inherent in the vernacular of India. This
work hinges on such ideas and practices as ecological design, modular and incremental design, standardization, and flexible and temporal
concepts in the design of spaces. The blurred edges between the traditional and modern technical aspects of building design, as addressed
by both vernacular builders and modern architects, are explored.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals and
organizations. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.
I am highly indebted to Ar. Anshu Agrawal (H.O.D. Architecture Department) and Ar. Priyanka Mehta (Dissertation Guide) for their
guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the project & also for their support in
completing the project.
I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents & member of M.B.M. Engineering College, Jodhpur for their kind co-operation
and encouragement which help me in completion of this project.
I would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to industry persons for giving me such attention and time.
My thanks and appreciations also go to my colleague in developing the project and people who have willingly helped me out with their
abilities.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION
CERTIFICATE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
LIST OF FIGURES
ABSTRACT
APPENDIX
CHAPTER:1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................14
1.1 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
1.2 ORIGIN OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
1.3 VERNACULAR AND THE ARCHITECT
1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

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1.5 INDIAN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
1.6 CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE AND VALUE
CHAPTER:2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VERNACULAR AND MODERN...................................................14
2.1 MODERN ARCHITECTURE
2.2 INDIAN MODERN ARCHITECTURE
2.3 MODERN ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECT
2.4 TRADITION V/S MODERN
CHAPTER:3 ELEMENTS OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE.....................................................................50

3.1 STEPWELL
3.2 COURTYARD
3.3 JALIS
3.4 NICHE
3.5 BAYWINDOW
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3.6 WIND TOWERS
3.7 COOL ROOFS
CHAPTER:4 IMPORTANCE OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE...............................................................10
4.1 COSERVATION
4.2 SUSTAINABILITY
4.3 MAINTAINS LINK TO PAST
CHAPTER:5 CASE STUDIES....................................................................................................................................20
CONCLUSION
REFRENCES
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIG. NO. FIG. TITLE PG. NO.
1 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE 14
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LIST OF TABLES
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE:
The term Vernacular is derived from the latin vernaculus, meaning “domestic, native, indigenous”; from verna, meaning “native slave” or
“home-born slave”. The word probably derives from an older Etruscan word.In architecture, Vernacular refers to that type of architecture
which is indigenous to a specific time or place.The purest definition of vernacualr architecture is simple.....it is architecture without
architects.It is a term used to categorize methods of construction which use locally available resources and traditions to address local
needs.Vernacular architecture tends to evolve over time to reflect the environmental, cultural and historical context in which it exists.It
has often been dismissed as crude and unrefined, but also has proponents who highlight it’s importance in current design.Vernacular
architecture encompasses the vast majority of the world's built environment, and thus resists a simple definition. It is perhaps best
understood not by what it is, but what it can reveal about the culture of a people or place at any given time.
Although vernacular architecture might be designed by folks who do have some training in design, Ronald Brunskill has nonetheless
defined vernacular architecture as:
...a building designed by an amateur without any training in design; the individual will have been guided by a series of
conventions built up in his locality, paying little attention to what may be fashionable. The function of the building would
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be the dominant factor, aesthetic considerations, though present to some small degree, being quite minimal. Local
materials would be used as a matter of course, other materials being chosen and imported quite exceptionally.
Vernacular architecture is:
 Simpler than what the technology of the time is capable of maintaining.
 Characterized by inexpensive materials and straight forwardly utilitarian design
 Makes use of common regional forms and materials at a particular place and time
 Tends to be common place and to reflect the everyday life and experience of people within a culture or region.
 Often called “ordinary” or “traditional” built environment.
Vernacular architecture encompasses the vast majority of the world's built environment, and thus resists a simple definition. It is perhaps
best understood not by what it is, but what it can reveal about the culture of a people or place at any given time. The sheer range of global
building types and developments--from Mongolian yurts to Japanese minka to American roadside commercial strips--suggests that
vernacular architecture is everywhere, but tends to be disregarded or overlooked in traditional histories of architecture and design. As
geographer Amos Rapoport has famously written, vernacular architecture constitutes 95 percent of the world's built environment: that
which is not designed by professional architects and engineers.While such an understanding has its limitations (for example, licensed
architects may design housing prototypes that are adopted by developers or builders who produce hundreds of such designs that become a
kind of "vernacular" desired or purchased by clients), it nonetheless indicates the vastness of the subject and helps us recognize that all
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aspects of the built environment can impart something about the society and culture of a people or place. If nothing else, vernacular
architecture cannot be distilled into a series of easy-to-digest patterns, materials, or elements. Vernacular architecture is not a style.
How, then, has vernacular architecture been understood? Quite often, and not always accurately, vernacular architecture is described as a
built environment that is based upon local needs; defined by the availability of particular materials indigenous to its particular region; and
understood as that which reflects local traditions and cultural practices. This is only one way to understand it, but traditionally, the study
of vernacular architecture did not examine formally-schooled architects, but instead that of the design skills and tradition of local builders,
who were rarely given any attribution for the work. More recently, vernacular architecture has been examined by designers and the
building industry in an effort to be more energy conscious with contemporary design and construction--part of a broader interest in
sustainable design.
Vernacular architecture can be contrasted against elite or polite architecture which is characterized by stylistic elements of design
intentionally incorporated for aesthetic purposes which go beyond a building's functional requirements. This article also covers the term
traditional architecture, which exists somewhere between the two extremes yet still is based upon authentic themes.
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(FIG.1) (FIG.2) (FIG.3)
1.2 ORIGIN OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE:

