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Wireless Power Transfer

Wireless power transfer (WPT) is the transmission of electrical power without wires
and is based on technologies using time-varying electric, magnetic, or electromag-
netic fields.

From: Handbook of Biomechatronics, 2019

Related terms:

Antenna, Feedback Control Systems, Wire, Electrocardiography, Receivers, electric


vehicle, Wearable Device

View all Topics

Learn more about Wireless Power Transfer

Wireless Power Transfer


Mohammad Etemadrezaei, in Power Electronics Handbook (Fourth Edition), 2018

22.1 Introduction
Wireless power transfer (WPT), in its general term, has been around us for decades
in applications such as telemetry, satellite communications, and radio frequency
identification (RFID) tags. Most of these applications transfer low amounts of power,
in the range of microwatts to milliwatts, for data transfer. For higher-power ap-
plications, from few watts to several kilowatts, over moderate distances, the WPT
has recently been the focus of the industrial developments. The most common
method of high power WPT is through inductive coupling that was invented by
Nikola Tesla more than a century ago. The recent developments in semiconductor
industry for high frequency and high-power applications have paved the path for
high-power inductive WPT improvements. Inductive WPT offers several benefits
over the wired connection and is applied in numerous applications such as wearable
electronics, health care, and automotive industry. This chapter starts by reviewing
various methods of WPT, followed by the design and analysis of inductive WPT.
The overall inductive WPT is studied step by step and component by component;
therefore, it is recommended to refer to the references for detailed analysis and
information.

> Read full chapter

Wireless Charging of Electric Vehicles


Chun T. Rim, in Power Electronics Handbook (Fourth Edition), 2018

Abstract
Wireless power transfer (WPT) is one of the hottest topics being actively studied, and
it is being widely commercialized. In particular, there has been a rapid expansion
of WPT in mobile phone chargers, stationary charging electric vehicles (EVs), and
dynamic charging EVs, also called road-powered EVs (RPEVs). It is expected that
WPT industry will grow persistently in the coming decades.

In this chapter, the concepts and practical applications of WPT to EVs are introduced.
Inductive power transfer (IPT) for stationary and dynamic charging EVs is explained
in detail. Design examples with experimental verifications are provided to help
beginners of IPT to develop their own IPT products for EVs.

> Read full chapter

Theory and Control of Wireless Power


Transfer Systems
C.A. Baguley, ... U.K. Madawala, in Control of Power Electronic Converters and
Systems, 2018

Abstract
Wireless power transfer (WPT) systems allow power to be transferred from one
electrical network to another without the need for wires or exposed contacts. For
a large number of diverse applications, this feature is highly advantageous, and in
certain cases has enabled new applications to be realized. Further, WPT is poised to
play a vital role in the worldwide drive to electrify transportation systems and, thus,
become ubiquitous throughout technologically advanced future societies. Therefore,
knowledge in the area of WPT is increasingly important for the modern power
electronics engineer. In this chapter, various WPT techniques are described, before
a focus is developed on inductive power transfer, IPT, systems. Fundamental and
essential knowledge related to the design of IPT circuits and control methods is then
presented.

> Read full chapter

Upper-Limb Prosthetic Devices


Georgios A. Bertos, Evangelos G. Papadopoulos, in Handbook of Biomechatronics,
2019

1.5.6 Wireless Power Transfer


Wireless power transfer (WPT) is the transmission of electrical power without wires
and is based on technologies using time-varying electric, magnetic, or electromag-
netic fields. WPT is useful to power electrical devices where are inconvenient, or not
possible, as is the case of body embedded sensors, actuators, and communication
devices.

Power can be transferred over short distances (near-field transfer) by alternating


magnetic fields and inductive coupling between coils, or by alternating electric
fields and capacitive coupling between metal electrodes. Inductive coupling is the
most common method of WPT and is used in charging devices such as smart
phones, electric shavers, visual prostheses, and implantable medical devices (cardiac
pacemakers, cochlear implants) (Sun et al., 2013; Moorey et al., 2014) (Fig. 16). For
20 mm distance separation and size of the coil pair, loop diameter, and frequency
play a major role in determining WPT performance (Celik and Aydin, 2017).

