SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT FOR GATING

AND RISER DESIGN

A DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree
of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(With Specialization In Production & Industrial System Engineering)

Ac NO.........
By i`
r3l~Jb'

VINAY KUMAR SINGH r x~: eooa~~4

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE -247 667 (INDIA)
February, 2003
 CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this dissertation

entitled "SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT FOR GATING AND RISER

DESIGN" in the partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING with

specialization in PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM

ENGINEERING, submitted in the Department of Mechanical and Industrial

Engineering, I. I. T. Roorkee, Roorkee is an authentic record of my own work

carried out from August 2002 to February 2003, under the supervision of

Dr. PRADEEP KUMAR, Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical and

Industrial Engineering, 1.1. T. Roorkee, Roorkee.

The matter embodied in this dissertation has not been submitted by me for

the award of any other degree or diploma.

Date: z7/n12cv3
\ dj

Place: ROORKEE VINAY KUMAR SINGH

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct

to the best of my knowledge.

Dr. PRADEEP KUMAR

Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical and
Industrial Engineering
I.LT Roorkee, Roorkee-247667
INDIA

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am proud of having worked under the supervision of Dr. Pradeep

Kumar, Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical and Industrial

Engineering, I.I.T. Roorkee, Roorkee. I take this opportunity to express my sense

of gratitude to him for his exemplary guidance and constant encouragement

throughout the course of this dissertation.

I cannot forget to recall my heartiest regards, the ever ending heart felt stream

of tendering love, which my whole family bestowed upon me. It was the power of

their blessings encouragement, which gave me strength, courage and confidence to

materialize my dreams.

I owe it to all my friends and well wishers who made this endeavors

worth while. I virtually fall short of words to express my greatest gratitude to

them. Last but not the least, thanks God for keeping me in best health during this

dissertation work without which my dissertation would not be completed.

(VINAVKUMAR SINGH)

ai
 ABSTRACT

Casting is one of the most widely used metal shaping processes in

industries to produce cast components. Casting process is used to produce parts

from few grams to several tons, complicated shapes, precision parts etc. in a very

economical way. Making a casting free from defect is an important requirement

for its strength consideration. Efficient and effective design of riser and gating

system plays an important role in the production of defect free casting

economically. The optimum designing of riser and gating system have not been

fully understood till now. Although, much of the knowledge has been obtained

during last few decades, there still exist and inability to integrate the knowledge

into a general model.

In this work, comprehensively reviews the present knowledge of riser and

gating system and its interrelationship with other factors like choke area, pouring

time, sprue and pouring basin dimensions, shape and dimension of riser etc. the

application of a computer to gating and risering system design is predicated on a

logical, ordered approach to the task.

A software program is developed to ease the design of riser and gating

system for Al-7% Si alloy castings. C language is used to develop the software

which can predict the theoretical pouring time, riser and gating system

dimensions, check for turbulence, check for aspiration and finally gives the

N
percentage casting yield as a performance index for the rigging system design. The

program is user friendly with sufficient flexibility to different types of gating

system, riser shapes etc. Software is well working for different combinations of

riser and gating system.

iv
 CONTENTS

Page No.

CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii

ABSTRACT iii

NOMENCLATURE viii

LIST OF FIGURES xi

LIST OF TABLES xiii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 METAL CASTING 2