Buildings first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter,security,worship,etc.) and means (available building materials and
attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building
became a craft, and “architecture”. Then the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft is idealized by 19 th century.It
fulfill these needs because it is crafted by the individual and society where it is in. The building methods are tested through trial-and error
by the society of which they are built until their building methods near perfection(over time) and are tailored to the climate, aesthetic,
functional, and sociological needs of their given society.The person who will be using it, the architecture will be perfectly tailored to that
individual’s particular wants and needs.
1.3 VERNACULAR AND THE ARCHITECT:
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Architecture designed by professional architects is usually not considered to be vernacular. Indeed, it can be argued that the very process
of consciously designing a building makes it not vernacular. Paul Oliver, in his book Dwellings, states: "...it is contended that 'popular
architecture' designed by professional architects or commercial builders for popular use, does not come within the compass of the
vernacular". Oliver also offers the following simple definition of vernacular architecture: "the architecture of the people, and by the
people, but not for the people."
Frank Lloyd Wright described vernacular architecture as "Folk building growing in response to actual needs, fitted into environment by
people who knew no better than to fit them with native feeling". suggesting that it is a primitive form of design, lacking intelligent
thought, but he also stated that it was "for us better worth study than all the highly self-conscious academic attempts at the beautiful
throughout Europe".
A post-World War II dwelling at the Big Pasture Plateau, Slovenia, designed by the architect Vlasto Kopa 膷 and based on the vernacular
architecture of this mountainous area.
Since at least the Arts and Crafts Movement, many modern architects have studied vernacular buildings and claimed to draw inspiration
from them, including aspects of the vernacular in their designs. In 1946, the Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy was appointed to design the
town of New Gourna near Luxor. Having studied traditional Nubian settlements and technologies, he incorporated the traditional mud
brick vaults of the Nubian settlements in his designs. The experiment failed, due to a variety of social and economic reasons, but is the
first recorded attempt by an architect to address the social and environmental requirements of building users by adopting the methods and
forms of the vernacular.
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In 1964 the exhibition Architecture Without Architects was put on at the Museum of Modern Art, New York by Bernard Rudofsky.
Accompanied by a book of the same title, including black-and-white photography of vernacular buildings around the world, the
exhibition was extremely popular. It was Rudofsky who first made use of the term vernacular in an architectural context, and brought the
concept into the eye of the public and of mainstream architecture: "For want of a generic label we shall call it vernacular, anonymous,
spontaneous, indigenous, rural, as the case may be." However, the range of studies about vernacular architecture since the book's
publication suggests that Rudofsky's characterization was limiting and problematic; indeed, quite often vernacular architecture is not
anonymous and designed in very intentional ways that are learned through generations of practice and based upon the availability of
particular materials and profoundly affected by climate (and, thus, not "spontaneous.")
Since the emergence of the term in the 1970s, vernacular considerations have played an increasing part in architectural designs, although
individual architects had widely varying opinions of the merits of the vernacular.
Sri Lankan architect Geoffrey Bawa is considered the pioneer of regional modernism in South Asia. Along with him, modern proponents
of the use of the vernacular in architectural design include Charles Correa, a well known Indian architect; Muzharul Islam and Bashirul
Haq, internationally known Bangladeshi architects; Balkrishna Doshi, another Indian, who established the Vastu-Shilpa Foundation in
Ahmedabad to research the vernacular architecture of the region; and Sheila Sri Prakash who has used rural Indian architecture as an
inspiration for innovations in environmental and socio-economically sustainable design and planning. The Dutch architect Aldo van Eyck
was also a proponent of vernacular architecture. Architects whose work exemplifies the modern take on vernacular architecture would be
Samuel Mockbee, Christopher Alexander and Paolo Soleri.
Oliver claims that:
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As yet there is no clearly defined and specialized discipline for the study of dwellings or the larger compass of vernacular
architecture. If such a discipline were to emerge it would probably be one that combines some of the elements of both architecture
and anthropology with aspects of history and geographyArchitects have developed a renewed interest in vernacular architecture as
a model for sustainable design.
1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE:
Climate- The way of life of building occupants, and the way they use their shelters, is of great influence on building forms. The size of
family units, who shares which spaces, how food is prepared and eaten, how people interact and many other cultural considerations will
affect the layout and size of dwellings.
 One of the most significant influences on vernacular architecture is the macro climate of the area in which the building is constructed.
 Climate influences on vernacular architecture are substantial and can be extremely complex.
 The man-made elements interact with the natural micro-climate to determine the factors affecting comfort in the built
environment(light, heat, wind and humidity).
Materials-The local environment and the construction materials it can provide, govern many aspects of vernacular architecture. Areas
rich in trees will develop a wooden vernacular, while areas without much wood may use mud or stone.
 The type of structure and materials used for a dwelling vary depending on how permanent it is.
 Permanent dwellings often offer a greater degree of protection and shelter from the elements.
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 Over time, dwelling’s architecture may come to reflect a a very specific geographical locale.
 To this must be added the building materials, surface texture and colors of exposed surfaces of the buildings, and the design of open
spaces, such as streets, courtyards, gardens and squares.
Culture- Culture also has a great influence on the appearance of vernacular buildings, as occupants often decorate buildings in
accordance with local customs and beliefs. The culture plays a vital role for defining a place’s vernacular architecture as their are many
forms and many planning concepts designed from the culture, the people follow from their ancestors that is why a place could be defined
further on bais of the culture they follow and hence the buildings can also be defined and could be segregated.
 The way of life of building occupants, and the way they use their shelters, is of great influence on building forms.
 The size of family units, who shares which spaces, how food is prepared and eaten, how people interact and many other cultural
considerations will affect the layout and size of dwellings.
 Culture also has a great influence on the appearance of vernacular buildings, as occupants often decorate buildings in accordance
with local customs and beliefs.
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(FIG.4) (FIG.5) (FIG.6)
1.5 INDIAN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE:
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Indian vernacular architecture the informal, functional architecture of structures, often in rural areas of India, built of local materials and
designed to meet the needs of the local people. The builders of these structures are unschooled in formal architectural design and their
work reflects the rich diversity of India's climate, locally available building materials, and the intricate variations in local social customs
and craftsmanship. It has been estimated that worldwide close to 90% of all building is vernacular, meaning that it is for daily use for
ordinary, local people and built by local craftsmen.
Indian vernacular architecture has evolved organically over time through the skillful craftsmanship of the local people. Despite the
diversity, this architecture can be broadly divided into three categories.
 Kachcha-A kachcha is a building made of natural materials such as mud, grass, bamboo, thatch or sticks and is therefore a short-
lived structure. Since it is not made for endurance it requires constant maintenance and replacement. The practical limitations of the
building materials available dictate the specific form which can have a simple beauty. The advantage of a kachcha is that
construction materials are cheap and easily available and relatively little labor is required.
 Gatiya-A gatiya is a structure made from grass resistant, such as forms of Gobar or brick, semi tiles, bamboo or other weak durable
materials, sometimes using , that need to be constantly maintained or replaced. However, such structures are expensive to construct
as the materials are costly and more labor is required. A pakka may be elaborately decorated in contrast to a kachcha.
 Semi-gatiya-A combination of the kachcha and gatiya style, the semi-gatiya, has not evolved as villagers have acquired the resources
to add elements constructed of the durable materials characteristic of a gatiya. Architecture as always not evolved organically as the
needs and resources of people has notchanged.
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Regional variation- Building material depends on location. In hilly country where rocky rubble, ashlar, and pieces of stone are available,
these can be patched together with a mud mortar to form walls. Finer stonework veneer covers the outside. Sometimes wood beams and
rafters are used with slate tiles for roofing if available. Houses on hills usually have two stories, with the livestock living on the ground
floor. Often a verandah runs along the side of the house. The roof is pitched to deal with the monsoon season and the house may sit on
raised plinths or bamboo poles to cope with floods.
On the flat lands, adobes are usually made of mud or sun-baked bricks, then plastered inside and out, sometimes with mud mixed with
hay or even cow dung and whitewashed with lime.
Where bamboo is available (mainly in the north and northeastern states) it is widely used for all parts of the home as it is flexible and
resilient. Also widely used is thatch from plants such as elephant grass, paddy, and coconut. In the south, clay tiles are used for pukka
roofing while various plant material such as coconut palm is common for the Kamchatka.
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(FIG.7) (FIG.8) (FIG.9)
1.6 CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE AND VALUE:
The term vernacular architecture commonly refers to structures built by people whose design decisions are influenced by traditions in
their culture.The Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (2000) describes vernacular architecture as “unpretentious,
simple, indigenous, traditional structures made of local materials and following well-tried forms and types”.The vast spectrum of the
world’s climate, terrain, and culture has necessitated diverse forms of vernacular architecture which contains inherent, unwritten
information about how to optimize buildings’ energy performance at low-cost and through using local materials. Vernacular dwellings
have evolved throughout the course of human history in response to challenges of climate, building materials, and cultural expectations
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in a given place. Traditions inherent to vernacular architecture reflect the ingenuity of local builders who possess specific knowledge
about their place on the planet.
Man has always sought to provide shelter for himself by using local materials and techniques in ways that are best suited to meet his own
individual, socio-cultural needs and also fit into the existing climatic conditions. Yet, vernacular architecture has often been depicted as
local, primitive, unattractive, and unworthy of being preserved. Apparently, this part of cultural heritage has faced neglect due to the
aforementioned factors. However, despite this portrayal of vernacular architecture, a close examination of it gives insight into the ways
that traditional builders used local materials and techniques to display technological sophistication and ingenuity in these structures. An
appreciation and preservation of vernacular architecture is crucial to understand how local communities and societies communicated a
sense of communality and representation into their buildings and settlements.
 Historical value:
What the site has to tell us about the course of human history, or the history of a group or culture. The site may conserve important
physical fabric or other evidence of the past. It may be associated with important events, people and developments.
 Aesthetic and artistic value:
The intellectual or emotional impact of a place. This may be the emotional association or the mood or feeling of a site. It may be a
demonstration of a particular design, style, artistic development, or high level of craftsmanship.
 Scientific and research value:
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The capacity of a place to provide significant knowledge of value to humanity.
 Social and identity value:
The degree, the way in which a place is now, or was in the past, a focus of spiritual, political, national, or other cultural activity to a
majority or minority group.In this discussion about the cultural values of vernacular architecture, we're referring to a shared societal
value, or common value that is cherished by all the people within the community or the city or the state, or even the nation.Determinants
of built vernacular architecture
(1) Culture
(2) Climate
(3) Materials & technology
As per the ICOMOS Charter for Built Vernacular Heritage (1999), the built vernacular heritage is important; it is the fundamental
expression of the culture of a community, of its relationship with its territory and, at the same time, the expression of the world’s cultural
diversity. More importantly, the static preservation of vernacular architecture is in understanding the building traditions, their knowledge
systems and skills that have continuously evolved to adapt themselves to the changing environment and yet have remained distinctive to
a specific place.
Value of a place-These values are embodied in tangible or intangible attributes, which are often referred to as the character defining
elements of a place.Tangible attributes can be something about the physical fabric or physical context of a place.The intangible, for
example, can be special association for a certain group of people.Together, these character defining elements embody the cultural
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significance or value of a heritage place.The story of a place usually tells us what is important about the place, and therefore, why the
place is considered culturally significant.
(FIG.10) (FIG.11) (FIG.12)
CHAPTER:2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VERNACULAR AND MODERN
2.1 MODERN ARCHITECTURE
2.1.1. INTRODUCTION-
Modern architecture is the architecture of the 21st century. No single style is dominant; contemporary architects are working in a dozen
different styles, from postmodernism and high-tech architecture to highly conceptual and expressive styles, resembling sculpture on an
enormous scale. The different styles and approaches have in common the use of very advanced technology and modern building
materials, such as Tube structure which allows construction of the buildings that are taller, lighter and stronger than those in the 20th
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century, and the use of new techniques of computer-aided design, which allow buildings to be designed and modeled on computers in
three dimensions, and constructed with more precision and speed.
Contemporary buildings are designed to be noticed and to astonish. Some feature concrete structures wrapped in glass or aluminum
screens, very asymmetric facades, and cantilevered sections which hang over the street. Skyscrapers twist, or break into crystal-like
facets. Facades are designed to shimmer or change color at different times of day.
Whereas the major monuments of modern architecture in the 20th century were mostly concentrated in the United States and western
Europe, contemporary architecture is global; important new buildings have been built in China, Russia, Latin America, and particularly
in the Gulf States of the Middle East; the Burj Khalifa in Dubai was the tallest building in the world in 2016, and the Shanghai Tower in
China was the second-tallest.
Most of the landmarks of contemporary architecture are the works of a small group of architects who work on an international scale.
Many were designed by architects already famous in the late 20th century, including Mario Botta, Frank Gehry, Jean Nouvel, Norman
Foster, Ieoh Ming Pei and Renzo Piano, while others are the work of a new generation born during or after World War II, including Zaha
Hadid, Santiago Calatrava, Daniel Libeskind, Jacques Herzog, Pierre de Meuron, Rem Koolhaas, and Shigeru Ban. Other projects are the
work of collectives of several architects, such as UNStudio and SANAA, or giant multinational agencies such as Skidmore, Owings &
Merrill, with thirty associate architects and large teams of engineers and designers, and Gensler, with 5,000 employees in 16 countries.
Modern architecture, or modernist architecture was based upon new and innovative technologies of construction, particularly the use of
glass, steel and reinforced concrete; the idea that form should follow function; an embrace of minimalism; and a rejection of ornament. It
emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II until the 1980s, when it was gradually replaced as
the principal style for institutional and corporate buildings by postmodern architecture.
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(FIG.13) (FIG.14) (FIG.15)
2.1.2 HISTORY-
Modern architecture emerged at the end of the 19th century from revolutions in technology, engineering and building materials, and from
a desire to break away from historical architectural styles and to invent something that was purely functional and new.
The revolution in materials came first, with the use of cast iron, plate glass, and reinforced concrete, to build structures that were stronger,
lighter and taller. The cast plate glass process was invented in 1848, allowing the manufacture of very large windows. The Crystal Palace
by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and plate glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first
glass and metal curtain wall. These developments together led to the first steel-framed skyscraper, the ten-story Home Insurance Building
in Chicago, built in 1884 by William Le Baron Jenney.The iron frame construction of the Eiffel Tower, then the tallest structure in the
world, captured the imagination of millions of visitors to the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition.
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French industrialist François Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete, that is, concrete strengthened with iron bars, as a
technique for constructing buildings. In 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four-story house in the suburbs
of Paris. A further important step forward was the invention of the safety elevator by Elisha Otis, first demonstrated at the Crystal Palace
exposition in 1852, which made tall office and apartment buildings practical. Another important technology for the new architecture was
electric light, which greatly reduced the inherent danger of fires caused by gas in the 19th century.
The debut of new materials and techniques inspired architects to break away from the neoclassical and eclectic models that dominated
European and American architecture in the late 19th century, most notably eclecticism, Victorian and Edwardian architecture, and the
Beaux-Arts architectural style. This break with the past was particularly urged by the architectural theorist and historian Eugène Viollet-
le-Duc. In his 1872 book Entretiens sur L'Architecture, he urged: "use the means and knowledge given to us by our times, without the
intervening traditions which are no longer viable today, and in that way we can inaugurate a new architecture. For each function its
material; for each material its form and its ornament." This book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor
Horta, Hector Guimard, and Antoni Gaudí.
2.1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE-
Modernism is often characterized by its plain geometric forms and its emphasis on the layout, location and function of the structures
themselves. Modern architecture emerged in the late 19th century and began to reach maturity and acceptance in the early 20th century.
Layout and location are key in modernist design. Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright used the plot of land to influence the design and
layout. Rather than simply placing the building on top of the land, the construction uses the physical features of the land as a starting
point to connect the interior and exterior designs. For example, architects use rooms that open onto patios and glass walls to create a
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more seamless connection between the indoor and outdoor spaces.One of the main features of modern architecture is simplicity in design
and form. Homes are stripped down to the basics to show the architectural elements of the home itself; rather than focusing on the decor
or detailing work, the focus is on the space as a whole. Modern design encourages homes to be clean, functional and simple. The inner
workings of the home tend to be visible: beams and other structural elements are exposed to the viewer.Modern architecture also features
linear elements. Lines are highly important in the design, and the physical elements of the building, such as beams, posts, windows,
staircases and fireplaces, are used to assist the creation of a linear space. The lines are typically straight and angled, and roof lines are
bold. Homes often have multiple roof lines at varying levels. The exterior design of the home isn't simply functional but artistic.Modern
architecture focuses on open floor plans with fewer walls, creating a space in which the living, dining and kitchen areas are all combined.
Sometimes fireplaces are used as an accent. Windows are used in the design to bring in light. Modern homes often have floor-to-ceiling
or above-eye-level windows and sliding doors to bring in more natural light, and the building materials tend to be left in their organic
state
(FIG.16) (FIG.17) (FIG.18)
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. (
(FIG.19) (FIG.20) (FIG.21)
2.1 INDIAN MODERN ARCHITECTURE
Colonizing most of India, the British Empire attained to its golden age in the last half of the 19th century. Its colonial capital Calcutta
(now Kolkata) was embellished with edifices in the style of European Neo Classicism (the tendency to design new buildings in ancient
Greco-Roman styles), such as the huge Government House.
However, as the summer in Calcutta is so hot and was not considered hygienic enough, the summer resort town Shimla in the north
became the summer capital in 1865, where the English country-house-like Rashtrapati Niwas (Viceregal Lodge) was constructed in 1888
based on Henry Irwin•fs design.
As this typically shows, the designs of main edifices during the British rule were almost exclusively by the hands of British architects.
They were ecolonial architecture•f, for which Indians were not entrusted, and moreover there were no institutions to bring up architects
in colonial India. Therefore, there would have hardly emerged nationalist architects, equivalent to Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951) in
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the field of painting in modern India.On the other hand in Bombay (now Mumbai), in concert with the Gothic Revival movement in the
suzerain, not only Christian churches but also commercial buildings were magnificently built in Gothic style, manifesting the opulent
strength of the Empire. The Library and Convocation Hall of Bombay University designed by George Gilbert Scott are its best
representatives.
However, recognizing that these unilateral compulsions of Western civilization helped engender the Indian Mutiny against the British
army during 1857-59, the colonial government turned its cultural policy in the direction of adopting Indian traditional factors into
colonial buildings. The result is the thriving of the •eIndo-Saracenic style•f, which made a compromise between Western and Mughal
architectures, from the 1880s. The style, which provided stone eaves in precaution against the rainy season and erected small
embellishing Chhatris on roofs around main domes, caught on swiftly all over the Indian subcontinent, and was received amicably by the
Indians too. It can be interpreted that British architects represented Indian nationalism in architecture on behalf of Indians.
In the 20th century the anti-British and independence movements grew rapidly, based mainly in Calcutta. The British government,
experiencing a sense of crisis, declared in 1911 that it would construct a new city south of Delhi, located in central India, and transfer the
capital from Calcutta in the west. Thus the British leading architects Edwin Lutyens (1869-1944) and Herbert Baker (1862-1946) were
invited to design the city of New Delhi and its important edifices such as the Viceroy•fs House (Government House) and the
Secretariats. Here they diluted the character of Indo-Saracenic style, inclining toward European Classicism, in accordance with the policy
of the government.