Fig. 16. Capacitive and inductive couplings for WPT.


(From Sun, T.J., Xie, X., Wang, Z.H., 2013. Design challenges of the wireless power
transfer for medical microsystems. In: 2013 IEEE International Wireless Symposium
(IWS).)

The noncapacitive WPT couplings, include the inductive, radio frequency (RF), and
ultrasound couplings. Of those, the inductive coupling is characterized by high
efficiency and power transfer capability and is therefore superior to the other two
(Moutopoulou et al., 2015), see Table 1. Also, according to Sun et al. (2013), inductive
coupling is considered to be the best choice for biomedical applications.

Table 1. Noncapacitive WPT Options

Options
Parameters Inductive Coupling [11] RF [6] [13] Ultrasound [14] [12]
[12]
Human safety Depends on energy Yes Yes
transferred
Efficiency 73% 48% 21%–35%
Max power Up to 10 W < 1 W 100 mW
Frequencies 1 kHz–100 MHz 30 kHz–300 GHz 10 kHz–10 MHz

From Moutopoulou, E., Bertos, G.A., Mablekos-Alexiou, A., Papadopou-


los, E.G., 2015. Feasibility of a biomechatronic EPP upper-limb prosthe-
sis controller. Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc. 2015, 2454–2457.
https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2015.7318890.

Candidate biomedical applications include artificial hearts, visual prostheses, in-


gestible devices (Kim et al., 2014), and upper-limb-embedded biomechatronic
devices (Kontogiannopoulos et al., 2018). Implantable neural prosthetic devices
typically have power requirements that exceed the capability of reasonably sized
implantable batteries. Therefore, transcutaneous magnetic coupling remains the
method of choice for powering implanted neural prostheses (Troyk and DeMichele,
2003). A fully wireless EMG recording system that can enable upper-limb prosthesis
control while achieving maximum power transfer efficiency through magnetic
resonantly coupled (inductive) WPT is described in Bercich et al. (2016). This solution
makes notable progress in the efficiency of WPT through loosely coupled inductive
links specifically for upper-limb prostheses. As an added benefit of the inductive
coupling, data can also be transmitted (Ghovanloo and Najafi, 2004; Troyk and
DeMichele, 2003).

For these applications, directivity, system stability, reliability, and efficiency en-
hancement through the wireless transfer coil design enhancement and operational
tunings are required (Kim et al., 2014). Other important parameters include human
safety due to a rise in tissue temperature and miniaturization of the relevant elec-
tronics (Moutopoulou et al., 2015).
Modeling techniques used in the analysis of WPT systems, with specific emphasis
on the approximations that restrict their applicability, aiming at a general modeling
technique is given in Moorey et al. (2014). Research in the area of implantable
high-power neuroprosthetic devices such as visual prostheses and BCIs focuses
on transcutaneous inductive power links formed between a pair of printed spiral
coils (PSCs), batch-fabricated using micromachining technology. Optimizing the
power efficiency of the wireless link is imperative to minimize the size of the
external energy source, heating dissipation in the tissue, and interference with other
devices. The theoretical foundation of optimal power transmission efficiency
in an inductive link, combined with semiempirical models resulted in two design
examples at 1 and 5 MHz, achieving power transmission efficiencies of 41.2%
and 85.8%, respectively, at 10-mm spacing (Jow and Ghovanloo, 2007). A method of
how to characterize and optimize rectangular coils used in inductive links for general
applications is described in Yong-Xi et al. (2011).