1.2 GATING AND RISERING 4

1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF PROBLEM 9

CHAPTER 2: GATING SYSTEM DESIGN 10

2.1 REQUIREMENTS OF GATING SYSTEM 10

2.2 ELEMENTS OF GATING SYSTEM 12

2.3 IMPORTANT FEATURES IN GATING 21

SYSTEM DESIGN

2.4 DESIGN OF GATING SYSTEM 28

2.4.1 Pouring Time Calculation 29

2.4.2 Design of Pouring Basin or Cup 32

V

2.4.3 Design of Sprue C

2.4.4 Design of Choke Area

2.4.5 Design of Sprue Base Well C.

2.4.6 Design of Ingate 39

2.4.7 Design of Runner 41

2.4.8 Sprue-Runner-Gating Ratio 43

CHAPTER 3: RISER DESIGN 47

3.1 RISERING TERMINOLOGY 47

3.2 DESIGN OF RISER 53

3.2.1 Chvorinov's method 54

3.2.2 Caine's Method 55

3.2.3 Modulus method 58

3.2.4 Naval Research Laboratory Method 63

3.3 FEEDING DISTANCE 70

CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE DETAILS 75

4.1 COMPUTER LANGUAGE 75

4.2 COMPUTER UTILIZATION IN RIGGING 76

SYSTEMS DESIGN

4.3 STEPS INVOLVED IN PROGRAMMING 77

OF RISER AND GATING DESIGN

4.4 FLOW CHART

vi
CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 85

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS 101

REFERENCES 103

vii
 NOMENCLATURE

Symbols Particulars Units

Q Rate of Flow cu.mm/sec

T Average Section Thickness mm

P Pressure kg/sq.mm

Pa Atmospheric Pressure kg/sq.mm

g Acceleration due to Gravity mm/sec

C Efficiency Factor

c Total Height of Mould Cavity mm

A Choke Area sq.mm

At Top Section Area of Sprue sq.mm

A, Area of Runner sq.mm

Ag Area of Gate sq.mm

SA Surface Area sq.mm

Aeo Connecting Area sq.mm

SA, Surface Area of Casting sq.mm

SAr Surface Area of Riser sq.mm

h Potential Head mm

h, Height of the Gate mm

h, Height of Pouring basin mm

viii
ht Height of Sprue mm

H Effective Metal Head mm

d Diameter of Liquid Channel mm

R Reynond's Number

W Weight of Casting kg

W' Weight of Casting with Gates kg

and Risers

Vr Riser Volume cu.mm

VC Casting Volume cu.mm

M Casting Modulus mm

Mr Riser Modulus mm

Dr Diameter of Riser mm

Hr Height of Riser mm

T, Effective Plate Thickness mm

t Total Pouring Time sec

Time required to fill Casting sec

and Riser

tb Time to fill the Gating System sec

t, Solidification Time of Casting sec

tr Solidification Time of Riser sec

Vrt Riser Volume based on cu.mm

Solidification Time
Vrf Riser Volume based on cu.mm

Feed Metal Requirement

B, Solidification constant for Casting

Br Solidification constant for Riser

n, Solidification exponent for Casting

n, Solidification exponent for Riser

a Riser fraction available for feeding

R Volumetric contraction or shrinkage

p Density of Molten Metal kg/cu.mm

Dynamic Viscosity liquid Metal kg/mm-sec

V Velocity of liquid metal mm/sec

G,v Gate Width mm

x
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No. Particulars Page No.

2.1 Gating system Terminology 13

2.2 Different types of top gate 18

2.3 Different types of parting-line gate 19

2.4 Different types of bottom gate 20

2.5 Types of swirl gate 22

2.6 Types of step gates 22

2.7 Various type of pouring cup basin 35

2.8 Pouring basin design 35

2.9 Effect of sprue design on metal turbulence 36

and aspiration

2.10 Theoretical taper of sprue 36

2.11 Effective metal head in different gating systems 40

2.12 Sprue base designs 40

2.13 Example of a Non-pressurized gating system 46

2.14 Example of a Pressurized 46

gating system

3.1 Riser Terminology 48

3.2 Solidification of cube casting 51

xi
3.3 Caine's equation 57

3.4 Moduli of different geometric shapes 61

3.5 Riser volume selection chart 65

3.6 Selection chart for riser dimensions 67

based on NRL method

3.7 Types of branches found in casting 68

3.8 Appendage volume calculation chart 69

3.9 Feeding distances for bars 73

3.10 Feeding distances for plates 73

3.11 Feeding distances for varying plate thickness 74

xii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Particulars Page No.

2.1 Typical casting yield 28

2.2 Value of constant K3 for different values 31

of average thickness

2.3 Value of constant K4 for different values 32

of average thickness

2.4 Theoretical ratios of sprue top and choke areas 37

based on pouring basin depth

2.5 Efficiency coefficient for various types of 38

gating systems

2.6 Some gating ratio used in practice for different 45

metals and alloys

3.1 Volumetric shrinkages for different metals and alloys 50

3.2 Value of constants a, b and c for different metals 56

3.3 Values of correction factor 70

xiu
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In modem day industries greater emphasis is placed on cost reduction,

optimizing profits, quality of product, customer satisfaction and staying ahead of

competition. In the broad language of engineers, useful engineering parts are made

from metals and its alloys by metal forming. Many ways of forming metals are

available; they include casting, forging, welding, electroforming, powder

metallurgy or a combination of these methods. In addition, whatever processes are

used for a given part, machining may be required to a greater or lesser degree. In

these methods, only the casting aspect of metals fabrication is considered. Casting

is one of the oldest manufacturing processes and even today, it is the first step in

manufacturing most of the products. It is estimated that castings are used in 90%

or more of all manufactured goods and in all capital goods machinery used in

manufacturing [1].

Casting processes are widely used to produce metal parts in a very

economical way, and to obtain complicated shapes with little machining if needed.

The demand for high precision casting parts continues to increase due to exacting

demands from the automotive and aero-industries. Much research has been

devoted toward process development for the production of high quality casting

goods at low costs. The manufacture of a part involves several steps, the first of
which is the design of the part itself, and the specification of the material to be

used. This information is passed to the method engineer, who will choose the

casting process, and then design the gating and risering system or rigging system

necessary to get the molten metal into all regions of the part so as to produce a

sound casting. Two major considerations in the casting design are the quality of

the final product and the yield of the casting, both of which heavily depend upon

the rigging system used.

1.1 METAL CASTING

Casting is one of the earliest methods of metal shaping known to human

being. The discovery of the casting process was probably around 3500 B.C. in

Mesopotamia. Casting technology has been greatly improved by Chinese from

around 1500 B.C. Before that there is no evidence of any casting activity found in

China. Through India could be credited with the invention of crucible steel, not

much of iron founding was evident in India. It appears iron casting technology in

India has been use from the times of the invasion of Alexander the Great, around

300 B.C.

The shortest distance between raw material and a finished part is a casting.

This elementary principle of metal processing is taken advantage by the human

being. Metal castings are produced by pouring molten metal into mold having the

desired shapes and approximate sizes of the casting and allowing it to freeze and

thus take the form of the mold. After solidification and cooling, the desired metal

F)
object is taken out from the mould by breaking the mould. This is the fastest and

often the economical method for obtaining a part of any desired composition.

Functional Advantages:

Beyond the rapidly emerging technologies that are keeping metal casting in

the forefront in the metal forming industry, castings possess many inherent

advantages that have long been accepted by the design engineer and metal parts

user. In terms of component design, casting offers the greatest amount of

flexibility of any metal forming process. The casting process is ideal because it

permits the formation of streamlined, intricate, integral parts of strength and

rigidity obtainable by no other method of fabrication. The shape and size of the

part are primary considerations in design, and in this category, the possibilities of

metal castings are unsurpassed. The flexibility of cast metal design gives the

engineer wide scope in converting his ideas into an engineered part [1].

The freedom of design offered through the metal casting process allows the

designer to accomplish several tasks simultaneously. These include the following:

(i) Design both internal and external contours independently to almost any

requirement.