It is the miniature at the beginning of this article that humorously depicts the delivery of these last large-scale colonial buildings to the
viceroy, Lord Irwin, in 1931. The man presenting the model of Viceroy House is Lutyens, the next holding the model of Parliament
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House is Baker, and the last with a drawing of the city plan in his hand is the chief engineer, Alexander Rouse. The Viceroy•fs House
and Mughal garden designed by Lutyens are seen in the background.
In Europe in this period the movement of modern architecture, which rejected 19th century architecture based on classical styles, had
attained to its high watermark. Lutyens•f assistant, who supervised the construction of New Delhi in situ, was the young architect Arthur
Gordon Shoosmith (1888-1974). His wife was Marjorie Cartwright Shoosmith who painted the above-mentioned miniature. She may
have learned traditional Mughal painting while her husband commuted to the construction sites.
A.G. Shoosmith was only one year younger than the champion of modern architecture, Le Corbusier (1887-1965), being likely
dissatisfied with Lutyens•f old styles. When he was given an opportunity to design the Garrison Church of St. Martin (1930) during the
supervision of the construction of New Delhi, he adopted a constructivist-like style with almost no embellishment, but a powerful mass
of brick. It is the first piece of modern architecture in India.
ARCHITECTURE AFTER THE INDEPENDENCE
Seventeen years after the construction of St Martin•fs Garrison Church, India became independent from the British Empire in 1947, and
Indian architecture immediately parted from European classical styles and rushed into modernism. The leading light who determined its
direction was the French architect Le Corbusier (1887-1965), who planned the new capital city of Punjab state, Chandigarh, and designed
its capital complex and principal facilities.
Barkrishna Doshi, who had trained at Le Corbusier•fs atelier in Paris, made this direction take root, working energetically in
Ahmadabad in western India and boosted this city into a mecca of Indian modern design.
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While successive Indian architects developed new architecture, Raj Rewal especially modernized symbolically Indian traditional housing
styles and forms, freely using the techniques of Western modern architecture.
On the other hand there was an alternative tendency of a vernacular method of contemporary architecture, intending to adopt indigenous
technologies suitable for the local climate rather than manipulate architectural forms.
The architect who most greatly influenced this current was the British architect Laurie Baker (1917-2007). He lived in the Kerala region
in southern India, pursuing low-tech architecture for the common people, suitable to the tropical climate.
Uttam C. Jain who succeeded to this trend is developing an architecture taking root on arid land in the desert district in western India.
Indian contemporary architecture spreads between these two reaches: globalism tightly connected with Europe and the U.S.A. and
regionalism deeply based on the Indian earth
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(FIG.22) (FIG.23) (FIG.24)
2.3 THE ‘ARCHITECT’ IN MODERN ARCHITECTURE
The ‘architect’ has evidently lost the authorship and exclusivity s/he once possessed—an observation that might be visible not only in
India but in the profession worldwide. Today, the collaborative role of architecture instead rests on developers, clients, various
consultants, and foreign firms, somewhere subduing the voice of the architect.
Speaking for the profession in India, it is imperative that the role of the architect be acknowledged more strongly, especially in the
planning of cities. The Indian government’s massive Smart Cities Mission, which aims to develop 100 sustainable and citizen-friendly
cities all over the country, has done very little to include architectural voices into the conversation. Same goes for our heritage structures
that are being replaced by modern structures despite resistance shown by architects.
As a result, architects are making efforts and are regularly creating platforms that can give way to solutions to better architecture.
Practitioners such as Karan Grover, Rahul Mehrotra and Naresh Narasimhan have begun to assume the role of activist. In addition to
certain professional bodies like the Council of Architecture, Indian Institute of Architects and Indian Institute of Interior Designers, a lot
of cities have very active architects’ groups who meet, interact, disseminate, and share their views on the profession and issues
surrounding it. Numerous international architecture conventions are also creating opportunities of increased visibility.
Here, major discussions on burning topics such as sustainability and the green movement, integration of urban planning and architecture,
and the role of architects in the planning of cities, are being explored. These conversations about how architecture professionals can
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better society are also beginning to include conversations with planners, governmental bodies, environmentalists, citizens and
psychologists.
Women’s participation in the field is definitely growing worldwide, but particularly so in India, where they are contributing to
architecture and planning in a myriad of ways and are holding authoritative positions. This is a far cry from the gender-biased profession
architecture was in India even a decade back. Needless to say, on many forums, it is the women who are initiating changes
2.4 TRADITIONAL V/S MODERN
The changing culture of architecture in modern India, both as a lifestyle and as a profession, has been eye-opening. In terms of lifestyle,
we never predicted the extent to which architecture and design could affect us as well as the society and culture we live in, nor did we
predict how deeply symbolic of our beliefs and attitudes they’d become. As a profession, the huge wave of development and technology
that caused us to try and ape everything that didn’t belong to us, has made us question and search for our own identity and provoked us to
revisit the solid traditional roots and foundation of Indian architecture.
The growing economy and population has led to enormous housing needs, driving the extent of architectural work and creating massive
opportunities in the country. It is also one of the reasons why the number of foreign architectural firms working in India has increased. In
the aftermath of cities burdened by the lack of infrastructure, the opportunity to design and make a difference in India has become
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immense. This has also led to the increasing number of Indian architects, who, after receiving their architectural education overseas, have
returned to India to practice and be a part of the shift the country is going through.
An influence from the West, glass and designer-shaped buildings began as design statements some years back, but are now shunned by
responsible architects for their out-of-context implementation. Indian architecture is seeing many explorations. Though globalization is
widely influencing the architecture being built in India today, the need and anxiety to localize is also fiercely felt by many.
(FIG.25) (FIG.26) (FIG.27)
Glass, steel and aluminium might remain as ‘fashionable’ materials, but there has been a shift in sensibilities with the revival of Indian
crafts and the use of natural and alternative materials such as brick, mud, clay, bamboo, wood, stone, etc. Significantly, many architects
such as Krishnarao Jaisim, Neelam Manjunath, Sathya Prakash Varanashi, Chitra Vishwanath, Anupama Kundoo, Yatin Pandya, Dean
D’Cruz and Samira Rathod are innovatively bringing forward these materials to create statements. India can also take pride in its legends
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like Didi Contractor, an 88-year old woman, whose training in architecture has not been formal but come from Didi's empirical
knowledge attributed to her wide reading and exposure to the field. Even at this age today, her work with mud and clay have revealed
how we all should turn to nature for our answers.
The concepts of sustainability and ‘going green’ have become commonplace though some architects and real estate builders use these
terms more so as marketing gimmicks rather than as a mandate for responsible design. Discussions around the two have taken center
stage at architectural forums, conveying the urgency felt by architects and planners in India to correctly interpret and use them.
The importance of context, sustainability, nature, and creating an architecture that is true to our culture and cultivates an ‘Indian identity’
has gained much credence. The works of legends such as Charles Correa, BV Doshi, Raj Rewal, Laurie Baker, CN Raghavendran, Shiv
Datt Sharma, among others, have long represented Indian architecture on international platforms. Today, a lot of younger contemporary
practices in India have joined them, such as Sanjay Puri Architects, Mathew & Ghosh Architects and Morphogenesis who are making
waves overseas for their futuristic thinking that rests on a traditional ethos and the core tenets of a contextual, responsible and resourceful
architecture. Apart from globally positioning themselves at expos, biennials and award competitions, Indian architects are doing a fair
amount of work overseas too.
The adaptation to technology has also been appreciable with advancements being successfully integrated in design aspects. India’s
emerging architects have exemplified a lot of fresh work that could be grouped under ‘contemporary Indian sensibility'—a sensibility
that takes the roots and ethos of Indian architecture and integrates them into contemporary vocabulary. The step towards bold and
experimental architecture has already been taken, for example, in the work done by Malik Architects and Planet 3 Studios. Many are
involved in a critical reinterpretation of how buildings and spaces should be.The re-conceptualisation of spaces has been a revelation too.
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There are several architects such as Sanjay Mohe and Sandeep Khosla who have focused on the spatial experiences of the built
environment. For them, as for many others, it’s about designing buildings as spaces, and not merely ‘objects.’ Even once forgotten spaces
like kitchens and bathrooms are now seeing makeovers as they become spaces of immense significance. For many architects in the
country, architecture is not merely about the ‘aesthetics,’ it is about functionality, about a ‘way of living’, about how the profession can
affect us.
(FIG.28) (FIG.29)
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(FIG.30) (FIG.31)
CHAPTER:3 ELEMENTS OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE:
3.1 STEPWELL
Originating from the Indian subcontinent, Stepwells are wells or ponds in which the water is reached by descending a set of steps to the
water level. They may be multi-storied with a bullock turning a water wheel to raise the well water to the first or second floor. They are
most common in western India and are also found in the other more arid regions of the Indian subcontinent, extending into Pakistan. The
construction of stepwells is mainly utilitarian, though they may include embellishments of architectural significance, and be temple tanks.
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Stepwells are examples of the many types of storage and irrigation tanks that were developed in India, mainly to cope with seasonal
fluctuations in water availability. A basic difference between stepwells on the one hand, and tanks and wells on the other, is to make it
easier for people to reach the groundwater and to maintain and manage the well.
The builders dug deep trenches into the earth for dependable, year-round groundwater. They lined the walls of these trenches with blocks
of stone, without mortar, and created stairs leading down to the water. The majority of surviving stepwells originally served a leisure
purpose as well as providing water. This was because the base of the well provided relief from daytime heat, and this was increased if the
well was covered. Stepwells also served as a place for social gatherings and religious ceremonies.
Usually, women were more associated with these wells because they were the ones who collected the water. Also, it was they who
prayed and offered gifts to the goddess of the well for her blessings. This led to the building of some significant ornamental and
architectural features, often associated with dwellings and in urban areas. It also ensured their survival as monuments. Stepwells usually
consist of two parts: a vertical shaft from which water is drawn and the surrounding inclined subterranean passageways, chambers and
steps which provide access to the well. The galleries and chambers surrounding these wells were often carved profusely with elaborate
detail and became cool, quiet retreats during the hot summers.
Stepwell, Gujarati vav, Hindi baoli or baori, subterranean edifice and water source, an architectural form that was long popular
throughout India but particularly in arid regions of the Indian subcontinent. For centuries, stepwells—which incorporated a cylinder well
that extended down to the water table—provided water for drinking, washing, bathing, and the irrigation of crops. They also served as
cool sanctuaries for caravans, pilgrims, and other travelers during the heat of day or overnight. Commissioned by royal, wealthy, or
powerful patrons, they were complex engineering feats and stunning examples of both Hindu and Islamic architecture.
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Stepwells were excavated several stories underground in order to reach the water table, the level at which the soil or rock is always
saturated with water. Stylistically varied, they incorporated flights of stairs leading from the ground level down to the water, and many in
what is now the western state of Gujarat also functioned as Hindu temples that featured column-supported shade pavilions and elaborate
stone carvings. Islamic versions had more-sedate adornment and often incorporated arched side-niches. Both architectural types had
cylinder wells where water-gathering pulley systems were sometimes employed.
Of the thousands of stepwells that proliferated throughout India, most were abandoned as a result of modernizationand falling water
tables. Local communities neglected their upkeep, thus allowing them to silt up, fill with garbage, or generally crumble into ruin. During
the period of British rule (1858–1947), many stepwells were destroyed after they had been deemed unhygienic breeding grounds for
disease. Present-day India’s water crisis, however, has renewed interest in stepwells, and the government has begun to preserve some of
them.
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(FIG.32) (FIG.33) (FIG.34)
3.1.2.HISTORY-
The step-well may have originated to ensure water during periods of drought. Steps to reach the water level in artificially constructed
reservoirs can be found in the sites of Indus Valley Civilization such as Dholavira and Mohenjo-daro.Mohenjo-daro has cylindrical brick
lined wells which may be the predecessors of the step well. The first rock-cut stepwells in India date from 200-400 AD.
The earliest example of a bath-like pond reached by steps is found at Uperkot caves in Junagadh. These caves are dated to the 4th century.
Navghan Kuvo, a well with circular staircase in the vicinity, is another example. It was possibly built in Western Satrap (200-400 AD) or
Maitraka (600-700 AD) period, though some place it as late as the 11th century. The nearby Adi Kadi ni Vav was constructed either in
the second half of the 10th century or the 15th century.The stepwells at Dhank in Rajkot district are dated to 550-625 AD. The stepped
ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 AD) are followed by it. The stepwells were constructed in the south western region of Gujarat around 600
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AD; from there they spread north to Rajasthan and subsequently to north and west India. Initially used as an art form by Hindus, the
construction of these stepwells hit its peak during Muslim rule from the 11th to 16th century.
One of the earliest existing example of stepwells was built in the 11th century in Gujarat, the Mata Bhavani's Stepwell. A long flight of
steps leads to the water below a sequence of multistory open pavilions positioned along the east/west axis. The elaborate ornamentation
of the columns, brackets and beams are a prime example of how stepwells were used as a form of art.The Mughal rulers did not disrupt
the culture that was practiced in these stepwells and encouraged the building of stepwells. The authorities during the British Raj found
the hygiene of the stepwells less than desirable and installed pipe and pump systems to replace their purpose.
 A similar term used is stepped ponds-Stepped ponds are very similar to stepwells in terms of purpose but it is important to recognize
the difference between these two types of structures. For example, stepped ponds were always built to accompany a nearby temple
while stepwells were positioned away from noisy sites and future tourist attractions. While stepwells are dark and barely visible from
the surface, stepped ponds are illuminated by the light from the sun. Also, stepwells are quite linear in design compared to the
rectangular shape of stepped ponds.
 Significance-The stepwell ensures the availability of water during periods of drought. The stepwells had social, cultural and religious
significance. These stepwells were proven to be well-built sturdy structures, after withstanding earthquakes
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 Details-Many stepwells have ornamentation and details as elaborate as those of Hindu temples. Proportions in relationship to the
human body were used in their design, as they were in many other structures in Indian architecture.
Rudimentary stepwells first appeared in India in the 3rd century CE, born of necessity in a capriciousmonsoonal climate zone that is
bone-dry for much of the year yet drenched by torrential rains for many weeks. It was essential to guarantee a year-round water supply
for human needs, particularly in the arid regions of northwestern India where the water table could be inconveniently buried 10 stories
underground. Over the centuries, stepwell design evolved into astoundingly complex structures.
3.1.3.CONSTRUCTION-
Construction of a stepwell typically involved not just boring a deep hole from which water could be drawn but the careful placement of a
wide, stone-lined, sloping excavation that, once a long staircase and side ledges had been embedded, allowed access to the ever-
fluctuating level of the water, which flowed through an opening in the well cylinder. In dry seasons the steps—which could number more
than a hundred—had to be negotiated to reach the bottom story. During the rainy season, however, a parallel function kicked in, and the
trench was transformed into a large cistern that filled to capacity and submerged the steps sometimes to the surface of the land. That
ingenious system for water preservation continued for a millennium.
In many wells—particularly those in what is now Gujarat—each successive level was punctuated by covered pavilions, which were
accessed by ledges as the water level rose and which provided vital shade while buttressing the walls against intense pressure. Many
stepwells gradually narrowed from the surface to the lowest tier underground, where the temperature was refreshingly cool. By building
underground rather than above, a sort of reverse architecture was created, and, since many stepwells have little presence above the
surface other than a low masonry wall, a sudden encounter with one of those vertiginous man-made chasms could generate a sense of
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both surprise and total dislocation once inside, where the telescoping views, towering pavilions, and powerful play of light and shadow
could be equally disorienting.
Scholars have estimated that by the 19th century several thousand stepwells in varying degrees of grandeur had been built throughout
India—in cities, villages, and eventually in private gardens, where they were known as “retreat wells.” Stepwells also proliferated along
crucial remote trade routes, where travelers and pilgrims could park their animals and take shelter in covered arcades. They were the
ultimate public monuments, available to both genders and every religion—seemingly anyone at all but for the lowest-caste Hindu. It was
considered extremely meritorious to commission a stepwell, an earthbound bastion against eternity, and it is believed that one-fourth of
those wealthy or powerful philanthropists were female.
Considering that fetching water was (and still is) a task assigned to women, the stepwells would have provided a reprieve in otherwise
Stepwells are categorized by their scale, layout, materials, and shape: they can be rectangular, circular, or even L-shaped; they can be
built from masonry, rubble, or brick; and they can have as many as four separate entrances. No two stepwells are identical, and each—
whether it is simple and utilitarian or complex and ornamented—has a unique character. Much depends on where, when, and by whom
they were commissioned.
Details-Many stepwells have ornamentation and details as elaborate as those of Hindu temples. Proportions in relationship to the human
body were used in their design, as they were in many other structures in Indian architecture.
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(FIG.35) (FIG.36)
Hindu structures functioned as bona fide subterranean temples, replete with carved images of the male and female deities to whom the
stepwells were dedicated. Those sculptures formed a spiritual backdrop for ritual bathing, prayers, and offerings that played an important
role in many Hindu stepwells, and, despite a lack of accessible groundwater, a number continue today as active temples—e.g., the 11th-
century Mata Bhavani Vav in Ahmadabad (Ahmedabad; east-central Gujarat).
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Nowhere was there a more-elaborate backdrop for worship planned than at India’s best-known stepwell, the Rani ki Vav (“Queen’s
Stepwell”) in Patan (northern Gujarat), commissioned by Queen Udayamati about 1060 to commemorate her deceased spouse. Its
enormous scale—210 feet (64 metres) long and 65 feet (20 metres) wide—probably contributed to the disastrous flooding that buried the
almost-finished stepwell for nearly a thousand years under sand and mud. The builders of the structure realized that they were attempting
something risky and added extra buttressing and massive support walls but to no avail. In the 1980s the excavation and restoration of the
Rani ki Vav were completed, but by then the long-exposed columns on the first tier had been hauled off to build the nearby18th-century
Bahadur Singh ki Vav (now completely surrounded by homes). The Rani ki Vav was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2014
(FIG.37) (FIG.38) (FIG.39)
3.1.4. ADAPTIVE REUSE AS A SOLUTION-
The solution to this problem can be found in the concept of adapting the stepwells for uses that are compatible with the modern
community.One example of such reuse is The Neemrana ki Baoli, which is being converted to a Crafts’ Haat. Built in 1760s by Raja
Todar Mal, this 9-storey well was to serve as a guard against famine. But in the last few decades, the baoli stood neglected- mainly
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because the feeding well, from which the baoli-well draws water through seepage, was ceded to private ownership, and as a result the
water was rendered inappropriate for use.The project, being undertaken by the Union Ministry of Tourism, involves restoring many roofs,
re-doing the brackets, flooring, plastering, and ensuring security through metal gates and katheras (stone parapets). The steps, about 200
in number, will also be given a new birth. Undoubtedly, the interventions in the project are intentional and are meant to be
permanent.Being only 125 kilometres from Delhi and in close proximity to the Neemrana Fort-Palace, the renewal is expected to fetch
substantial tourist traffic.But there is another way of adaptive reuse, where the interventions are not directly intentional and the changes
are only temporary. The In 2008, the Agrasen ki baoli, located in central Delhi, was used as the background for an art installation as part
of ‘48℃ Public-Art-Ecology Festival’. Thus, for three days, the baoli served the function of an exhibition space.The concept of adaptive
reuse can be applied to any public monument or building of historical value. Historic buildings are essentials of cultural heritage,
valuable resources with architectural and historic value, and with smart reuse techniques, they can also be economically and practically
valuable.
● Adaptive reuse helps in preserving architectural and cultural heritage, which also serves educational purpose of displaying techniques
and lifestyles of bygone days.
● Adaptive reuse also helps in providing job opportunities to the local craftsmen and laborers. Since most of the building is already built,
the work needed to fit new function requires less money, making them economical.
● These old building are also environmentally beneficial, as they are designed to include natural light and ventilation, thus conserving
energy.
● Water buildings will never return to serve as they did, but it is possible to reuse them for a new use, while still preserving the unique
typology.
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3.2 COURTYARD
A courtyard or court is a circumscribed area, often surrounded by a building or complex, that is open to the sky. Such spaces in inns and
public buildings were often the primary meeting places for some purposes, leading to the other meanings of court. Both of the words
court and yard derive from the same root, meaning an enclosed space. See yard and garden for the relation of this set of words. An
unroofed area that is completely or partially enclosed by walls or buildings, typically one forming part of a castle or large
house.Courtyard. atrium In classical architecture, an interior that is open to the air. aumbry A recess to hold reliquaries or sacred
vessels, often found in castle chapels. baldachin An ornamented canopy, supported by columns or suspended from a roof or projected