> Read full chapter

Transmit beamforming for simultane-


ous wireless information and power
transfer
Liang Liu, ... Rui Zhang, in Academic Press Library in Signal Processing, Volume 7,
2018

10.1 Introduction
Radio frequency (RF) transmission enabled wireless power transfer (WPT) is a
cost-effective solution to power energy-constrained wireless networks (e.g., sensor
networks), where dedicated energy transmitters are deployed to broadcast RF signals
to charge low-power electric devices (e.g., sensors and RF identification (RFID) tags).
Unlike other commonly used energy harvesting sources such as solar and wind
that are intermittent and unreliable, RF-based WPT is able to provide continuous
and controllable power supply, and thus is applicable to more energy-demanding
applications [1]. On the other hand, RF signals have been widely used in wireless
communications as the carrier for wireless information transfer (WIT) for several
decades. Traditionally, WPT and WIT have been investigated as two separate lines of
research. As they are both enabled by RF signals transmission, a practical question
thus arises that whether we can utilize RF signals more efficiently for both WPT and
WIT at the same time. This question has been recently addressed with the invention
and investigation of a new technique called simultaneous wireless information and
power transfer (SWIPT), which has attracted rapidly increasing attention in research.
SWIPT successfully unified the research in WIT and WPT, and opened an exciting
new direction for their joint investigation.

10.1.1 Practical SWIPT Receiver


The basic idea of SWIPT was first proposed in [2, 3] by considering a single-antenna
point-to-point channel, where the trade-off between the achievable rate for WIT
and the received energy for WPT is investigated from an information-theoretic
perspective. In these initial studies, the authors assumed that the single-antenna
receiver can utilize the same received RF signals for both information decoding
(ID) and energy harvesting (EH) at the same time without any loss. However, this
assumption is difficult to realize in practice. This is due to the fact that existing
information receivers (IRs) and energy receivers (ERs) are separately designed with
distinct circuit structures, and as a result, each of them cannot be used to decode
information as well as harvest energy at the same time. To circumvent this practical
difficulty, various practical receiver architectures for SWIPT have been proposed in
[4, 5]. Among them, two basic receiver structures have been widely adopted in the
literature.

• “Time-Switching (TS)” receiver: As shown in Fig. 10.1A, the TS receiver switches


between an information decoder and an energy harvester over time. The TS
scheme is the simplest way to implement SWIPT by using off-the-shelf com-
mercially available circuits for ID and EH, respectively. For TS-based SWIPT
receivers, it is crucial to determine their operation modes (ID or EH) over
time based on their communication and energy requirements, as well as the
channel conditions. For the receiver with multiple antennas, applying TS to
each of the antennas independently leads to a low-complexity SWIPT receiver
called “antenna switching (AS)” [4].Fig. 10.1. An illustration of the TS and PS
receivers. (A) TS receiver. (B) PS receiver.
• “Power-Splitting (PS)” receiver: As shown in Fig. 10.1B, the PS receiver splits
its received signal into two portions: one for ID and the other for EH. For PS
receivers, it is important to determine the power splitting ratio at each antenna
to balance the rate-energy trade-off between the ID and EH receivers. Note that
TS or AS receiver can be regarded as a special and low-complexity realization
of PS receiver with only binary (0 or 1) power splitting ratio at each receiving
antenna; nevertheless, they are implemented by different hardware circuits
(time switcher versus power splitter) in practice.

10.1.2 Multiantenna SWIPT


Besides the challenge in the receiver design for SWIPT, how to enhance the ef-
ficiency of concurrent WIT and WPT to overcome the significant power loss of RF
signal propagation over long distances is another important issue for the practical
design of SWIPT. Motivated by the great success of multiantenna techniques in
wireless communications [6], multiantenna enabled transmit beamforming is also
a promising solution for SWIPT. With multiantenna transmit beamforming, the
transmitter can send one or more beams to direct the information and/or energy
signals more efficiently to the information and energy receivers for WIT and WPT,
respectively, and also minimize their co-channel interference that is harmful to the
IRs.