(ii) Place metal in the exact location where it is needed for rigidity, wear,

corrosion or maximum endurance under dynamic stress.

(iii) Produce a complex part as a single dependable unit.

(iv) Readily achieve an attractive appearance.

3
 For many years the production of sound casting was largely a matter of trail

and error. Although, a few general principles were well recognized. The approach

for gating, risering and chilling are mainly based on the foundry man's hard-won

experience. However, in early seventies attention was focused on the scientific

aspects of the design and production of castings. This initiated the studies done by

computer to simulate the casting solidification which offers better risering and

gating system

1.2 GATING AND RISERING

The objective of a gating system is to permit distribution of the molten

metal to the mould cavity at the proper rate, without excessive temperature loss,

free from objectionable turbulence, entrapped gases, slag and dross [9]. If the

liquid metal is poured very slowly then the time taken to fill up the mould is rather

long and the solidification may start even before the mould has been completely

filled up. This can be avoided by using too much superheat, but then gas solubility

may cause a problem. On the other hand, if the liquid metal impinges on the

mould cavity with too high velocity, the mould surface may be eroded.

Risers are reservoirs of molten metal that are used to feed the casting

during solidification to compensate for the shrinkage. This shrinkage includes the

liquid shrinkage and shrinkage during solidification. The shrinkage occurring

during solidification causes voids unless more molten metal can be fed to the

potential problem spots. Risers are designed to solidify last and to draw the

shrinkage voids put of the casting. Risers also serve as exits for gases and dross

4
entrapped in the metal and as pressure heads to feed the section. These can be

achieved by proper designing of risering and gating system.

Basic laws of hydraulics and thermodynamics are used in the design of

gating system. In order to achieve the best economical and functional design, the

software program can be used to repeat the design process by changing the values

of the parameters concerned.

Metal flow rate and the quality of flow, metal fluidity, proper evaluation of

modulus and aspiration should be considered in the gating system design. Besides

prevention of slag and dross by proper choking, suitable gating ratio must be

utilized to ensure quiet filling of the mould and a sound casting free from defect,

thus minimizing the fettling cost. The software for gating and risering is developed

in C language.

1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

Starting from the basic concepts of casting, we can graduate to more

advanced technology with the application of computer in metal casting. The books

on casting by Flinn, R. A., Rosenthal, P.C., Taylor, H.F. etc. gave elaborate views

regarding the basic concepts associated with casting. The most recent approach to

riser and gating design is, with the aid of computer. The literature available in this

area is as follows:

Ruddle, R.W., 123] described a computer program for steel risering in

which information about the casting shape is input using a coordinate system of

geometric input. This requires the user to first express the dimensions of the

5
casting in coordinate after picking an arbitrary zero. The output data includes a

cast comparison of method using sand molding heads or insulated heads.

Heine, R.W., and Uicker, J.J., [121 developed an overall information flow

plan for computer aided engineering of casting processing and design is revealed.

Application of the plan to geometric modeling of risering systems for castings is

presented. The freezing order of casting sections is determined by obtaining the

section modulus of the geometric sub-shapes comprising the design. The section

moduli are obtained using a minicomputer program and graphics tablet input from

the casting drawing. Volume and weight of the casting are obtained in the same

way. An alternative method based on section modulus solidification wave fronts

revealing directional freezing from casting, through riser contacts, to the riser

obtained with a main frame computer program is also presented. Risering by the

geometric technique with cylindrical or tapered risers for specific examples with

casting results illustrated.

Rader, L.A., and Haines, D.R., [221 presented the use of computer

simulations in the casting design process have the potential of reducing costs and

increasing productivity. The computer can be used to analyze a model or simulate

the solidification process of a casting. The solidification process is critical in

attaining an economical, defect free part with a controlled microstructure for

desired properties and in-service performance. They evaluated exothermic practice

in the risering of large castings exothermic practice is the application of material

to the top of partially solidified risers to provide heat and liquid metal. The heat

6
remelts the risers and the liquid metal compensates for metal shrinkage during

cooling which combined with directional solidification provide a shrink-free

casting. Experimental castings and computer simulations were studied for the

influence of changes in riser insulation and exothermic material amount and time

of application. The computer program's time/temperature profiles accurately

simulated the experimental results. Langer metal generating exothermic additions

and earlier application improved the integrity and minimized segregation in the

castings. The simulation showed a level or invariant point in the casting above

which remelting occurred and below which solidification proceeded unchanged.

The predictability of this level would be useful in evaluating other riser and

casting variations.

Davis, K.G., and Magny, J.G., [7] described a new modulus based

technique for calculating riser dimensions in steel casting. A microcomputer is

used to generate the shrinkage cavity profile for a given riser, and the feeding

efficiency of the riser is then evaluated on the basis of the profile. Test castings

with simple shapes have been poured in mild steel to examine the effects on the

required riser dimensions of variables such as pour temperature, molding material,

gating design, riser shape, and feeding aids. The tests were also used to establish

values for solidification shrinkage and mold wall movement effects.

Edwards, J.O., and Sahoo, M., [8] clarified the concepts of pouring rate

and metal velocity. Various factors such as height of the ladle lip above the mold,

sprue height, type of sprue (parallel vs. tapered), sprue diameter, type of gating

7
system (pressurized vs. Non-pressurized) etc., affecting both the pouring rate and

metal velocity are discussed. Metal velocity in various parts of the system is

calculated, and a comparison of calculated and measured flow rates is made for a

range of casting sizes.