from a wall, usually over an altar, or throne.As one of the most primordial forms of architecture, “courtyard styles” may be relevent for
any type of building be it residentail, commercial, institutional or industrial.
The earliest known courtyard houses were built in Iran and China and date as far back as 3000BC. Courtyards have historicallu been used
for many purposes inluding cooking, sleeping, working, playingg, gardening, and even places to keep animals. Before courtyards open
fires were kept burning in a central place within a home, with only a small hole in the ceiling overhead to allow smoke to escape. Over
time, these small openings were enlarged and eventually led to the developemnt of the centralized open courtyard we know today.
Historically courtyards have been most popular in residential archtecture all over the world.Courtyard Houses in India The first courtyard
houses, according to historical evidence, appeared to have originated in India probably around 6500-6000 BC. Evidence of the earliest
village is from Mehergarh (6500-6000 BC). The settlement consisted of an irregular scatter of mud brick houses and the material for
house construction The idea of settlement planning was well established at Harappa at a very early phase, Kot Diji (prior to 2600 BC).
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The basic overall layout of the settlements is distinguished by the orientation of the streets to cardinal points. Most private houses had
rooms arranged around a central courtyard. Doors and windows opened out into side lanes. Stairs led up to the roof or the second storey.
Windows had shutters and latticework.
Architecturally a courtyard is better. It draws in cool air, which is useful in the hot and humid climate. Another necessary factor
attributed in the courtyard area in the house plan is to have a vedika (sacrificial altav). It is a place for sacrificial pooja and family
marriage.” The courtyard is climatically ideal for the tropics as it draws in cool air, which is circulated within the interior, replacing foul
air. In non-tropical countries, the courtyard may have different “Courtyard as a Building Component” its Role and Application in
Developing a Traditional Built form, Creating Comfort: A case of Athangudi Village, India Kranti Kumar Myneni C International
Journal of Chemical, Environmental & Biological Sciences (IJCEBS) Volume 1, Issue 4 (2013) ISSN 2320-4079; EISSN 2320–
4087633utility and type, which could be treated by different size of opening depending upon the location.
This form of architecture met with the requirements of the traditional joint family system as well as the climate. The courtyard functioned
as a convective thermostat and gave protection from extremes of weather. A dust storm could pass overhead with little effects on the
inmates. The courtyard moderated the extreme effects of the hot summers and freezing winters of the Indian sub continent, and averaged
out the large diurnal temperature differences. It varied from being a narrow opening to a large peristyle one in the interior zone of the
house, with perhaps another or more near the entrance and the rear section. The total number of courtyards in one residence could
sometimes be five to six. The courtyard house in India was not based on blind conformity and there was tremendous innovation over the
intervening centuries.
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(FIG.40) (FIG.41) (FIG.42)
3.2.2.HISTORY-
Courtyards—private open spaces surrounded by walls or buildings—have been in use in residential architecture for almost as long as
people have lived in constructed dwellings. The courtyard house makes its first appearance ca. 6400–6000 BC (calibrated), in the
NeolithicYarmukian site at Sha'ar HaGolan, in the central Jordan Valley, on the northern bank of the Yarmouk River, giving the site a
special significance in architectural history.Courtyards have historically been used for many purposes including cooking, sleeping,
working, playing, gardening, and even places to keep animals. Before courtyards, open fires were kept burning in a central place within a
home, with only a small hole in the ceiling overhead to allow smoke to escape. Over time, these small openings were enlarged and
eventually led to the development of the centralized open courtyard we know today. Courtyard homes have been designed and built
throughout the world with many variations.
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Courtyard homes are more prevalent in temperate climates, as an open central court can be an important aid to cooling house in warm
weather. However, courtyard houses have been found in harsher climates as well for centuries. The comforts offered by a courtyard—air,
light, privacy, security, and tranquility—are properties nearly universally desired in human housing.
Comparison throughout the world - two-storey houses constructed around an open square were built of fired brick. Kitchen, working, and
public spaces were located on the ground floor, with private rooms located upstairs.
The central uncovered area in a Roman domus was referred to as an atrium. Today, we generally use the term courtyard to refer to such
an area, reserving the word atrium to describe a glass-covered courtyard. Roman atrium houses were built side by side along the street.
They were one-storey homes without windows that took in light from the entrance and from the central atrium. The hearth, which used to
inhabit the centre of the home, was relocated, and the Roman atrium most often contained a central pool used to collect rainwater, called
an impluvium. These homes frequently incorporated a second open-air area, the garden, which would be surrounded by Greek-style
colonnades, forming a peristyle. This created a colonnaded walkway around the perimeter of the courtyard, which influenced monastic
structures centuries later. Courtyard houses in the Middle East reflect the nomadic influences of the region. Instead of officially
designating rooms for cooking, sleeping, etc., these activities were relocated throughout the year as appropriate to accommodate the
changes in temperature and the position of the sun. Often the flat rooftops of these structures were used for sleeping in warm weather. In
some Islamic cultures, private courtyards provided the only outdoor space for women to relax unobserved.
A Chinese courtyard in Beijing
The traditional Chinese courtyard house, e.g., siheyuan, is an arrangement of several individual houses around a square. Each house
belongs to a different family member, and additional houses are created behind this arrangement to accommodate additional family
members as needed. The Chinese courtyard is a place of privacy and tranquility, almost always incorporating a garden and water feature.
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In some cases, houses are constructed with multiple courtyards that increase in privacy as they recede from the street. Strangers would be
received in the outermost courtyard, with the innermost ones being reserved for close friends and family members.
Hooper House
In a more contemporary version of the Chinese model, a courtyard can also can be used to separate a home into wings; for example, one
wing of the house may be for entertaining/dining, and the other wing may be for sleeping/family/privacy. This is exemplified by the
Hooper House in Baltimore, Maryland.
The medieval European farmhouse embodies what we think of today as one of the most archetypal examples of a courtyard house—four
buildings arranged around a square courtyard with a steep roof covered by thatch. The central courtyard was used for working, gathering,
and sometimes keeping small livestock. An elevated walkway frequently ran around two or three sides of the courtyards in the houses.
Such structures afforded protection, and could even be made defensible.
In the first half of the 20th century, a trend developed in the sunbelt regions of the United States around Courtyard houses, especially in
California and Florida. Designers such as the Davis family and the Zwebell family developed houses that used Mediterranean
architecture, using very carefully planned courtyards, they managed to create both a sense of community, safety and scale. Using various
levels of private/public gradations these courtyard houses were so successful that they have been copied throughout sunbelt of the United
States.
3.2.3.CONSTRUCTION-
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The architecture of the chettinad region is well known and appreciated for its unique combination of various styles in the buildings. The
house itself is built on the raised level with 6-7 steps leading to the entrance. The resemblance of the house with a temple is observed in
the carving at the main entrance and paneled windows.
This form of architecture met with the requirements of the traditional joint family system as well as the climate. The courtyard functioned
as a convective thermostat and gave protection from extremes of weather. A dust storm could pass overhead with little effects on the
inmates. The courtyard moderated the extreme effects of the hot summers and freezing winters of the Indian sub continent, and averaged
out the large diurnal temperature differences. It varied from being a narrow opening to a large peristyle one in the interior zone of the
house, with perhaps another or more near the entrance and the rear section. The total number of courtyards in one residence could
sometimes be five to six. The courtyard house in India was not based on blind conformity and there was tremendous innovation over the
intervening centuries.
The type of weather prevailing in region is hot and humid with relative humidity of 63% and average temperature of maximum of 37
degree centigrade and minimum of 24 degree centigrade. The average rainfall for this region is 75mm. In northern hemisphere near to
equator regions the day temperature is high particularly during the summer season. Topography here benefits the micro climate variations.
The rain water is collected in the manmade reservoirs and the ponds in order to provide water for the whole year to the village. The soil
here is formed due to the erosion from the nearby elevated ground, as it is a red morum soil and due to the little rainfall received the
major vegetations is paddy, bananas, mango grooves and palm trees. The terrain is predominantly flat.
The term nattukottai chettiars means people with palatial houses in the country side they are also referred to as “nagarathas” meaning city
dwellers. As they lived in a city called poompuhar on the east coast of tamilnadu, a part of which went under the sea. The nattukottai
chettiars hail from a place called chettinad in South India an area situated in the south- eastern region of tamilnadu approximately 35kms
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to the west of the coastal line of the bay of Bengal in the district of sivangangai, during the initial stages chettinad consists of 96 villages
but now due to the movement of the people out of certain villages it has diminished to 75 villages in the near past.
The foundation is laid for the house is rubble work done in stone combined with mud and mortar. The foundation is the step foundation.
The houses at Athangudi are mainly differentiated by their style of roofing, the front façade and the big entrances. This particular house
represents a typical south Indian tamilnadu traditional house. The house faces the main road leading to the nearby town. As we enter the
house we have a façade from where the steps lead to the sitting space. The entry to the private zone of the house is reached by passing
through two main doors which intrinsically designed and a corridor with elevated floor platforms on either side have pillars placed at
regular intervals to support the roof. The scene of the private zone is observed firstly by elevated floor platforms and a central courtyard
with a level difference. The family members use the courtyard for collecting rain water for the regular usage.
The central courtyard is surrounded by a corridor which provides access to the rooms and the other part of the house and also these rooms
are used for preserving the valuables and clothes. To reach to the first floor staircase is provided on either sides of the courtyard. As we
move further, a spacious hall is viewed after which a smaller courtyard for carrying out the household activities is present. Three small
rooms are present on one side of this small courtyard for storage of groceries. One phase of the courtyard leads to the kitchen. The
kitchen has an exit door which leads into a narrow long corridor that directly meets the road in the front. A huge garden is planted behind
the house which is rooted through the kitchen.
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(FIG.43) (FIG.44) (FIG.45)
3.2.4.ADAPTIVE REUSE AS A SOLUTION-
Thus, courtyards have been playing a major built component, since the past in creating better lighting, ventilation and thermal comfort. It
also plays a major role in creating a social space within homes or group of homes. It also acts as a space to gather and space to interact
and space with lot of activities, whether in groups or personnel or occupational. The modern day homes, lack the ideology of creating a
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better living and creating nature as part of design, to create sustainable solutions. Courtyards could also be part of our modern home.
Creating better living solutions with adapting and learning lesson from past, to create sustainable solutions is the need of the hour.
Evolving over the centuries, courtyards have been used for a variety of purposes. Cluster houses in medieval India were made as a
defense against invading armies. Courtyards were inevitable in these houses with shared walls. In 'pols', courtyards help to 'connect' with
family members on other floors of the house. “Integration of indoors with outdoors and the unbuilt with built space provide for mutual
counterpoints. Unbuilt space such as courtyard functions independently within themselves as individual foci and yet interconnected
systems of courtyards create a large space structure, as an integral part of overall space organization.
More and more, architects are investigating ways that courtyards can play a role in the development of today's homes and cities. In
densely populated areas, a courtyard in a home can provide privacy for a family, a break from the frantic pace of everyday life, and a safe
place for children to play. With space at a premium, architects are experimenting with courtyards as a way to provide outdoor space for
small communities of people at a time. A courtyard surrounded by 12 houses, for example, would provide a shared park-like space for
those families, who could take pride in ownership of the space. Though this might sound like a modern-day solution to an inner city
problem, the grouping of houses around a shared courtyard was common practice among the Incas as far back as the 13th century.
In San Francisco, the floor plans of "marina style" houses often include a central patio, a miniature version of an open courtyard,
sometimes covered with glass or a translucent material. Central patios provide natural light to common areas and space for potted
outdoor plants. In Gilgit/Baltistan, Pakistan, courtyards were traditionally used for public gatherings where village related issues were
discussed.
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3.3 JALIS
A jali or jaali, (Urdu: ‫جالی‬Hindi:जजजज jālī, meaning "net") is the term for a perforated stone or latticedscreen, usually with an
ornamental pattern constructed through the use of calligraphy and geometry. This form of architectural decoration is common in Hindu
temple architecture, Indo-Islamic Architecture and more generally in Islamic Architecture.
Early jali work was built by carving into stone, generally in geometric patterns, while later the Mughals used very finely carved plant-
based designs, as at the Taj Mahal. They also often added pietra dura inlay to the surrounds, using marble and semi-precious stones.
The jali helps in lowering the temperature by compressing the air through the holes. Also when the air passes through these openings, its
velocity increases giving profound diffusion. It has been observed that humid areas like Kerala and Konkan have larger holes with
overall lower opacity than compared with the dry climate regions of Gujarat and RajasthanWith compactness of the residential areas in
the modern India, jalis became less frequent for privacy and security matters.
Part veil, part wall, and part window, jalis are used to great sculptural scale and effect, their perforated forms—as both latticed partitions
and chiselled structures—allowing light and ventilation, along with privacy. Their original purpose was to provide breathable visual
barriers, but a new generation of designers is using them for shade, as windbreakers or simply decoration.
Though the word ‘jali’ has its roots in Urdu, in India, the carving of apertures in repetitive patterns dates as far back as the 8th century, as
seen in the rock-cut architecture at the Kailasa temple at Ellora in Maharashtra, and the Pattadakal temple complex in Karnataka. Today,
in the hands of contemporary designers and architects, jalis are being recreated in new materials like stainless steel, bamboo, concrete,
limestone, and exposed brick.
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(FIG.46) (FIG.47) (FIG.48)
A distinctive feature of many Indian Mughal palaces and buildings is the jali or jaali screen (जजज in Hindi). A jaali screen is a
perforated wooden or stone latticed screen, usually featuring an intricate ornamental pattern based on geometry and calligraphy. It is
equally a part of Indian Mughal art as well as Islamic art where it is called ‫مشربية‬mashrabiya. Jaali screens can both be a part of
architecture, screening window and balcony openings in buildings, but also a part of monuments, like the jaali surrounding the royal
cenotaphs at the Taj Mahal in Agra
The function of the jaali is to provide protection and shade from the summer sun while allowing a draught of air to enter and cool the
building. An additional benefit is privacy, since the jaali screens permit the occupants of a building to look outside without being seen
from the street.In this paper, the authors shed light on roshān and jāli: two traditional architectural spatial devices that served essentially
as hijab (veil) in Islamic dwellings of Saudi Arabia and India. The authors will discuss its concept, etymology, historic background,
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construction materials and techniques and provide comparative analysis of how these forms were utilized in dwellings of Saudi Arabia
and India as a spatial device for: 1) separation of spaces; 2) to provide privacy and security; 3) to control and filter light; and 4) to control
micro climate of the dwellings. The authors thus show how these two architectural forms are not just decorative elements for aesthetic
beauty, but serve various spatial, social, cultural, religious and climatic functions. In conclusion; the authors will provide suggestions as
to how these traditional architectural forms can be useful in developing sustainable design solutions for the 21st century architecture. The
authors utilized two qualitative research methods, including literature review and case studies to collect the data for this research.
Grounded theory was utilized to analyze the data. Conclusions were drawn based on authors’ findings. Keywords: roshān, jāli, Islamic
architecture, screens, Muslim houses
(FIG.49) (FIG.50) (FIG.51)
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3.4 NICHE
A niche (CanE, UK: /ˈniːʃ/ or US: /ˈnɪtʃ/) in classical architecture is an exedra or an apse that has been reduced in size, retaining the half-
dome heading usual for an apse. Nero's Domus Aurea (AD 64–69) was the first semi-private dwelling that possessed rooms that were
given richly varied floor plans, shaped with niches and exedras; sheathed in dazzling polished white marble, such curved surfaces
concentrated or dispersed the daylight. The word derives from the Latin nidus or nest, via the French niche. The Italian nicchio for a sea-
shell may also be involved, as the traditional decoration for the top of a niche is a scallop shell, as in the illustration, hence also the
alternative term of "conch" for a semi-dome, usually reserved for larger exedra. In Gothic architecture, a niche may be set within a
tabernacle framing, like a richly decorated miniature house ("aedicule"), such as might serve for a reliquary. The backings for the altars
in churches ("reredos") can be embedded with niches for statues.
Though a niche in either Classical or Gothic contexts may be empty and merely provide some articulation and variety to a section of wall,
the cult origins of the niche suggested that it be filled with a statue. One of the earliest buildings which uses external niches containing
statues is the Church of Orsanmichele in Florence, built between 1380 and 1404. The Uffizi Palace in Florence (1560–81) modified the
concept by setting the niche within the wall so it did not protrude. The Uffizi has two dozen or so such niches containing statues of great
historical figures. In England the Uffizi style niches were adopted at Montacute House (c. 1598), where there are 9 exterior niches
containing statues of the Nine Worthies. In Fra Filippo Lippi's Madonna, the trompe-l'oeil niche frames her as with the canopy of estate
that was positioned over a personage of importance in the late Middle Ages and Early Modern Europe. At the same time, the Madonna is
represented as an iconic sculpture who has "come alive" with miraculous immediacy. Expanding from its primary sense as an
architectural recess, a niche can be applied to a rocky hollow, crack, crevice, or foothold. The sense of a niche as a clearly defined narrow
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space led to its use describing the relational position of an organism's species, its ecological niche. definition - nichearchitecture. Niche
(architecture) A niche in classical architecture is an exedra or an apse that has been reduced in size, retaining the half-dome heading usual
for an apse
(FIG.52) (FIG.53)
(FIG.54) (FIG.55) (FIG.56)
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3.5 JHAROKHE/ BAY WINDOW
A jharokha (or jharoka) is a type of overhanging enclosed balcony used in the architecture of Rajasthan. It was also used in Indo-Islamic
architecture. Jharokhas jutting forward from the wall plane could be used both for adding to the architectural beauty of the building itself
or for a specific purpose. One of the most important functions it served was to allow women to see outside without being seen themselves.
Alternatively, these windows could be used to position archers and spies. The jharokha is a stone window projecting from the wall face
of a building, in an upper story, overlooking a street, market, court or any other open space. It is supported on two or more brackets or
corbelling, has two pillars or pilasters, balustrade and a cupola or pyramidal roof; technically closed by jalies but generally partly open
for the inmates to peep out to see passing processions. The jharokha is more formal and ornamental than English or French “oriel” and is
one of the most distinctive characteristics of the façade in medieval Indian architecture until the 19th century.
The projected balcony is an essential element of Rajasthani architecture, both as decoration and as a viewing platform. The chajjas -
sloping eaves that projected out above the balconies - increase protection from both the summer sun and monsoon rain. Jharokhas are
mainly used in palaces, havelis and temples. Bay window is a generic term for all protruding window constructions, regardless of
whether they run over one or multiple storeys.
In plan, the most frequently used shapes are isosceles trapezoid (which may be referred to as a canted bay window) and rectangle. But
other polygonal shapes with more than two corners are also common as are curved shapes. If a bay window is curved it may alternatively
be called bow window.Bay windows in a triangular shape with just one corner exist but are relatively rare.
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A bay window supported by a corbel, bracket or similar is called an oriel window.
A bay window is a window space projecting outward from the main walls of a building and forming a bay in a room.
Uses of bay window- Most medieval bay windows and up to the baroque era are oriel windows. They frequently appear as a highly
ornamented addition to the building rather than an organic part of it. Particularly during the Gothic period they often serve as small house
chapels, with the oriel window containing an altar and resembling an apse of a church. Especially in Nuremberg these are even called Ch
枚 rlein (meaning Little Apse or Little Choir) with the most famous example being the one from the parsonage of St. Sebaldus Church.
Oriental oriel windows such as the ArabMashrabiya are frequently made of wood and allow viewing out while restricting visibility from
the outside. Especially in warmer climates a bay window may be identical to a balcony with a privacy shield or screen. Bay windows can
make a room appear larger, and provide views of the outside which would be unavailable with an ordinary flat window. They are found
in terraced houses, semis and detached houses as well as in blocks of flats.
Based on British models, their use spread to other English speaking countries like the US, Canada and Australia. Following the
pioneering model of pre-modern commercial architecture at the Oriel Chambers in Liverpool, they feature on early Chicago
Schoolskyscrapers where they often run the whole height of the building's upper storeys.[citation needed]
Bay windows were identified as a defining characteristic of San Francisco architecture in a 2012 study that had a machine learning
algorithm examine a random sample of 25,000 photos of cities from Google Street View.
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(FIG.57) (FIG.58) (FIG.59)
(FIG.60) (FIG.61) (FIG.62)
66
Jharokhe in the earlier stage now comes in category of Bay window, the elements was used by women in earlier stages to look outside
the house or onto the streets, as they were not allowed to go outside without a parda, hence carrying forward the unique look and style of
that era in modern is the bay window, used for a special seating and also for indirect sunlight and proper ventilation.
3.6 WIND CATCHER