In multiantenna WIT systems, transmit beamforming has been widely adopted as an


efficient way to improve the communication rate and reliability [7]. Over the last two
decades, there have been extensive studies on the optimal transmit beamforming
design for wireless communication systems, some examples of which are briefly
discussed as follows. In the broadcast channel consisting of one multiantenna
transmitter and many single-antenna receivers, the so-called power minimization
problem, signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) balancing problem, as well
as the weighted sum-rate maximization problem are widely studied in the literature.
Specifically, for the power minimization problem, the transmit beamforming
vectors are designed to minimize the total transmit power subject to the users’
minimum SINR constraints. It is shown that this problem can be reformulated
as a second-order cone program (SOCP) and thus efficiently solved by the
powerful convex optimization technique [8]. Moreover, this problem can also be
solved based on the alternative approach of uplink-downlink duality [9]. For the SINR
balancing problem, the objective of the beamforming design is to maximize the
minimum SINR among all the users subject to the total transmit power constraint.
This problem is efficiently solved by the nonnegative matrix theory [10]. Last but
not least, various beamforming design algorithms are proposed to maximize the
weighted sum-rate of all the users subject to the total transmit power constraint
assuming linear precoding at the multiantenna transmitter [11, 12].

Similarly, in multiantenna WPT systems, transmit beamforming has been applied


to combat the severe signal power loss over long distance to improve the energy
transfer efficiency. It has been shown in [13] that transmitting with only one single
energy beam to all the ERs is sufficient to maximize their weighted sum energy
harvested, which is in sharp contrast to the optimal transmit beamforming in WIT
systems, where sending multiple information beams is generally required. More-
over, the joint channel acquisition and energy beamforming design is investigated
in [14, 15] to maximize the energy harvested by all the users based on a practical
energy feedback framework exploiting the analytic center cutting plane method in
convex optimization.
Although the information beamforming design for WIT and energy beamforming
design for WPT are well studied separately, a joint optimization of the information
and energy beamforming in TS or PS-based SWIPT systems is a new research prob-
lem of both theoretical and practical significance, which has been pursued recently.
In this paper, we provide an overview on recent advances in joint information and
energy beamforming design for SWIPT systems.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 10.2 introduces a multi-
user multiple-input single-output (MISO) broadcast channel model for SWIPT with
separate or co-located IR and ER receivers, and presents the optimal beamforming
design in each case. In particular, for the case of separate IRs and ERs, we also
consider the communication security problem in SWIPT where ERs may eavesdrop
the signals for IRs, and present the beamforming solution to overcome this problem
from a physical-layer perspective. Section 10.3 extends the discussions to other
SWIPT system setups. Finally, Section 10.4 concludes this paper.

> Read full chapter

Human Body Communication–Based


Wearable Technology for Vital Signal
Sensing
Jingjing Shi, Jianqing Wang, in Wearable Technology in Medicine and Health Care,
2018

11.8 Application Possibility in Wireless Power Transfer


As for the rising concern and good application prospects on wireless power transfer
system, we thus here give an example to illustrate EMI evaluation for wearable
devices under in-house wireless power transfer environment at a typical 6.8 MHz,
which was considered to be a good candidate for home appliance applications
[23,24]. The previously mentioned two-step approach was applied as the evaluation
method in this example.

Fig. 11.10 shows a numerical model of 6.8 MHz wireless power transfer system with
an anatomical human body model for EMI evaluation. The human body is irradiated
by the single-sided wireless power transfer system operating at 6.8 MHz. Here we
regard the single-sided wireless power transfer system as the transmitter, and it
consists of a single-turn drive loop and a high-Q transmit coil. The single-turn drive
loop has an outer diameter of 305 mm, while the transmit coil has a spiral shape with
6.1 turns, an outer diameter of 580 mm, and a pitch of 10 mm. The drive loop and
transmit coil are set with either horizontal or vertical arrangement, and the nearest
distance between the transmit coil and human body surface is denoted as d.

Figure 11.10. Numerical wireless power transfer system at 6.8 MHz near a human
body.(A) Horizontal placement of drive loop and transmit coil. (B) Vertical placement
of drive loop and transmit coil. (C) Structure of drive loop and transmit coil.