Chen, C., and Lewis, R.L., [5] addressed the traditional trapezoid shaped

runner and gate is widely used in the foundry. It has been assumed to be the best

shape to trap dross or slag during the casting filling process. In this research, a

variation of the traditional trapezoid runner is proposed. What will be termed a

"trap" gate shape is proposed. A set of simulation experiments were conducted in

order to determine the effectiveness of the trap gate in entrapping slag. Results

indicated that the trap gate shape is considerably more effective than the

traditional trapezoid shape.

Jordan, Hill, and Piwonka, [16] presented that there have been many

successful computer programs for designing and positioning feeding systems for

castings, only a few have been developed for gating systems, and these have a

number of limitations. The reasons for this are explored by examining the

requirement for good gating system, the physical fundamentals underlying these

requirements, the mathematics which describes these fundamentals, and the

computer hardware available to apply this mathematics. A promising new

approach to the problem is described.

Guleyupoglu, S., [27] presented the design of gating and risering or

rigging systems as they are sometimes referred to, has been a very important task
in the manufacture of cast components and also presented a compilation of common rules

of thumb used by foundry experts and guidelines suggested by researchers for better

quality castings. From the rules given, it can be observed that the geometric features of

the casting, such as casting boundaries, thick regions and flow paths, are of primary

importance for the design of the appropriate gating system.

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF PROBLEM

The primary objective of this work is to help in designing of riser and gating

system. Gating system design involves determining the dimensions of pouring basin,

sprue, choke area, runner etc. and riser design consist of riser shape and its dimensions.

In general the basic problem come across by designers is repetitive and tedious

calculations, so the chance of making errors, time consuming and the design output may

not be accurate. There is a basic need for a software that represents the knowledge and

experience of skilled designer performs designing very accurately.

In the present work, software has been developed using C programming language

to design the riser and gating system for simple casting shapes of aluminum alloy in

typical sand casting.

0
 CHAPTER 2

GATING SYSTEM DESIGN

2.1 REQUIREMENTS OF GATING SYSTEM

The term gating or gating systems refers to all the passageways through

which metal enters a mould cavity. It thus mainly includes parts such as a pouring

basin, sprue, runner, and gates. The chief requisites of a gating system are:

(i) The metal should flow through the gating system with as little

turbulence as possible, so that mould gases and air will not be trapped in

the stream and the molding sand will not be washed away.

(ii) The metal should enter the mould cavity in a manner that will produce

temperature differences between points in the casting which promote

proper freezing of the molten metal.

(iii) The gating system must deliver clean metal (free of slag and dross) at a

rate and velocity sufficient to completely fill the mould cavity before

freezing [2].

(iv) The casting should be produced with a minimum of excess metal in

gates and risers.

(v) Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no gating or mould

erosion take place.

10
 (vi) The ideal, optimum gating system should avoid re-oxidation of metal in

the gating system.

(vii) The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly controlled in

such a way that aspiration of the atmospheric air is prevented.

(viii) The gating system should maximize casting yield [16].

(ix) The gating system design should be economical and easy to implement

and remove after casting solidification [26].

(x) The gating system must be economically practical; that is, it must not be

too expensive to mould and the quantity of metal used in the system

should be kept the minimum amount that will produce the desired

result [2].

These requisites can be achieved by controlling pouring, use of proper

pouring equipment, pouring metal at a specific temperature, and by correct design

of sprue, runner and gates.

Foundries should follow the practice of designing and testing their gating

systems on one or more pilot castings and then mounting the gates and runners

directly on the pattern equipment before a production run is started. The gating

system should be carefully designed so that the casting produced conforms to the

prescribed specifications. Improving the design of a gating system can augment

the casting yield and reduce rejections.

2.2 ELEMENTS OF GATING SYSTEM

The parts that constitute a gating system are shown in Fig. 2.1 [25].

(i) Pouring basin

(ii) Sprue

(iii) Sprue base well

(iv) Runner

(v) Runner extension

(vi) Gates

(i) Pouring Basin

The molten metal is not directly poured into the mould cavity

because it may cause erosion .Molten metal is carried in a ladle from the furnace

to some type of pouring basin on or in the top of the mould. Molten metal is

poured into a pouring basin which acts as a reservoir from which it moves

smoothly into the sprue. The main purpose of the pouring basin is to establish a

proper flow system as rapidly as possible. For metals such as Al and magnesium,

which react quickly when exposed to air, it is desirable to have a separate pouring

basin made of dry sand core or cat iron on top of the mould. Sometimes, a funnel

shaped opening is made at the top of the sprue in the cope itself, which serves as a

pouring basin.

12
 ( Downsprue,

Sprue 6a;
(Button,

Crossgote )

Runner Extension

Figure 2.1 Gating system terminology [25]

13
 (ii) Sprue

The vertical passage through the cope and connecting the pouring

basin to the runner or gate is called the sprue.

The sprue size should satisfy certain conditions, for instance, the sprue

must be small enough for (a) the pourer to keep it full during the entire pouring

operation, and (b) the metal to enter the mould cavity at a velocity that avoids

spluttering and turbulence. At the same time, the sprue must be large enough for

(a) the mould cavity the fill completely without laps, seams or misruns, and (b) a

metal head to build up quickly enough to prevent mould gases from being

aspirated into the metal. Sprue sizes usually vary from 10mm square for work

below 12 kg poured weight to about 50 mm square for heavy castings. Sprues

larger than 50 mm square are seldom used [15].

(iii) Sprue Base Well

This is a reservoir for metal at the bottom of the sprue to reduce the

momentum of the molten metal. The molten as it moves down the sprue gains in

velocity, some of which is lost in the sprue base well by which the mould erosion

is reduced. This molten metal then changes direction and flows into the runners in

a more uniform way [21].