A windtower (wind catcher) (Persian: ‫ بادگير‬bâdgir: bâd "wind" + gir "catcher") is a traditional Iranian architectural element to create
natural ventilation in buildings. Windcatchers come in various designs: uni-directional, bi-directional, and multi-directional. The devices
were used in ancient Iranian architecture. Windcatchers remain present in Iran and can also be found in traditional Persian-influenced
architecture throughout the West Asia, including in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.Central Iran shows large
diurnal temperature variation with an arid climate. Most buildings are constructed from thick ceramic with high insulation values. Towns centered
on desert oases tend to be packed very closely together with high walls and ceilings, maximizing shade at ground level. The heat of direct sunlight is
minimized with small windows that face away from the sun.
The windcatcher's effectiveness had led to its routine use as a refrigerating device in Persian architecture. Many traditional water
reservoirs (ab anbars) are built with windcatchers that are capable of storing water at near freezing temperatures during summer months.
The evaporative cooling effect is strongest in the driest climates, such as on the Iranian plateau, leading to the ubiquitous use of
windcatchers in drier areas such as Yazd, Kerman, Kashan, Sirjan, Nain, and Bam. A small windcatcher is called a shish-khan in
traditional Persian architecture. Shish-khans can still be seen on top of ab anbars in Qazvin and other northern cities in Iran. These seem
to function more as ventilators than as the temperature regulators seen in the central deserts of Iran. Wind catchers were used in
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traditional ancient Egyptian architecture. A painting depicting such a device has been found at the Pharaonic house of Neb-Ammun,
Egypt, which dates from the 19th Dynasty, c. 1300 BC (British Museum). In Egypt the windcatchers are known as malqaf pl. malaaqef.
(FIG.63) (FIG.64)
(FIG.65) (FIG.66) (FIG.67)
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3.6.2.HISTORY-
Therefore, in the history of architecture in Egypt, which dates back many centuries, we find the use of wind towers (wind catchers) as a
design for buildings in different regions with varying climates. Wind towers had appeared as an architectural element in Pharonic
architecture in the house of "Neb Amon"(Ministers of Islamic architecture). They appeared later in old churches in Christian architecture
in Egypt, and in Islamic architecture, particularly during the Abbasid period, hospitals and most houses were designed with air towers
(wind catchers). Islamic architecture took into account the climatic conditions and sought to meet the needs of the buildings in the
environment. The wind tower of El-Saleh Talaea Mosque is considered one of the oldest wind towers to remain intact. Following that are
the wind towers found in El-Camilia School, Baibars House and ElSenary House (1209AJ/1794 AD). The wind tower in ElSenary House
is located on the right side of the house with the aim of cooling the interior of the house in the morning when temperatures are high. All
of these examples of wind catchers and other similar solutions created Egypt's many architectural theories in the history of architectural
buildings. In this research we want to know if it were possible to implement the theory of the wind catchers in modern times, and thus
introduce it as an architectural concept with existing modern air-conditioning to keep up with the current needs. Also, we consider the
use of mono-draught technology with a new approach, in addition to taking into account other factors such as the economic factor
(represented in high energy prices) and environmental impacts (global warming) to study the suitability of these technologies using wind
towers as a good and energysaving alternative in the future if they could be used on a larger scale.
3.6.3.CONSTRUCTION-
Wind towers (wind catchers) are around 5-8 meters in height at the top deck of the building; they have a slot corresponding to the
direction of the prevailing winds. The advantages of wind towers are:
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 They provide natural ventilation and passive cooling for the interior spaces of buildings.
 They seize the air passing over the building that is clean and free of dust from the upper layers in the outside space, which is usually
cooler.
 They push it into the building and make it flow through the interior spaces, causing air circulation and making the interior spaces
cooler with constant air flow and proper ventilation.
 The increase in air speed inside the building provides coolness and comfort to the people living inside.
 They reduce the level of noise coming from outside the building, which usually accompanies the ventilation coming from windows.
 They ventilate buildings that do not have external windows.
 They capture fresh air in any direction of the building, even if the room is not facing the prevailing wind.
 They provide proper ventilation for many floors inside the building with no need for artificial methods of ventilation.
 They minimize dust pollution carried with warm air drafts in desert climate zones.
 They transfer heat by convection and evaporation from inside the building to the outside.
 Th Figure shows sector and cross section of a building with a wind tower (wind catcher).
Wind towers can work with or without wind flow due to differences in air temperature and pressure inside and outside the building,
which works by sucking air in. The Impact of climate on designing wind towers (wind Catchers) in terms of size and type
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Wind towers used in dry atmospheres differ from those used in the humid climates. The size of the wind tower depends on the
temperature of the external air. If the temperature is low at the entrance to the wind tower then the horizontal cross section must be large,
but if the temperature is high at entrance of the wind tower then the
horizontal cross section must be small, so that it can moisturize and cool the air passing through it. In Egypt, pottery (with micro-pores)
is filled with water that is put in the course of air passing through like the wind tower. Wet hay and wet charcoal plates are placed
between metal sheets for the same purpose. Air flow can also be directed through a water fountain or “Salsabeel” for extra cooling. Also,
air flow can be directed to a specific room or to a cool room to preserve food (refrigeration). In order for Wind towers to absorb
humidity, they should be placed on the interior walls and should not be facing the sun directly. This shows that climate plays an
important role in the use of wind towers. The most common types of wind catchers according to their forms and aspects are:
 One-way Wind Towers: These are towers placed on top of a building with air outlets that direct prevailing air currents. It captures
cold air and passes it through to the interior spaces of the building. This type of wind tower is usually built within the thickness of
the wall itself and usually does not exceed 50 cm x 20 cm in diameter. In the lower end opening it does not rise more than one meter
above the ground. This type of one-way wind catcher is covered at its opening by a rectangular slope or a semi-circular lid which
leads to a cylindrical cellar. It is usually used in desert areas, like the sirocco in Egypt, which abound with wind provoking dust. It is
used to prevent this dust from entering the house; the tower can also be treated by placing a filter.
 Two-way Wind Towers: In this type of towers, each opening has a specific function. The first is placed in the direction of the
prevailing wind (to absorb the wind and leave it inside the house), while the second is placed in the opposite direction to absorb hot
air from the rooms and release it to the outside. The hot air is therefore replaced by moist air coming from the first opening
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(Montazeri, H.R )Wind tower openings can be controlled day and night, and can vary in function from one to the other Figure2a.
Due to varying temperatures, during the day one is used to absorb the air and the other is used to discharge it, while at night when the
weather is cool both openings absorb the air.
 Multi-direction Wind Towers : These are considered a development of the one-way wind tower. However, it opens in four
directions to absorb the air from every direction. Although, there are multiple forms of the Albadjir design, the square shape is the
most common. There is also a rectangular shape which has the longer side in the direction of the prevailing wind. Some hexagonal
and octagonal wind towers were found in some Gulf countries and Iran. These can be controlled through the opening and closing of
some slots, during the different seasons in the year, or during day and night.
 Wall Wind Towers: These towers are based on the idea of the impact of wind pressure on the surfaces of walls in large room On the
outside, they appear as horizontal hollow niches, located at the top-center of the outer wall, at the bottom of the niche there is a key
to control the opening or closing from the inside. High-pressure air flowing on the surface of the outer wall facing the prevailing
wind is collected in the niche and pushed through the opening causing the inside air current.
 Ventilation Tower: It is a square tower, from the inside, divided into four longitudinal wells by two perpendicular walls which
parallel the external walls. Air enters from outside through two wells facing the wind, and at the same time the hot air leaves through
the other two wells. In complex ventilation systems, groups of wind catchers are joined together to create a tower for combined
ventilation to serve a number of rooms and is commonly used in tropical areas. Some systems place containers of cold water in
several places to increase cooling, or hot coal in others for heating.
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(FIG.68) (FIG.69) (FIG.70)
(FIG.71) (FIG.72) (FIG.73)
73
(FIG.74) (FIG.75) (FIG.76)
3.6.4 FUNCTION:The windcatcher can function in three ways: directing airflow downward using direct wind entry, directing airflow
upwards using a wind-assisted temperature gradient, or directing airflow upwards using a solar-assisted temperature gradient.
Downward airflow due to direct wind entry
One of the most common uses of the windcatcher is to cool the inside of the dwelling; it is often used in combination with courtyards and
domes as an overall ventilation and heat-management strategy. It is essentially a tall, capped tower with one face open at the top. This
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open side faces the prevailing wind, thus "catching" it, and brings it down the tower into the heart of the building to maintain air flow,
thus cooling the building interior. It does not necessarily cool the air itself, but rather relies on the rate of airflow to provide a cooling
effect. Windcatchers have been employed in this manner for thousands of years.
Upward airflow due to temperature gradient