In the first step, with the numerical model in Fig. 11.10, the common-mode voltage
was calculated between the ground plane and human body by using full-wave FDTD
simulation. The drive loop was fed with a voltage source with an inner resistance
of 50 Ω and a series capacitance of 450 pF for matching. Based on our findings, it
was found that the electric field distributes mainly outside the human body, whereas
quite weak inside the human body. On the other hand, the vertical placement of the
transmit coil exhibits a wider EM distribution range along the human body com-
pared with that of horizontal placement. This also makes a larger common-mode
voltage than that of horizontal placement. The corresponding results for 1 transmit
coil current in the 6.8 MHz wireless power transfer system are tabulated in Table
11.1. It can be seen that in either the case of d=1 or 10 cm, the common-mode
voltage increases when changing the placement of drive loop and transmit coil from
horizontal plane to vertical plane. In addition, if shortening the nearest distance
between the transmit coil and human body d from 10 to 1 cm, the common-mode
voltage may increase by approximately 10%–30%.

Table 11.1. Common-mode voltage (V) induced by 6.8 MHz wireless power transfer
system with 1 transmit coil current.

Placement d=1 cm d=10 cm


Horizontal 0.50 0.39
Vertical 1.36 1.24

By using the derived common-mode voltage given in Table 11.1, we then further
calculated differential-mode interference using Eq. (11.1) and SPICE simulation
with reference to Fig. 11.6 for the cases of contact resistance (, ) and coupling
capacitance (, ), respectively. With regard to the influence of contact impedance
of the sensing electrodes, an imbalance from 10% to 50% was taken into con-
sideration to investigate the differential-mode interference voltage . Moreover, in
order to verify the validity of the calculated interference voltage, we succeeded in
fabricating a common-mode equivalent circuit and experimentally measured the
differential-mode voltage for different imbalance cases of contact resistance of and
. The comparison result of with respect to between the SPICE simulation and
experimental measurement is shown in Fig. 11.11, in which solid lines represent
SPICE-simulated results, and symbols represent measured ones. It can be seen that
the simulated interference voltages along with the average contact resistance are
consistent with the measured ones with reasonable accuracy, suggesting the validity
of the employed two-step approach and the simulated results. In addition, it was also
found that the differential-mode interference voltage is mainly caused by contact
imbalance of the sensing electrodes, because for each case of imbalance, seems
flat and not sensitive to the contact resistance itself. This means that making the
contact impedance as small as possible may be the most effective method to reduce
the common-mode produced interference voltage for a wearable device. Mean-
while, Table 11.2 summarizes the derived differential-mode interference voltage for
1  transmit coil current under different considered cases. Overall, the produced
differential-mode voltage for the case of contact resistance is larger than that for the
case of coupling capacitance, and the vertical placement of the drive and transmit
coil also results in a larger interference voltage value than horizontal placement.
Moreover, with the increasing distance of the transmit coil from human body, the
voltage magnitudes become small obviously. For 1 transmit coil current, even at
a distance of 10 cm from human body, the differential-mode interference voltage
may achieve more than 0.6 V for contact resistance case, and 0.1 V for coupling
capacitance case, with an imbalance of 50%.

Figure 11.11. SPICE-simulated and experimentally measured differential-mode in-


terference voltage Vab due to the imbalances of contact resistance of Rea and Reb
for common-mode input voltage Vc. Lines: SPICE simulated; symbols: experiment
measured.
Table 11.2. Differential-mode interference voltage (V) with 1  transmit coil current
for cases of contact resistance and capacitance coupling.

(a) Contact Resistance, =(+)/2=100 kΩ and =100 kΩ


d=1 cm d=10 cm
Imbalance Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
10% 0.063 0.172 0.049 0.157
30% 0.171 0.465 0.133 0.424
50% 0.262 0.714 0.205 0.651

(b) Coupling Capacitance, =(+)/2=30 pF and =30 pF


d=1 cm d=10 cm
Imbalance Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
10% 0.007 0.018 0.005 0.016
30% 0.022 0.059 0.013 0.054
50% 0.044 0.119 0.034 0.109

> Read full chapter

Drug delivery using wireless MEMS


R. Sheybani, ... E. Meng, in Handbook of Mems for Wireless and Mobile Applica-
tions, 2013

15.7 Suggested improvements and future generation device


An improved wireless power and bi-directional control data system composed of
new transmitter and receiver will require establishing a new set of design goals
to improve the wireless power transfer and to include control data transfer at
the desired 2 MHz frequency. These include: (1) to design a receiver coil which
possesses a higher Q in order to more effectively transfer power to the implanted
circuitry; (2) to be able to increase or decrease the transmitted power delivered by the
transmitter to accommodate for when changes in distance and/or foveation between
the transmitter and receiver coils occur; and (3) to have a method for controlling and
monitoring the amount of drug delivered by the drug pump.