(iv) Runner

In large casting, molten metal is usually carried from the sprue base

to several gates around the cavity through a passageway called the runner. When a

mould has more than one cavity, the common gate supplying metal to a number of

14
cavities is also called a runner, and the branches from the runner to the respective

mould cavities are referred to as in-gates. The runner may be positioned around

the casting periphery so as to provide in-gates at a number of points. Although the

runner is generally preferred in the drag, it may sometimes be located in the cope,

depending on the shape of the casting. The runner should be stream lined to avoid

aspiration and turbulence. In order to obtain a flow of approximately equal volume

through each in-gate, the path of the runner is reduced in area after each

successive in gate by an amount equal to the in-gate area. Such `multiple in-

gating' is usually advised in the case of light metal castings [ 15].

(v) Runner Extension

The runner is extended a little further after it encounters the

ingate.This extension is provided to trap the slag in the molten metal. The metal

initially, comes along with the slag floating at the top of the ladle and these flows

straight, going beyond the ingate and then trapped in the runner extension [21].

(vi) Gates

The gate is the passage that finally leads molten metal from the runner into

the mould cavity. The location and size of the gates are so arranged that the mould

can be filled in quickly with a minimum amount of cutting of the mould surfaces

by the flowing metal. The gates should be so placed that cracks do not develop

when the metal cools. The gate connections should be located where they can be

readily removed without damaging the castings. In-gates should not be placed too

near the end of the runner. If necessary, a well may be provided at the runner end.

IN
 According to their position in the mould cavity, gates may be broadly

classified as

(a) Top Gates (b) Parting Gates (c) Bottom Gates

(d) Miscellaneous Gates

(a) Top Gates

Molten metal is poured down the head or riser of the casting. Since

the metal falls directly into the mould cavity, the mould should be hard and strong

enough the resist erosion by the dropping metal.

The advantage of top gating is that since all the metal enters the

casting at the top, the hottest metal remains in this region. As such, proper

temperature gradients are formed, and directional solidification towards the riser,

located at the top of the casting, can be achieved. The gates themselves may be

made to serve as risers. To prevent loose sand and drops from entering the mould

cavity and to allow the metal to fall in a small stream, a large size pouring basin

may be fixed on top of the sprue-cum-riser as shown in Fig. 2.2 [15].

(b) Parting Gates

These gates enter the mould cavity along the parting line separating

the cope and drag portion of the mould. They may contain devices such as skim

bobs or relief sprues to collect dross or slag or relieve pouring pressure. This

function can be served by the use of pouring basin. Use of shrink bob serving the

dual function of slag or dross collector and metal reservoir to feed the casting as it

shrinks as shown in Fig. 2.3.

16
(c) Bottom Gates

The bottom gate enters the casting cavity at the bottom of the drag

half of the mould. For example, a well at the base of the sprue or a change in the

direction of flow of the metal may be incorporated to reduce flow rates in the

systems. A bottom gate is advocated for steel castings in particular to reduce

erosion and gas entrapment and to prevent splashing, which can result in cold

shots [II] shown in Fig. 2.4.

The disadvantages of bottom gating are:

The metal continues to lose its heat as it rises in the mould cavity,

and by the time it reaches the riser, it becomes much cooler. As such, directional

solidification is difficult to achieve. It is difficult to place the riser near the gate

entrance where the metal is hottest [15].

17

hJ IN

1d!

to) • 6')

(a) Open pours (e) Wedge gates

(b) Edge gate (f) Finger gate

(c) Pencil or Pop gate (g) Ring gate
(d) Gate with strainer core
Figure 2.2 Different types of top gate [18]

18
 C

(al (b)

(c)

(d)

(a) Simple parting line gate (b) Gate with skim bob and choke (c) Gate with
strainer core (d) Gate with shrink bob (e) Branch gate (f) Parting line gate fed into
the riser

Figure 2.3 Different types of parting-line gate [18]

19
 (a) C4
Worn sprue 1. Downgole (c)

/.'o/d cov/1y

(b) L Choke
r Sk%m bob

.j. "7

Draw In bol/omgc/e
' (e)

Choke
1)

(a) Simple bottom gate (d) gate with a skim bob

(b) Horn gate (e) Draw-in bottom gate
(c) Bottom core gate

Figure 2.4 Different types of bottom gate [18]

P
 (d) Miscellaneous Gates

(i) Swirl Gate

It uses centrifugal action to aid in separation of slag which is then

forced up the riser shown in Fig. 2.5.

(ii) Step Gate

Such gates are used for heavy and large castings. The molten metal

enters mould cavity through a number of ingates which are arranged in

vertical steps. The size of ingates are normally increased from top to

bottom such that metal enters the mould cavity from the bottom most gate

and then progressively moves to the higher gates [21]. This ensures a

gradual filling of the mould without any mould erosion and produces a

sound casting as shown in Fig. 2.6.

2.3 IMPORTANT FEATURES IN GATING SYSTEM DESIGN

Basic principles and phenomenon to be considered in the design of gating

systems are as follows:-

(a) Bernoulli's Theorem

The liquid metal that runs through the various channels in the mould obeys

the Bernoulli's theorem which states that the total energy head remains constant at

any section. The same stated in the equation form ignoring frictional losses is [21]

h+ p + V = Constant
Pg 2g

21
 I
:rte •• •'~ ir:'~ •.:• :,~~~. ~: :~c

Figure 2.5 Types of swirl gate [25]

hi
t
a jfr
o ~ Sprue

LI 3 J D`

t3 l"gater
Ca) !C1 rdl

Figure 2.6 Types of step gates [ 18]

22
 Bernoulli's theorem, which is based on the first law of thermodynamics,

can be usefully applied to a proper understanding of the flow of metal in a mould.