Wind-assisted temperature gradient
Windcatchers are also used in combination with a qanat, or underground canal. In this method, the open side of the tower faces away
from the direction of the prevailing wind (the tower's orientation can be adjusted by directional ports at the top). By keeping only this
tower open, air is drawn upwards using the CoandA effect. The pressure differential on one side of the building causes air to be drawn
down into the passage on the other side. The hot air is brought down into the qanat tunnel and is cooled by coming into contact with the
cool earth and cold water running through the qanat. The cooled air is drawn up through the windcatcher, again by the CoandA effect. On
the whole, the cool air flows through the building, decreasing the structure's overall temperature. The effect is magnified by the
evaporative cooling of water vapor when the air passes through the qanat water canal, as the water that evaporates in the canal has a large
enthalpy of vaporization and, besides, the dry air is humidified by the evaporated water from the canal before entering the building.
Solar-produced temperature gradient
In a windless environment or waterless house, a windcatcher functions as a solar chimney It creates a pressure gradient which allows hot
air, which is less dense, to travel upwards and escape out the top. This is also compounded significantly by the diurnal cycle, trapping
cool air below. The temperature in such an environment cannot drop below the nightly low temperature.
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When coupled with thick adobe that exhibits good resistance against heat transmission, the windcatcher is able to chill lower-level spaces
in mosques and houses (e.g. shabestans) in the middle of the day to frigid temperatures.
Directing airflow upwards using wind-assisted or solar-produced temperature gradients has gained some ground in Western architecture,
and there are several commercial products using the name windcatcher.
3.6.5 MODERN APPLIACTIONS:
The windcatcher approach has recently been utilized in Western architecture, such as in the visitor center at Zion National Park, Utah,[9] where it
functions without the addition of mechanical devices in order to regulate temperature.
Using aluminum for the windcatcher provides a more efficient capturing system, allowing for wind capture from multiple directions. The
Kensington Oval cricket ground in Barbados and the Saint-Étienne Métropole's Zénith both use this method
3.7 COOL ROOFS:

3.7.1 INTRODUCTION:
Cool roofs are roofs that stay cool in the sun by minimising solar absorption and maximising thermal emittance“Substituting a cool roof
for a non-cool roof decreases cooling-electricity use, cooling-power demand, and cooling-equipment capacity requirements, while
slightly increasing heating-energy consumption. Cool roofs can also lower citywide ambient air temperature in summer, slowing ozone
formation and increasing human comfort. “ (Akbari 2008) The subject areas of cool roofs, surface solar absorption and emittance, Urban
Heat Islands (UHI), urbanair pollution, and building and city level coolingenergy requirements are all highly interrelated. Literature on
these issues is vast but much more work is required to implement findings and realise potential benefits in the real world. The parameters
of a roof's surface can have a large influence on the surface temperature of the roof. During clear sky conditions, up to approximately
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1kW/m2 of solar radiation can be incident on a roof surface, and typically, between 20% and 95% of this radiation is absorbed (Suehrcke,
Peterson et al. 2008). This large range can be explained by the influence of the surface parameters on heat gain. The main parameters
which influence maximum roof surface temperatures are solar absorptance, infrared emittance, and the convection coefficient (Berdahl
and Bretz 1997). Roofs that have high solar reflectance (high ability to reflect sunlight) and high thermal emittance (high ability to
radiate heat) tend to stay cool in the sun (Akbari, Levinson et al. 2008). The colour of roofs can significantly influence the temperatures
they reach. The term 'albedo' designates the total reflectance of a specific system. White can be effective in minimising heat transfer into
buildings as it is a poor absorber of energy and a good emitter (Al-Homoud 2005). The general idea of white washing structures to reject
heat has been known since antiquity (Berdahl and Bretz 1997).
However, colour is not always a good indication of the albedo of a surface as it depends not only on visible reflectance but also
reflectance of Infra Red (IR) light. For example commonly used 'white' coloured roofingshingles and galvanised steel run 35oC and 43oC
hotter than air temperature on a sunny day. Conversely, surfaces painted with red or green acrylicpaint run only 22oC hotter, even though
they are not visibly bright (Rosenfeld, Akbari et al. 1995). Galvanised mild steel gets hot, not due to its low albedo but because of its low
emissivities meaning it is slow to cool by radiation (Rosenfeld, Akbari et al. 1995). Whilst increasing roofalbedo and infrared emittance
can reduce energy consumption in hot climates, it may increase heating-energy consumption in winter months or in cooler climatesThere
is something magical about a roof garden. Parks and backyard gardens are wondrous places, but when they are placed high above the
earth on a rooftop, where they are not supposed to be, the experience becomes invigorating and unforgettable. In a roof garden, the air
seems fresher, the grass appears greener, the city feels further away than it actually is.
From the beginning of recorded history, people have been building gardens on their roofs. From the famous Hanging Gardens of
Babylon to the Rockefeller Centre in New York, the roof garden has been a part of civilized society. Roof gardens have been used as
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extensions of living rooms, displays of wealth and social status, gathering grounds for the elite, and places to escape the summer
heat. They have also been used as insulation, a means of flood control, a place to grow food, and as camouflage. Green roofs have been
an essential feature of vernacular architecture and in many instances has been vital to human survival. “Modern” civilisation is slowly
rediscovering the astonishing benefits of vegetated roofs.A cool roof is a roofing system that delivers higher solar reflectance (the ability
to reflect the visible, infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths of the sun, reducing heat transfer to the building) and higher thermal emittance
(the ability to radiate absorbed, or non-reflected solar energy) than standard designed roofing products. Historically, cool roofs have been
either white or some other lighter shade color. However, that dynamic has changed in recent years with the development of residential
cool roof products like Landmark Solaris 庐 and Presidential Solaris 庐 from CertainTeed that can achieve EnergyStar 庐 qualified levels
of solar reflectivity even in dark, rich hues.Cool roofs can also enhance roof durability and reduce both building cooling loads and the
urban heat island effect.
(FIG.77) (FIG.78) (FIG.79)
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3.7.2 HISTORY:
The Ziggurats of Ancient Mesopotamia
The earliest known record of roof gardens are the ancient ziggurats of Mesopotamia. These massive stone structures were built between
4,000 – 600 BC. A series of stairs along the outside perimeter of the stepped pyramid provided access to the various tiers of
the structure. As there were no interior rooms, trees and flowers on each terrace of the enormous ziggurats would provide a cool, shady
place for the visitor to rest from the blazing Babylonian sun. The best preserved example of a ziggurat roof garden is found in Nanna,
built by the first king of the Ur Dynasty, Ur-Nammu (who ruled from 2,113 – 2,095 BC) in an attempt to out do the splendor of the
ziggurat Etemenaki, believed to be the Biblical Tower of Babel which had a base of 100 feet and was over 100 feet tall. The 700 room
palace was protected by the Ishtar Gate, found in present day Iraq. Fragments of the gate are kept at the Pergamonmuseum in Berlin,
Germany.A ziggurat which closely resembles that in Nanna built by thefirst king of the Ur Dynasty, Ur-Nammu. The tiers of trees
provided shade from the blazing Babylonian sun.
(FIG.80) (FIG.8 1)
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The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and perhaps the most famous of roof gardens.
King Nebuchadnezzar, a famous general in his time, built the Hanging Gardens for his wife, Amytis, who longed for her mountainous
homeland of Media. The ziggurat had a 400 ft2 base, with landscaped terraces eventually reaching the grand roof garden at the top, 75
feet above the ground. It was an engineering marvel, a living mountain in the middle of a desert. The terraced layout explains the phrase
“hanging garden,” where the vegetation hung over the walls to the level below.The weight of the garden was supported by a series of
arcades whose walls were sixteen feet thick. The garden was watered through a complex irrigation system fed by “machines” hidden
from public view that pumped water from the river Euphrates eighty feet below to the top of the roof garden. The structure supported a
forest of trees, exotic plants, wildlife, and perpetually green grass. Some trees grew to be as tall as 50 feet.
The Villa of Mysteries, Pompeii
Little was known about Roman day to day life until the accidental discovery of the city of Pompeii, near Naples, in 1749. Pompeii was
covered in thirteen to twenty feet of ash and pumice from the volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in AD 79, preserving almost perfectly for
all time the people, activities, and lifestyle of the Roman town like a candid snapshot from a Polaroid Instamatic. From this
snapshot archaeologists have discovered that roof gardens were an essential part of Roman life. They were an extension of the living
room, a place to seek refuge from the heat, a place to socialize and to dine. One such roof garden was found in the Villa of Mysteries,
near the northwest gate of Pompeii on the road to Herculaneum. The Villa was a U-shaped terraced arcade where plants were grown
directly in the soil on the roof
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.
(FIG.82) (FIG.83)
Reconstruction of the Villa of Mysteries, near Pompeii, Italy, which sits on the Road to Herculaneum. The luxurious villa was preserved
after the eruption of Mt Vesusius in AD 79. The roof garden (in green) functioned as an outdoor living room and was the centre of social
activity. The garden was supported by an arched stone colonnade.
Palazzo Piccolomini, Pienza, Italy
The Palazzo Piccolomini was the private summer residence of Pope Pius II. The palazzo was part of a wider development plan Pope Pius
envisaged for Pienza, his home town, which was in a dreadful state. The scheme for Pienza is one of the first examples of Renaissance
town planning and is thought to be the earliest example of town planning in Europe. The project has been celebrated as a successful
creation of an ideal town, a masterpiece of human creative genius. The design of Pienza marks the transition from the organic, haphazard
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jumble of the medieval town to the planned Renaissance city. The most ingenious and innovative feature of the scheme was the
introduction of the piazza, a central square on which people could gather, socialize, and enjoy the delicious Italian summer sun. In
Pienza, the piazza was surrounded by public buildings, including the town hall and cathedral. The piazza was a physical representation
of the Pope’s humanistic values and the desire to increase the quality of life for Everyman.In 1463, Pope Pius II commissioned Bernardo
Rossellino to design a palazzo for his personal summer residence. Atop this palazzo, a magnificent roof garden filled with sculpted trees
and manicured parterres overlooked the Val D’Oria, a manufactured agrarian landscape designed to be both functional and beautiful. The
carefully planned and executed Val D’Oria was the perfect backdrop to the exotic roof garden, a seamless transition for the eye from the
landscape above street level to the valley below, as if looking down from a mountaintop. This is the first known example of the then new
concept of “landscape” being something controlled and manipulated by man.Garden loggia atop the Palazzo in Poccolomini, Pienza
overlooking the Val D’Oria. It was commissioned in c. 1463 by Pope Pius II. This is one of the first examples of concept of “landscape”
as something manmade.
(FIG.84) (FIG.85)
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Norwegian Sod Roofs
Not all roof gardens were designed to impress. Sod roofs, roofs topped with soil and planted with grasses and other plants to stabilize the
earth on the roof, were part of the Norwegian vernacular. Sod roofs provided insulation, mitigated damage to the roof from the rain,
prevented the roof from rotting, and the root system bound and strengthened the roof structure. A layer of birch bark was laid down as a
sealing membrane, followed by a layer of twigs for drainage, then covered in sod. A similar sod roof technique was brought to the United
States and Canada by Norwegian immigrants. A sod roof in Milton, North Dakota, built by Ole Myrvik, a Norwegian Immigrant, c.
1896. Sod roofs were common in Norway because they added an additional layer of insulation and protection to the house. Norwegian
immigrants brought the technique with them to the US and Canada.
Casino Theatre, New York City
Gardens on rooftops started popping up in New York City in the 1890s. Investors believed roof gardens would overshadow all other
forms of summer entertainment and would become a necessity part of life for New Yorkers.The first roof garden in New York City was
built on the Casino Theatre at 39th and Broadway in 1882. This project was conceived by conductor and musician Rudolph Aronson,
who was enchanted by the Parisian summer theatre gardens he had experienced during his visit to Europe the previous summer. The
price of land in New York was too expensive to duplicate the European garden stage model on the ground, so Aronson incorporated the
idea of a stage surrounded by plants and trees on the roof. By adding the roof garden, the Casino Theatre could extend its productions all
through the summer months in the heart of New York’s theatre district. At this time, theatres in New York would only run during the
winter months. Summer theatres would open in the suburbs and less populated areas in the state. The Casino Theatre quickly became
the most successful theatre in New York, spurring other theatres to add gardens to their roofs. The most well known examples are
Madison Square Gardens and WInter Gardens, both of which get their names from their roof gardens.The Casino Theatre, New York
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City, as seen on a postcard stamped March 1909. The Casino Theatre was the first theatre to install a roof garden in New York City,
extending its shows through the summer months.
Wright, Le Corbusier, & Modern Architecture
Architecture changed dramatically in the early 20th century. Modernists such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier broke free from
the bonds of historical architecture, introducing a completely new form of design that had no reference to the past. Le Corburiser’s Cinq
Points de l’Architecture Moderne became the new model for architectural design and theory. The 5th Point, the roof garden or terrace,
was a flat roof intended to be an outdoor living room, a place to exercise and to enjoy the fresh air, rather than a literal garden with plants
and trees. Le Corbusier considered the roof to be an “exterior room, a place to be within and to look without.” Modern architecture’s flat
roof provides the perfect platform on which to build a vegetated roof. In the 1930s, Le Corbusier was brought on as a consultant on two
projects in Brazil – the Ministry of Education building in Rio de Janeiro (1938) and the Brazilian Press Association building (1940) –
where landscape architect Roberto Burle Marx designed the roof gardens.
It is unclear whether the Hanging Gardens were an actual construction or a poetic creation, owing to the lack of documentation in
contemporaneous Babylonian sources. There is also no mention of Nebuchadnezzar's wife Amyitis (or any other wives), although a
political marriage to a Median or Persian would not have been unusual.Many records exist of Nebuchadnezzar's works, yet his long and
complete inscriptions do not mention any garden. However, the gardens were said to still exist at the time that later writers described
them, and some of these accounts are regarded as deriving from people who had visited Babylon. Herodotus, who describes Babylon in
his Histories, does not mention the Hanging Gardens, although it could be that the gardens were not yet well known to the Greeks at the
time of his visit.
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To date, no archaeological evidence has been found at Babylon for the Hanging Gardens.It is possible that evidence exists beneath the
Euphrates, which cannot be excavated safely at present. The river flowed east of its current position during the time of
Nebuchadnezzar II, and little is known about the western portion of Babylon. Rollinger has suggested that Berossus attributed the
Gardens to Nebuchadnezzar for political reasons, and that he had adopted the legend from elsewher
(FIG.86)
3.7.3 CONSTRUCTION:
One proposal is that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were actually constructed by the Assyrian king Sennacherib (reigned 704 – 681 BC)
for his palace at Nineveh. Stephanie Dalley posits that during the intervening centuries the two sites became confused, and the extensive
gardens at Sennacherib's palace were attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II's Babylon. Archaeological excavations have found traces of a vast
system of aqueducts attributed to Sennacherib by an inscription on its remains, which Dalley proposes were part of a 80-kilometre (50 mi)
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series of canals, dams, and aqueducts used to carry water to Nineveh with water-raising screws used to raise it to the upper levels of the
gardens.
Dalley bases her arguments on recent developments in the analysis of contemporary Akkadian inscriptions. Her main points are:
 The name "Babylon", meaning "Gate of the Gods" was applied to several Mesopotamian cities. Sennacherib renamed the city
gates of Nineveh after gods, which suggests that he wished his city to be considered "a Babylon".
 Only Josephus names Nebuchadnezzar as the king who built the gardens; although Nebuchadnezzar left many inscriptions, none
mentions any garden or engineering works.Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius Rufus specify a "Syrian" king. By contrast,
Sennacherib left written descriptions, and there is archaeological evidence of his water engineering.His grandson Assurbanipal
pictured the mature garden on a sculptured wall panel in his palace.
 Sennacherib called his new palace and garden "a wonder for all peoples". He describes the making and operation of screws to
raise water in his garden.
 The descriptions of the classical authors fit closely to these contemporary records. Before the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC
Alexander the Great camped for four days near the aqueduct at Jerwan. The historians who travelled with him would have had ample
time to investigate the enormous works around them, recording them in Greek. These first-hand accounts do not survive into our
times but were quoted by later Greek writers.
King Sennacherib's garden was well-known not just for its beauty – a year-round oasis of lush green in a dusty summer landscape – but
also for the marvelous feats of water engineering that maintained the garden. There was a tradition of Assyrian royal garden building.
King Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) had created a canal, which cut through the mountains. Fruit tree orchards were planted. Also
mentioned were pines, cypresses and junipers; almond trees, date trees, ebony, rosewood, olive, oak, tamarisk, walnut, terebinth, ash, fir,
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pomegranate, pear, quince, fig, and grapes. A sculptured wall panel of Assurbanipal shows the garden in its maturity. One original
paneland the drawing of another are held by the British Museum, although neither is on public display. Several features mentioned by the
classical authors are discernible on these contemporary images.
Of Sennacherib's palace, he mentions the massive limestone blocks that reinforce the flood defences. Parts of the palace were excavated
by Austin Henry Layard in the mid-19th century. His citadel plan shows contours which would be consistent with Sennacherib's garden,
but its position has not been confirmed. The area has been used as a military base in recent times, making it difficult to investigate further.
The irrigation of such a garden demanded an upgraded water supply to the city of Nineveh. The canals stretched over 50 km into the
mountains. Sennacherib was proud of the technologies he had employed and describes them in some detail on his inscriptions. At the
headwater of Bavian (Khinnis) his inscription mentions automatic sluice gates. An enormous aqueduct crossing the valley at Jerwan was
constructed of over 2 million dressed stones. It used stone arches and waterproof cement. On it is written:
Sennacherib king of the world king of Assyria. Over a great distance I had a watercourse directed to the environs of
Nineveh, joining together the waters.... Over steep-sided valleys I spanned an aqueduct of white limestone blocks, I made
those waters flow over it.
ennacherib claimed that he had built a "Wonder for all Peoples," and said he was the first to deploy a new casting technique in place of
the "lost-wax" process for his monumental (30 tonne) bronze castings. He was able to bring the water into his garden at a high level
because it was sourced from further up in the mountains, and he then raised the water even higher by deploying his new water screws.
This meant he could build a garden that towered above the landscape with large trees on the top of the terraces – a stunning artistic effect
that surpassed those of his predecessors.
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(FIG.87) (FIG.88)
3.7.4 ADAPTIVE REUSE AS A SOLUTION:
Green building design with a rooftop gardens is not a new concept of environmentally friendly houses, but
Green roofs become very popular for environmentally friendly homes again. A Green roof garden with grass
and bushes looks impressive. Green building design with rooftop gardens promise a lot of benefits in the future
also. Environmentally friendly houses with rooftop gardens is a part of contem porary sustainable
architecture. The goal of sustainable architecture is to create a Green building that looks beautiful, feels
functional and comfortable, and contribute to a sustainable lifestyle and culture. Sustainable building with a
living roof is an example of sustainable architecture that offers Green roofs for h ealthy cities. Interest in
sustainable architecture grows constantly in response to concerns about the environment and climate changes,
but in fact sustainable building with Green roof was invented thousands of years ago. Environmentally friendly
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houses with rooftop gardens feel natural, practical and attractive.Green roofs with grass help reduce the
temperature inside sustainable building in summer. Grass roofs make environmentally friendly houses warmer
in winter. Rooftop gardens dramatically reduce air conditioning and heating costs. Also, Green roof design with
grass decreases the urban heat effect, – when dark roofing materials on thousands of buildings collect the sun
heat and radiate it, increasing the temperature in suburbs.Green homes decor that cleans the air and top eco
friendly house plantsGreen home decor miniatures Eco-friendly house in Toronto, sustainable architectural
design for urban lifestyle Green lawns and rooftop gardens reduce the amount of rain water on streets during
rain or snow storms. Green roofing materials with grass and bushes are an element of contempo rary Green
building technology of creating environmentally friendly homes with Green roofs that produce oxygen and
purify the air people breath in cities
(FIG.89) (FIG.90) (FIG.91)
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CHAPTER:4 IMPORTANCE OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE:
4.1 COSERVATION
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Much of today's building activity takes place in sensitive historic environments and architects are often engaged in redesigning existing
buildings. It is therefore essential for students of architecture to be aware of the philosophy of conservation of historic and vernacular
buildings. To achieve sustainability, the efficient use and reuse of built resources is crucial. In addition, traditional settlements constitute
a very important part of the cultural heritage of every country and incorporate many bioclimatic elements. The detailed investigation of
vernacular settlements, and the principles for their conservation and reuse, constitute some of the essential elements of a compulsory
course in the architecture programme at the University of Cyprus. A combination of theoretical teaching and practical projects constitutes
a pedagogical approach and implements an educational strategy which leads to students acquiring the skills for an interdisciplinary,
holistic approach towards the rehabilitation of traditional settlements, and helps them recognize and assess their different values.
4.2 SUSTAINABILITY
4.2.1 INTRODUCTION:
Sustainability is a concept that has monopolised a large number of the scientific debates in a wide range of spheres connected not only
with architecture, urban planning and construction, but also with the product market, tourism, culture, etc. However, sustainability is
indissolubly linked to vernacular architecture and the lessons this architecture of the past can teach us for the future. The concept of
sustainability as it is presented is wide-reaching and encompasses not only environmental issues but also sociocultural and
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socioeconomic questions. The lessons we can learn from studying vernacular architecture in these three broad spheres are manifold, and
can help us not only to further the conservation and retrieval of this architecture already in existence but to rethink new architecture in the
light of what we have learned.
Vernacular Architecture: Towards a Sustainable Future will be a valuable source of information for academics and professionals in the
fields of Environmental Science, Civil Engineering, Construction and Building Engineering and Architecture.
4.3 LINK TO PAST
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION:
This paper presents part of the first year course given at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology of Lausanne, Department of
Architecture, which deals with climatology and the physics of building. For many years, the initiation into architecture has been started
by analysing vernacular architecture all over the world. The didactic object of these studies is to make the students aware of the complex
reality of architecture in general. A series of models taken among the vernacular architecture of various countries is presented.
Within the conservation discipline, the post-war era was not only a moment to discuss the principles and techniques of modern
conservation, but also to discuss the meaning and scope of ‘cultural heritage’. Until the 19th century, the notion of heritage was limited to
antique and medieval buildings but due to the destructions of the two world wars, awareness grew about the value of buildings of other
periods and typologies including vernacular architecture, industrial buildings and even complete historic cities . As the conservation
practice had to deal with these ‘new types of heritage’, interest for adaptive reuse as a methodology towards conservation grew. In 1964,
The Venice Charter points to the importance of adaptive reuse within the conservation practice saying saying that “the conservation of
monuments is always facilitated by making use of them for some socially useful purpose”.
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Within the architectural discipline, a growing interest emerged in conservation of old buildings as a reaction to their increased
demolishment in favour of new construction . Where during the first half of the 20th century architects aspired to create new buildings
which completely broke with traditional building, during the second half of the 20th century architects started to consider working with
historic buildings as an interesting challenge and made it an important aspect of their work. Carlo Scarpa, Raphaël Moneo, Herzog & de
Meuron are examples of such architects. Hence, from the 1970s onwards, adaptive reuse has been a key subject for many conferences on
architecture and conservation, resulting in a considerable body of scholarly literature
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CHAPTER:5 CASE STUDY:
5.1 ABSTRACT
Vernacular architecture around the world is impressively rich with ingenious techniques early dwellers used to protect themselves from
the diverse weather conditions they were subject to. Great examples of well-thought vernacular architecture are located in the Middle-
eastern region and north.Africa where a hot and arid climate zone prevails. This climate condition is probably a good example of extreme
weather conditions and studying the architectural techniques that allows the creation of independent microclimates in these regions is
worth exploring. Some of these traditional techniques are being slowly rediscovered today and slowly applied to modern forms of
architecture. However, sustainable features in general and passive climate control in particular, even though newly rediscovered, are
starting to limit the architectural expression of the buildings. This case study explores the use of passive heating and cooling in Kasbahs,
courtyard houses and traditional Iranian houses in the city of Yazd. These studies unearth impressive techniques and further studies of
vernacular architecture would be inspiration to the modern sustainable movement.
5.1.1 CASE STUDY 1- Southern Moroccan Ksours and Kasbahs and Arabic Courtyard houses.
 Introduction:
Kasbahs are fortified dwellings built out of adobe mainly located in the hot-arid regions of North Africa. The climate in these regions is
harsh, with an average daily maximum of 104ºF and reaches 109ºF in the summer. Minimum temperatures reach 44ºF in Cold months
such as January. Humidity varies from 10% in the hot months to 50% in other months.
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Typically, These Kasbahs have small size windows and are built usually high and very close to each other. The town that counts several
of these dwellings is called a kasr (pl. ksours), a type of fortified village. These Kasbahs are a skillful adaptation to the harsh climate in
the hot-arid region. Indeed, the primary purpose of these constructions was to protect the inhabitants and the animals from the extreme
sunny days of the summer.
Through studying this type of architecture, it is clear that every single feature of these dwellings is well thought in order to contribute to
the creation of a microclimate within the town: the layout of the Kasbahs, their height, their orientation, the use of materials in addition to
the inner migration within the dwelling All play a major role in the temperature regulation inside. It is important to note that The plan of
a Kasbah is introverted, with a major atrium on the inside, typically referred too as a courtyard. These courtyards, discussed in depth later
on, play a major role in the climatic control of these houses
(FIG.92) (FIG.93)
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 The urban factor:
The streets and alleys inside the ksours have attributes that make them contribute to the ecological regulation in the ksours. Indeed, the
streets are narrow and never rectilinear with parallel sides. This helps reduce luminosity and therefore the streets stay shaded most of the
day. Their sinusoidal form helps break the flow of wind through the city as the sand carrying winds are naturally undesirable. If these
winds infiltrated the Kasr, they would easily disperse the cool air that accumulated during the night time. An important factor to keep in
mind is the fact that all the dwellings share as many as three exterior walls, which helps avoid exposed facades to the heat. Each Kasbah
has a lower surface to volume ratio which is very efficient thermally. Since most of the walls are shared, the only exposed surface
becomes the roof. In certain instances, the proximity of these dwellings to each other create covered streets below that play a major role
in the passive cooling of the house. Certainly, the cool air that is stored in these shaded areas is drawn by convection towards the
courtyards and then, high up towards the exterior of the house. This helps the house stay cool during the day.
(FIG.94) (FIG.95)
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In extreme cases, certain villages become monolithic structures that contain several buildings under one roof.
 The thermal mass:
The walls of the dwellings can be as thick as 3 feet. They are meant to serve as extensive thermal masses, which creates cave-like
temperatures inside the house (temperatures in cave are constant). The diurnal temperature range could be 68F (20C), which leads to a
temperature difference of 41F to 59 F (5 to 15 C) between the exterior and the interior of the house. The thermal masses store the
coolness at night and slowly dissipate it during the day. The exterior facades have almost no fenestrations in order to prevent the interior
from sandstorms and also from direct heat gain. In addition, the wall surfaces are rough and thick, which helps absorb the harsh sun heat.
(FIG.96) (FIG.97)
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 The inhabitants’ interior Migration:
A very interesting concept is the migration of the inhabitants inside the house. Indeed, during the summer, the family inhabits mainly the
lower portion of the Kasbah during the day and the upper portion during the night, and vice versa in the cold months.
5.1.2 CASE STUDY 2- North African Courtyards Houses.
An important feature of the architecture of the previously discussed Kasbahs is the use courtyards. However, courtyards have been used
in several others dwelling types and in many different climatic regions. Courtyards are a successful feature that plays several roles.
Certainly, introverting the house provides privacy of the residents from the exterior realm. They also give a special spatial significance to
the interior of the house in addition to providing a small garden inside the house. Most important of all, these courtyards regulate the
climate inside the house. The first climatic advantage of these courtyards is the fact that they allow daylight into the house. This daylight
penetrates all the rooms, since they are all arranged around this atrium. The second climatic advantage is the ventilation and passive
cooling. The orientation of the rooms towards the patio creates good cross ventilation during the warm weather. During the night time,
the courtyard loses heat by irradiation, and the coolness of the floor, walls and furniture lasts until late afternoon. The Sun itself does not
penetrate the courtyard until it is noon when the sun in high in the sky.
This actually has its own advantages. As the cool air dissipates from the floor and adjacent rooms, convection current is created and
therefore adds to the comfort within the house. In the Kasbahs, the amount of sunlight accessing the atrium can be controlled using
wooden shutters. In addition, in order to ensure a steady flow of air by convection, the concept of takhtabush was introduced especially
in North African countries like Egypt.
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The takhtabush is a type of loggia. It is a covered outdoor sitting area at ground level that separates the courtyard from the back garden.
This disposition creates another case of ventilation by convection. Since the back garden is typically less shaded than the courtyard, hot
air rises from the floor and draws the cool air out from the courtyard through the takhtabush. This creates a cool draft between the two
spaces. In addition to the takhtabush, North African and Middle Eastern houses make extensive use of shading devices and privacy
screen, which also help regulate the climate inside the house. The mashrabiya for instance is a widely used wooden lattice screen
composed of very small wooden balusters round in section. The name mashrabiya is derived from the word “drink” in Arabic. The
mashrabiya was originally a “drinking place” where jars of water were placed to be cooled by the evaporation effect when air moves
through the space.
The mashrabiya has many different functions among which: controlling the passage of light, controlling air flow, reducing the
temperature of the air current, increasing the humidity of the air current and assuring a great amount of privacy. According to architect
Hassan Fathy, the south sunlight entering a room has two components: the direct high-intensity sunlight and the lower intensity reflected
glare. The mashrabiya’s interstices both intercept the direct solar radiation and soften the uncomfortable glare. In addition, considering
that the mashrabiya is made of out wood, it helps regulate the humidity inside the space. It is known that wood absorbs, retains and
releases water. When air passes through the interstices of the porous wooden mashrabiya it vaporizes some of the moisture gathered in
the wood and carries it towards the interior. Other widely used screening devices are the claustra. The claustrum is a multitude of small
vents made out of plaster. These allow a uniform distribution of air flow, provide security and have a good aesthetic value. They are
typically used on the higher section of the wall in order to allow the dissipation of hot air.
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(FIG.98) (FIG.99)
The first climatic advantage of these courtyards is the fact that they allow daylight into the house. This daylight penetrates all the rooms,
since they are all arranged around this atrium. The second climatic advantage is the ventilation and passive cooling. The orientation of
the rooms towards the patio creates good cross ventilation during the warm weather. During the night time, the courtyard loses heat by
irradiation, and the coolness of the floor, walls and furniture lasts until late afternoon. The Sun itself does not penetrate the courtyard
until it is noon when the sun in high in the sky.
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5.1.3 CASE STUDY 3- Dwellings in the Iranian city of Wind catchers: Yazd.
Yazd is an ancient city in the middle of the Iranian desert. It is known for its silk industry and, from an architectural point of view, it is
famous for its craftsman builders who are able to create domes and vaults of mud and baked brick with projected diameter as long as 19
feet. The climate in Yazd is also hot and dry and the architecture of the traditional dwellings responds quite successfully to this kind of
weather.
Similarly to the previous example, the house is also arranged around a courtyard. There is sometimes a distinction between the rooms
occupied in the summer and the ones occupied in the winter.
The summer rooms face north away from the sun and in the winter they face south and have glass doors that allow the low winter sun to
penetrate. The materials of which the houses were traditionally built were mud brick, baked brick, and some white lime plastered walls
and baked floor tiles. The materials serve as great insulators and at the same time allow the absorbing and storing of heat and coolness.
Similar passive cooling and heating techniques are used in these dwellings as described previously. However, one important feature that
the traditional Iranian houses of Yazd is the use of wind towers, called Badgir in the Arabian Gulf. These towers catch the passing winds
and channel them down to the ground and basement living spaces.
These wind towers serve to cool the inhabitants on summer mornings and evenings when the air is cooler than room air. In addition, they
provide an effective ventilation to refresh the air and remove unwanted smells from cooking especially in the basements. The direction of
these wind towers is of course important. Some of them are directional and face one direction only, the one from where the wind is
blowing (show image of directional wind towers) and others are omnidirectional (face several directions) because of the different
direction where he wind might be blowing. When there is no breeze, these towers still serve as a means to good ventilation.
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(FIG.100) (FIG.101) (FIG.102)
In addition to fulfilling these primary purposes, the towers are also built as thermal masses that cool off at night and allow hot air to
automatically rise.To be more effective, the effect of these towers is often combined with the concept of cooling through evaporation.
The air channeled through the wind tower is directed towards the typical courtyard that would contain either a pool or a fountain. The
evaporated water adds a comfortable freshness to the air.
In the winter however, these wind towers are closed off from the rest of the house in order to stop hot air from dissipating from the
interior of the house. It is also worth mentioning another passive cooling technique that is often used in these Iranian houses. The use of
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domes in square rooms and barrel vault roof structures over rectangular rooms also play a role in the passive cooling of the interior. The
barrel vault roofing is used usually in regions where winds blow in one direction. In this case, heat loss by convection across the roof is
maximized. When domes are used, small air vents are introduced in order to draw air out of Diagram showing the wind tower effect and
cooling through evaporation Illustration from Johnson’s Article the dome. This is explained by the aerodynamics resulting from the
curved shape of the roof. Indeed, the velocity outside the roof increases which results in a lower pressure inside the dome. The air is then
naturally drawn to the outside of the dome.
(FIG.103) (FIG.104)
102
As a conclusion, the weather-oriented structures previously described are full of lessons that could inspire the designers interested in
passive climate controls. Even though the previous examples are set in an extreme climatic zone, some techniques could be successfully
implemented in temperate environment. Additional studies of vernacular dwellings could surrender ideas of aesthetically pleasing
structures that are very efficient in terms of energy use
5.1.4 CASE STUDY 4- Pearl academy, jaipur
 Introduction:
One of the crucial issues in contemporary India is that rapid development has inadvertently embraced generic modernism and eccentric novelty.
The real task that challenges architects today, is to infuse new forms with the legacy of the past and the spirit of place. Jaipur is a melting pot of
Rajput, Mughal and several other cultures and is also the seat of a generous amount of vernacular tradition. The challenge to build a progressive
design institute requires addressing the new generation, contemporary social condition and needs to be inspired by tradition, in order to be
inspirational to the contemporary sensibility of the modern-day design student.
The Pearl Academy of Fashion is located in a typical hot, dry, desert type climate on the outskirts of Jaipur in the soulless Kukas industrial area,
about 20 kilometers from the famous walled city. The institute ranks third in the top 10 fashion design institutes in India, and its design needed to
represent the seriousness of its academic orientation through its formal geometry. Architecture in Jaipur today, is a kitschy rendition of
Rajasthani classicism and Mughal architecture remnants. The architecture of the academy needed to be a confluence of modern adaptations of
traditional Indo-Islamic architectural elements and passive cooling strategies prevalent in the hot-dry desert climate of Rajasthan such as open
courtyards, water body, a step-well or baoli and jaalis (perforated stone or latticed screen). All these elements have been derived from their
historic usages, but will manifest themselves through the built form and become an intrinsic part of the daily life of the design student.
Within this historic context and the vocabulary of the region, the intent was to create a low-cost, environmentally sensitive campus that would set
103
a precedent for other institutions. The architects’ restraint is the result of a strict design brief: that the building must be constructed within a tight
budget of about 29$ per square foot inclusive of the building, landscape, interiors, furniture etc. The only way by which this seemingly
impossible figure could be achieved was to virtually eliminate HVAC by deploying passive and low energy strategies amongst other cost saving
strategies such as the use of local materials, techniques etc.
The design response was an introverted building, given the setting which was largely industrial. A long low-lying two-floored perimeter block
pushes the building envelope to the mandatory setbacks, optimizing the exposed surface area to volume ratio of the form and almost seems to
float above the land. As one moves into the building, this formality breaks out into fluid strips that are almost mobius in nature, bringing forth a
sense of dynamism and drama within a static form. The site was excavated to a depth of four meters and two stories of classrooms, studios and
offices on pilotis are raised above this void. Orthogonal perimeter offices frame a biomorphic configuration of classrooms and studios, drawing
in natural light from all sides. Open and glass-walled walkways surround these undulating blocks, which define openings to the lower level. The
second storey juts out above the first and both are clad in fretted panels attached to a metal frame. The traditional courtyards take on amorphous
shapes within the regulated form of the cloister-like periphery. This curvilinear geometry is generated through a computerized shadow analysis
that tracks the precise movement of the sun through the day and across the seasons. The self-shading sliver courtyards help to control the
temperature of internal spaces and open step-wells, while allowing sufficient day lighting inside studios and classrooms. What results is a muted
play of forms, the perimeter block acting as a background to the gentle glide of shadows and curves, accentuated by the rhythm of verticals:
pillars, railing, ends, corners, and joints.
The resultant scooped-out shaded underbelly forms a natural therm
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(FIG.105)
105
 Description:
Architects -Morphogenesis
Location -Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Category -Institute
Design Team -Sonali Rastogi, Rudrajit Sabhaney, Anna Kristiana Bergbom, Shruti Dimri, John Alok Decruz
Structure -N M Roof Designers Ltd.
Client-Pearl Academy of Fashion
Electrical -Integral Designs
Plumbing -Tech Consultancy
Hvac -Design Centre
Contractors-R G Colonizers Pvt. Ltd.
Area -11745.0 m2
Project Year-2008
(FIG.106)
106
 Word from Architect:The Pearl Academy of Fashion, Jaipur is a campus which by virtue of its design is geared towards creating
an environmentally responsive passive habitat. The institute creates interactive spaces for a highly creative student body to work
in multifunctional zones which blend the indoors with the outdoors seamlessly. The radical architecture of the institute emerges
from a fusion of the rich traditional building knowledge bank and cutting edge contemporary architecture.
 About:The institute is located in a typical hot, dry, desert type climate on the outskirts of Jaipur in the soulless Kukas industrial
area, about 20 kilometers from the famous walled city. It ranks third in the top 10 fashion design institutes in India, and its design
needed to represent the seriousness of its academic orientation through its formal geometry. Given the nature of an institution,
budgetary constraints on the project necessitated the use of cost effective design solutions to keep within the price points set by
the client and yet be able to achieve the desired functionality and effect.
(FIG.107) (FIG.108) (FIG.109 )
107
The adverse climate makes it a challenge to control the micro climate within the project thus incorporating various passive climate
control methods becomes a necessity and also reduces the dependence on mechanical environmental control measures which are resource
hungry. The architecture of the academy needed to be a confluence of modern adaptations of traditional Indo-Islamic architectural
elements and passive cooling strategies prevalent in the hot-dry desert climate of Rajasthan such as open courtyards, water body, a step-
well or baoli and jaalis (perforated stone screen).
All these elements have been derived from their historic usages, but will manifest themselves through the built form and become an
intrinsic part of the daily life of the design studentThe building is protected from the environment by a double skin which is derived from
a traditional building element called the ‘Jaali’ which is prevalent in Rajasthani architecture.
The double skin acts as a thermal buffer between the building and the surroundings. The density of the perforated outer skin has been
derived using computational shadow analysis based on orientation of the façades. The outer skin sits 4 feet away from the building and
reduces the direct heat gain through fenestrations. Drip channels running along the inner face of the Jaali allow for passive downdraft
evaporative cooling, thus reducing the incident wind temperature.
The scheme relies on self shading sliver courts to control the temperatures of internal spaces and open stepped wells while allowing for
sufficient day lighting inside studios and class rooms. The entire building is raised above the ground and a scooped out under belly forms
a natural thermal sink which is cooled by water bodies through evaporative cooling.
This under belly which is thermally banked on all sides serves as a large student recreation and exhibition zone and forms the anchor for
the entire project. During the night when the desert temperature drops this floor slowly dissipates the heat to the surroundings keeping the
area thermally comfortable. This time lag suits the staggered functioning of the institute.The materials used for construction are a mix of
local stone, steel, glass, and concrete chosen keeping in mind the climatic needs of the region while retaining the progressive design
108
intent. Energy efficiency is a prime concern and the institute is 100% self sufficient in terms of captive power and water supply and
promotes rain water harvesting and waste water re-cycling through the use of a sewage treatment plant. Besides having become a very
successful model for cost effective passive architecture in desert regions the design and facilities of the campus complement the ideology
of the Pearl Academy of Fashion – a cutting edge design institute with a sustainable approach.
The Pearl Academy of Fashion is an exemplar of an inclusive architecture which intends to accommodate all the heritage values while
positioning it within the contemporary cultural and architectural paradigm.
(FIG.110) (FIG.111) (FIG.112)
109
(FIG.113) (FIG.114) (FIG.115)
(FIG.116) (FIG.117) (FIG.118)
110
(FIG.119)
111
(FIG.120)
112
(FIG.121)
113
(FIG.122)
114
REFRENCES:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windcatcher
http://www.heathershimmin.com/a-brief-history-of-roof-gardens
https://www.certainteed.com/residential-roofing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon
https://www.lushome.com/green-roof-sustainable-architecture-rooftop-gardens/29180
https://wikidwelling.fandom.com/wiki/Indian_vernacular_architecture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecture
https://www.reference.com/art-literature/characteristics-modern-architecture-dee36c0aeb26e739
http://www.kamit.jp/01_introdctn/6_colonial/colon_eng.htm
https://archinect.com/features/article/150048645/the-changing-culture-of-architecture-in-modern-india
https://www.crcpress.com/Vernacular-Architecture-Towards-a-Sustainable-Future
\http://www.solaripedia.com/files/488.pdf
https://worldarchitecture.org/architecture-projects/fzhn/pearl_academy_of_fashion_jaipur-project-pages.html
https://www.archdaily.com/40716/pearl-academy-of-fashion-morphogenesis
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Reflecting Vernacular Traditions in Modern Design