In the receiver implanted circuitry, obtaining a high Q in the coil is of prime


importance, in order to allow for efficient power transfer and generally a smaller
implanted coil. Also, equally important is matching the resonant frequency of the
receiver circuitry to the transmitter’s transmitted frequency signal to reach maxi-
mum power transfer between the two coils, since the coupling coefficient, K, is
usually low (i.e. on the order of 0.1–0.3) when transmitting power through tissue
(Ghovanloo and Atluri, 2007). A parallel RLC (resistor, inductor, and capacitor) tank
circuit can be utilized for matching to the desired resonant frequency of 2 MHz in
the receiver. Two techniques to increase the inductor quality factor, Q, and further
match the self-resonant frequency, , of the receiver parallel tank inductor to the
desired 2 MHz signal include: (1) using multi-wound Litz wire; and (2) applying the
Tesla bifilar coil structure to the design (Tesla, 1893). These two techniques could
potentially allow for the tank’s tuning capacitor component to be eliminated, due
to the creative utilization of the natural, distributed parasitic parallel capacitances
between the wires (in both the Litz and the Tesla bifilar coils).

Improvements could also be made to both the transmitter and receiver circuitry
to account for undesired f uctuations in the transmitted power levels, which must
be kept in check in order to maintain a constant current delivered to the drug
pump. Common circumstances when the power drops lower than desired include
the transmitter and receiver coils moving away from the optimal distance (e.g. 1 cm)
or when misalignment in the angle between the coils takes place. To remedy this,
the transmitter circuitry can be designed so that it is able to sense reflected power off t
he receiver in a wireless closed loop fashion and adjust the amount of power sent
from the transmitter circuitry.

There are a variety of methods on how to approach controlling the amount of drug
delivered by the drug pump if given minimal limitations in the areas of power,
size, and cost. For example, in the receiver, a microcontroller could be added to the
design and programmed with an implantable radio to change the desired current
levels (e.g. 8–10–12 mA), thus changing the rate of drug dosage. This receiver
design is confined by size, due to the desire for the device to be implantable, and
cost. Therefore, tradeoffs must be accounted for and analyzed. The challenges faced
with employing a pre-packaged microcontroller and a separate implantable radio
include power consumption, complexity, size, cost, and programming effort. Ideally,
a microcontroller, inductive powering circuitry, and a low power implant-able radio
designed on a single custom integrated circuit would be the end-all solution. A
different approach that allows for a much simpler, low power system design is to
keep the current delivered to the drug pump constant, and to change the duty cycle
of the transmitted primary signal to alter the rate of flow of drug dosage.

The future goal for the wireless powering and bi-directional data transfer circuitry
is to take the re-design and characterize the transmitter and receiver design for the
MEMS drug pump based on the aforementioned requirements, and then to create
a custom integrated circuit chip in CMOS technology based on the finalized design.
The planned future design includes the wireless control circuitry, a microcontroller,
and a custom implanted medical band radio on the same die.
> Read full chapter

Percutaneous and transcutaneous con-


nections
Yue Qu, ... Prasad Jayathurathnage, in Mechanical Circulatory and Respiratory Sup-
port, 2018