The potential energy of the metal can be considered a maximum as the metal

enters the pouring cup or basin with no kinetic or pressure energies. This form of

energy is then rapidly changed to kinetic or velocity energy and pressure energy as

the metal passes through the mould system. Once flow is established and the

potential and frictional heads are virtually constant, the velocity is high when the

pressure is low, and vice versa. While metal is flowing, there is a constant loss of

energy in the form of fluid friction between the metal and mould wall. There is

also a heat loss which is not represented in Bernoulli's theorem, but which

eventually leads to solidification of the metal [11].

(b) Law of Continuity

Another law of fluid mechanics, which is useful in understanding the gating

system behavior, is the law of continuity which says that the volume of metal

flowing at any section in the mould is constant. The same in equation form can be

as follows.

Q=A1 V1 =A2V2

The law of continuity applies only to channels that are completely full; it

states that, since liquids are incompressible, flow rate Q must be the same at a

given time in all portions of a fluid system [9].

23
(c) Turbulence in the gating system

The flow of liquid metals in gating system is nearly always "turbulent". By

this is meant that the individual metal atoms do not flow in straight "streamline"

paths down the gating system, but travel from side to side as well as forward. At

sufficiently low metal velocities, true "streamline" flow can be achieved but these

velocities are so small that it is nearly always impractical to design a gating system

to obtain them.

It has been established that the flow of all fluids in ducts can be related by

their Reynolds number, Re:

p VD
Re =
µ

If the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is characterized as

laminar, with the molecules of the liquid tending to move in straight lines without

turbulence. If a fluid flow system has a Reynolds number between 2000 and

20000, some mixing and turbulence will occur but a relatively undisturbed

boundary layer will be maintained on the surface of the stream. The flow in these

systems is nearly always turbulent. This type of turbulent flow, common in most

foundry gating systems, can be considered relatively harmless so long as the

surface is not ruptured, thus avoiding air entrainment in the flowing stream. With

a Reynolds number of about 20000, flow will be severely turbulent. This will lead

to rupturing of the stream surface with the strong likelihood of air entrainment and

dross formation as the flowing metal reacts with gases [l].The degree of

24
turbulence encountered in well-designed gating systems does not appear to be

harmful to metal quality, although when it becomes excessive damage results from

(i) rupture of the liquid metal skin with consequent gas entrapment and (ii) mold

erosion with consequent sand or dirt entrapment [25]. In practice, the design of

gating systems does not involve the elimination of metal turbulence, but rather its

reduction to a point where it is not harmful.

(d) Aspiration

Generally, most of the castings in actual practice are poured in permeable

sand moulds. Thus aspiration of gases from the mould into the metal is quite

common. These gases can be air, water vapor or decomposition products of

organic materials used to bind the mould [9].

When the pressure in the gating or mould cavity becomes less than the

atmospheric pressure the gases are aspirated into the metal stream. The gases lead

to the formation of oxides and dross, dissolve in the metal to precipitate later upon

freezing or remain in the metal in the form of entrapped bubbles. Pressure in

gating system in equation form can be as follows:

V2
P= Pg° --+h--
Pg 2g

As these possibilities are undesirable, the design should prevent aspiration,

by maintaining pressures inside the mould and gating equal to or greater than the

atmospheric. Aspiration can also be prevented by designing sprue and runner in

such a way that they always run completely filled, thus eliminating turbulence and

25.
low pressure dead zones. Aspiration calculations are based on Bernoulli's

equation.

(e) Streamlining

The streamlining of the gating system includes [25]

1. removing sharp corners or junctions by giving a smooth radius in the

runner and ingates

2. tapering the sprue

3. providing radius at sprue entrance and exit

4. providing a basin instead of a pouring cup

Advantages of streamlining:

(1) Metal turbulence is reduced

(2) Low pressure dead zones are eliminated

(3) Aspiration and air entrapment is avoided

(4) Mould erosion and dross are minimized

(5) Favorably reduced flow rates are achieved

(6) Metal pulling from mould walls is eliminated

(7) Sound and clean castings are obtained

(f) Fluidity

As used in the foundry, the term "fluidity" means the capability of a molten

metal to fill a mould. The standard fluidity spiral is used to test the fluidity of a

given molten metal. Molten metal is poured through a channel of standard height,
and the measure of fluidity is the distance the metal will flow before the leading

edge freezes.

The most effective way to increase fluidity is to add superheat to the molten

metal. Care must be taken when increasing superheat [2], however, because too

much superheat can damage both the mould material and internal structure of the

metal.

(g) Casting Yield

All the metal that is used while pouring is not finally ending up as casting.

On completion of the casting process, the gating system used is removed from the

solidified casting and re-melted to be used again as raw material. Hence, the

casting yield is the proportion of the actual casting mass to the mass of metal

poured into the mould. This figure is always less than one, but higher the casting

yield, higher is the economics of the foundry practice, so it is desirable to give

consideration to maximizing the casting yield, at the design stage itself [21].

Casting yield depends to a great extend on the casting materials and the

complexity of the shape. Generally those materials which shrink heavily have

lower casting yields. Typical casting yield are presented in Table 2.1

27
Casting description Casting yield range

Simple shape and massive 0.85 to 0.95

Steel
Simple shape 0.75 to 0.85

Heavy machinery part 0.55 to 0.65

Small pieces 0.35 to 0.45

Cast iron
Heavy machinery parts 0.65 to 0.75
Small pieces 0.45 to 0.55

Aluminum 0.25 to 0.45

Table 2,1 Typical casting yield [21 ]

2.4 DESIGN OF GATING SYSTEM

In designing a gating system contemplation is the first and perhaps the most

important step [10]. Number of consideration should be as follows:

1. Maximum use of the mould volume for casting while leaving adequate

room for a proper gating system.