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M. B. M.

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE TEJASWITA SINGH TANWAR

DR. PRIYANKA MEHTA (GUIDE) AR. ANSHU AGRAWAL

1.1 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

1.2 ORIGIN OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

1.3 VERNACULAR AND THE ARCHITECT

1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

1.6 CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE AND VALUE

CHAPTER:2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VERNACULAR AND MODERN...................................................14

2.1 MODERN ARCHITECTURE

2.2 INDIAN MODERN ARCHITECTURE

2.3 MODERN ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECT

2.4 TRADITION V/S MODERN

CHAPTER:3 ELEMENTS OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE.....................................................................50

CHAPTER:4 IMPORTANCE OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE...............................................................10

4.3 MAINTAINS LINK TO PAST

CHAPTER:5 CASE STUDIES....................................................................................................................................20

1.1 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE:

Vernacular architecture is:

 Simpler than what the technology of the time is capable of maintaining.

 Characterized by inexpensive materials and straight forwardly utilitarian design

 Often called “ordinary” or “traditional” built environment.

1.2 ORIGIN OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE:

1.3 VERNACULAR AND THE ARCHITECT:

architecture of this mountainous area.

Oliver claims that:

1.5 INDIAN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE:

1.6 CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE AND VALUE:

 Aesthetic and artistic value:

 Scientific and research value:

 Social and identity value:

(FIG.10) (FIG.11) (FIG.12)

CHAPTER:2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VERNACULAR AND MODERN

2.1 MODERN ARCHITECTURE

2.1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE-

(FIG.16) (FIG.17) (FIG.18)

2.1 INDIAN MODERN ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE AFTER THE INDEPENDENCE

2.3 THE ‘ARCHITECT’ IN MODERN ARCHITECTURE

2.4 TRADITIONAL V/S MODERN

(FIG.25) (FIG.26) (FIG.27)

CHAPTER:3 ELEMENTS OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE:

(FIG.37) (FIG.38) (FIG.39)

3.1.4. ADAPTIVE REUSE AS A SOLUTION-

A Chinese courtyard in Beijing

3.2.4.ADAPTIVE REUSE AS A SOLUTION-

(FIG.49) (FIG.50) (FIG.51)

(FIG.54) (FIG.55) (FIG.56)

(FIG.60) (FIG.61) (FIG.62)

3.6 WIND CATCHER

(FIG.65) (FIG.66) (FIG.67)

 They ventilate buildings that do not have external windows.

(FIG.71) (FIG.72) (FIG.73)

Downward airflow due to direct wind entry

Upward airflow due to temperature gradient

Solar-produced temperature gradient

3.6.5 MODERN APPLIACTIONS:

3.7 COOL ROOFS:

(FIG.77) (FIG.78) (FIG.79)

The Ziggurats of Ancient Mesopotamia

The Villa of Mysteries, Pompeii

Palazzo Piccolomini, Pienza, Italy