Electromagnetic Exposure Limits


Human safety aspects with electromagnetic (EM) exposure must be carefully studied
for all medical implants associated with any kind of EM field. Although there is
no specific standard defined for wireless power transfer for medical implants, the
“IEEE standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Electro-
magnetic Field” [124] can be used as the safety guideline. Maximum permissible
exposure limits are determined by considering identified adverse health effects
such as electrostimulation due to electric fields, RF shocks or burns due to contact
with high RF voltages, tissue burns due to excessive localized RF exposure, and
behavioral disruption, heat exhaustion, or heat stroke due to excessive exposures.
According to the IEEE safety standard, exposure restrictions are expressed in terms
of three parameters for different frequency ranges—namely, the in situ electric field
(3 kHz–5 MHz), specific absorption rate (SAR) (100 kHz–3 GHz), or incident power
density (3–300 GHz). The operating frequency of TETS schemes for VAD can vary
from 100 kHz to a few 10s of MHz, where SAR measurements need to be kept within
stipulated safety limits. SAR is a measure of the rate at which energy is absorbed by
the human body, and it can be defined with reference to the electric field strength
or temperature change as given in Eqs. (21.1) and (21.2), respectively [124]

(21.1)

where is conductivity of tissue, is mass density of tissue, and E is RMS electric


field strength in tissue.

(21.2)

where ΔT is the change in temperature, Δt is the duration of exposure, and c is


specific heat capacity.

It is desirable to keep SAR levels below the standard safety limits during the operation
of TETS. Therefore, the major safety consideration in applying TETS technology
to power a VAD is tissue heating due to electric field absorption. Finite element
simulations with human body models can be conducted to estimate SAR for TETS
technology. Simulations need to be followed by in vitro experiments, and then in
vivo experiments before moving into clinical trials. For example, Fig. 21.12 shows an
FEA simulation carried out using a human body model.

Fig. 21.12. Finite element simulations with a human body model.

Reprinted with permission from Ho JS, Poon AS. Energy transfer for implantable
electronics in the electromagnetic midfield. Prog Electromagn Res 2014;148:151–8.

> Read full chapter

Introduction to RF Energy Harvesting


W.A. Serdijn, ... M. Stoopman, in Wearable Sensors, 2014

Far-field1 radio frequency energy harvesting (RFEH) is suitable for long-range wire-
less power transfer, i.e., cm range for high-frequency on-chip antennas to several
meter range for off-chip antennas. This makes RFEH suitable for battery-less sensors
in a WSN remotely powered by a hub (i.e., RF source). RFEH suits many applications,
such as smart house, smart grid, Internet of things (IoT), and wireless body area
networks (WBAN). Especially in the last few years, the WBAN application is gaining
importance due to the growing importance of health care in society as health
needs to be continuously monitored to identify chronic diseases or prevent illness.
Examples of WBANs are a sensor array for monitoring ExG signals [1–2] and a
disposable battery-less band-aid sensor [3].

> Read full chapter

Pure electric vehicles


K.T. Chau, in Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Technologies for Improved
Environmental Performance, 2014

Wireless chargers
The most ideal situation for charging EV batteries is to charge the vehicle while it is
cruising on the road, the so-called move-and-charge. Thus, there is no need for an
EV driver to find a charging station, park the vehicle and then spend time recharging
the batteries. The power transmitter is placed underneath the surface of a section
of roadway, called the charging zone, and the EV wirelessly picks up the power for
battery charging.

The wireless power transfer technique for move-and-charge is based on magnetic


resonant coupling which is the near field wireless transmission of electrical energy
between two coils that are highly resonant at the same frequency. Differing from
the magnetic induction which is adopted by inductive chargers, the resonance at the
primary can enable high current operation in the primary circuit without suffering
from high losses while the resonance at the secondary can boost the efficiency
of the power transfer (Kurs et al., 2007). So, the resonant objects, namely the power
transmitters beneath the roadway and the receivers mounted on EVs, having the
same resonant frequency can wirelessly transfer power efficiently with high power
density, while dissipating relatively little energy in non-resonant objects such as
vehicle bodies or drivers.

Definitely, the wireless move-and-charge needs much research in both technologi-


cal and biological aspects, such as the varying displacement between the transmitter
and the receiver, the misalignment between the transmitter and the receiver, and the
biological response of humans to strong magnetic field. Nevertheless, this charging
concept has a promising future as it can potentially solve the fundamental problem
of EVs: short driving range per charge.

> Read full chapter

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