2. Position the parting plane of the casting to minimize the need for cores.

3. Attempt to place heavy sections of the casting in the drag.

4. Attempt to put as much of the casting in the cope as possible to provide for

quiet mould filling.

5. Aim for maximum simplicity and symmetry of the system.

6. Use identical gating and risering for all identical casting in multiple

impression molds.
 After these preliminary considerations the actual design of gating is done,

beginning with the calculation of pouring time and then the design of individual

components.

2.4.1 Pouring Time Calculation

The time for complete filling of a mould termed as pouring time is a very

important criterion for design. Too long a pouring time requires a higher pouring

temperature and too less a pouring time means turbulent flow in the mould which

makes the casting defects prone. There is thus an optimum pouring time for any

given casting [21].

The time required to fill the casting and riser cavities is the primary

concern, and the time to fill the gating system is incidental. However, as a

practical matter, measurement of the pouring time includes the time required to fill

sprue and runner system. The time to fill the gating system is estimated to be 10%

of the time of fills the castings and risers. The measured pouring time is the sum of

the two [10].

The pouring time depends on the casting materials, complexity of the

casting section thickness and casting size. The various relation used are not

theoretically obtained but established generally by the practice at various foundries

and by experimenters. Since the thickness of casting is affected to a great extent,

by the ratio of surface area to volume of the casting. It is an important variable in

calculating the optimum pouring time in addition to the mass of the casting itself.

Normally while considering the mass of the casting, it may not be necessary to

29
consider the mass of the gating system because the gating system is completely

filled before metals starts entering the mould cavity. However, if the gating

systems are in comparable size to the actual casting, it may be desirable to include

them for the calculation [21].

The following are some standard methods to calculate the pouring time for

different casting materials.

(i) Grey Cast Iron, mass less than 450 kg [26]

fW
t=k 1.41+ T sec.
C 14.59

Fluidity of Iron in Inches

K = fluidity factor =
40

(ii) Grey Cast Iron, mass greater than 450 kg [26]

T
kIl.236+
t
16.65
rw sec.

(iii) Steel Casting [21 ]

T= (2.4335 — 0.3953 log W) IW sec.

(iv) Shell molded ductile Iron ( vertical pouring) [21]

sec.

where K1 = 2.080 for thinner sections

= 2.670 for sections 10 to 25 mm thick.

= 2.970 for heavier section.

30
(v) Copper alloy castings [19]

t = K 2 ;/W sec.

where, K2 = 1.30 for top gating

= 1.80 for bottom gating

= 1.90 for brass

= 2.80 for tin bronze.

(vi) Intricately shaped thin walled castings of mass unto 450 kg.

sec.

K3 is a constant its value seen from table 2.2

Thickness, T (mm) K3
1.5 to 2.5 1.62
2.5 to 3.5 1.68
3.5 to 8.0 1.85
8.O to 15.0 2.80

Table 2.2 Value of constant K3 for different values of average thickness [21 ]

(vii) For casting above 450 kg. and unto 1000 kg

t = K 4 '• W'T sec.

Value of K4 seen from table 2.3

31
 Thickness,T(mm) K4

up to 10 1.00

10 to 20 1.35

20 to 40 1.50

Above 40 1.70

Table 2.3 Value of constant K4 for different values of average thickness [21]

(viii) Light Metal Alloys: Unlike steel, light metals like Al and magnesium

and their alloys are poured at a slow rate. This is necessary to avoid

turbulence, gas pick up and dross formation.

Pouring time used in calculation for Al alloy is given by [20]

Pouring rate = W
~86 +1.09 T
F

Pouring time, t = W/ pouring rate

2.4.2 Design of Pouring Basin or Cup

The main function of pouring basin is to reduce the momentum of the

liquid flowing into the mould by settling first into it. Its shape is like that of a

funnel cup which forms the top portion of the sprue. A basin must be large enough

to take care of the small variation in pouring rate so that there is no overflow or

emptying of the basin. In order that vortex is not formed during pouring, it is

necessary that the pouring basin be kept full. Further provision should be made in

the pouring basin so that constant conditions of flow are established. This can be

achieved by using delay screen or a strainer core. The metal should be poured

32
steadily in the pouring basin keeping the lip of the ladle as close as possible. A

large basin will enable the slag and dross to float over the metal surface and

prevent them from entering the sprue. A few design of pouring cup are shown in

Fig. 2.7.

Good results can be accomplished by [11].

(1) Stream lining the pouring basin

(2) Providing a dam to establish uniform flow conditions, shown in Fig. 2.8

(3) Using a strainer core in the basin

(4) Using a delay screen or sprue plug. Shown in Fig. 2.8

2.4.3 Design of Sprue

As the metal falls freely down the sprue it accelerates under the influence of

gravity and its velocity is proportional to the square root of metal head, hence

ideally.

Y= 2gh

Due to increase in velocity the metal stream contracts inwards and is pulled

away from the sprue wall shown in Fig. 2.9

If a parallel walled straight sprue is used it will result in

(1) Turbulence in the metal flow

(2) Aspiration of mould gases

(3) Entrapment of air

(4) Mould erosion

(5) Formation of vortex in the sprue

33
 So the sprue should be tapered down to take into account the gain in

velocity of the metal as it flows down reducing the above effects. The exact

tapering can be obtained by the equation of continuity [21].

AtV, = AV

A,=A-

h
h
so A, =ALii

The square root suggests that the profile of the sprue should be parabolic if exactly

done as per the above equation. But making a parabolic sprue is too inconvenient

in practice and therefore a straight taper is preferable. It has been found in practice

that a straight tapered sprue is able to effectively reduce the air aspiration as well

as increase the flow rate compared to a parallel sprue.

In order to arrive at the dimensions of the sprue at the top and the

subsequent taper one has to consider the head of metal in the pouring basin as

shown in Fig. 2.10. Metal at the entry of the sprue would be moving with a

velocity of /2gh and hence [21]

At = A`

ht h, +H

34
 \;_1:1
(Li I•.. il:
Figure 2.7 Various type of pouring cup basin [25]

JP4'e ,O/U7

(a)

/ V

00"
0

1. /cw/d
etc/

Al

Figure 2.8 Pouring basin design [25]

35
 PERSISTS

THIS CONDITION
SOON CLEARS UP

Figure 2.9 Effect of sprue design on metal turbulence and aspiration [25]

•I - - - - .1-fr,-
- I- - . - -
- - S -
-
J1
- •

Straight •'. t
I •••
. .
I

I. •: •'
I S

ht
Toper
ill
Parabolic
Taper

Figure 2.10 Theoretical taper of sprue [25]

36
 The effective sprue height (H), of a mould depends on the casting

dimensions and type of gating used. The effective sprue height can be calculated

using the following relations.

For Top gate, H = h

Bottom gate, H = h - C12

Parting gate, H = h - P2/2C

The values of h, P and C are shown in Fig. 2.11 [26] for the various types

of gating. Table 2.4 shows the theoretical values of area ratios of top and choke

portions of the sprue based on sprue height and metal head in the pouring basin.

Sprue Depth in Pouring basin mm

height(mm) 50 100 150 200 250
50 1.414 1.225 1.155 1.118 1.095
100 1.732 1.414 1.291 1.225 1.183
150 2.000 1.581 1.414 1.323 1.265
200 2.236 1.732 1.528 1.414 1.342
250 2.450 1.871 1.633 1.500 1.414
.37.5 2.915 2.179 1.871 1.696 1.581
500 3.317 2.450 2.082 1.871 1.732
600 3.742 2.739 2.309 2.062 1.897

Table 2.4. Theoretical ratios of the sprue top and choke areas based on pouring

basin depth [21 ]

37
2.4.4 Design of Choke Area

Having calculated the optimum pouring time, it is now required to establish

the main control area which meters the metal flow into the mould cavity so that

the mould is completely filled with in the calculated pouring time. This controlled

area is called choke area. Normally the choke area happens to be at the bottom of

the sprue. The main advantage in having sprue bottom as the choke area is that

proper flow characteristics are established early in the mould [21].

The choke area can be calculated using Bernoulli's equation as

A_ W
ptC 2gH

Value of C is given in table 2.5.

Type of system Tapered choke sprue Straight sprue runner

choke

Single runner entering runner 0.90 0.73

Two runners with multiple 0.90 0.73

ingates, no bends in runners
Two runners with multiple 0.85 0.70

ingates, 90 bends in runners

Table 2.5 Values of Efficiency coefficient for various type of gating system [26]

2.4.5 Design of Sprue Base Well

The provision of a sprue base well at the bottom of the sprue helps in

reducing the velocity of the incoming metal and also the mould erosion.

Reasonable proportions for a sprue base well are shown in Fig 2.12 a general

t:
guide line could be that the sprue base well area should be five times that of the

sprue choke area and the well depth should be approximately equal that of the

runner [21]. For a narrow and deep runner, the well diameter should be 2.5 times

the width of the runner in a two runner system and twice its width in a one runner

system.

Fleming and Taylor recommended that a sprue base or sump should be used

to absorb the vertical metal velocity. This sump should have a diameter 1.5 times

the runner bar width and a depth 1.5 times that the runner bar. As the sump will be

exposed at the parting line it is not difficult to mould [25].

2.4.6 Design of Ingate

Ingate is a channel through which the metal leaves the runner to enter the

mould cavity [9]. The ingate can be considered as a weir with no reduction in

cross section of the stream at the gate. Then the rate of flow of molten metal

through the gates depends on the free height of the metal in the runner and the gate

area and the velocity with which metal is flowing in the runner. The free height, h

can be calculated as [21 ]

~2 V2
h=1.6 3 +-mm
gG"„Z 2 g

Having obtained the head of the metal, the height of the gate h is give by

h1 = h — 5 mm.

Gates higher than this will not fill completely the gates and those lower

than this will increase the velocities of the stream entering into it.

39
(a) TOP GATING 7
C
ErFCCTfVE HEAO. Hal
.L

r
(b) BOTTOM GATIN4
i C
_1.
ErrECTIVE HEAD, H•h—

_4. C
(c) PARTING ZINC GAT.NC
H%[rrCCTIV[ MCAO~
c
2C

Figure 2.11 Effective metal head in different gating systems [26]

Area = 2,110 3,1

depending on
heigh/ o/ sprit -

J radius 4it0 A a cho4e otry

11'x~r'~'I)'ifo/fr+A

Figure 2.12 Sprue base designs [11]

40
2.4.7 Design of Runner

The runner is a channel, usually horizontal, through which distributes the

metal from the sprue to the ingates. The number of runner bars required is largely

determined by the size and shape of the casting. The performance of a runner is

dependent upon.

(a) Its length

(b) Its cross-section shape and area

(c) Its position in mould

(d) The change in direction that it imposes on the metal stream.

In a good runner design the following points should be followed.

(1) Abrupt changes in section and sharp corners which create turbulence

and gas entrapment should be avoided

(2) Proper position of sprue and ingates in the runner must be done

(3) The runner should be kept full of liquid metal to avoid aspiration

(4) The flow must be controlled in the runner to that a quick mould

filling is possible

Also, a suitable relationship must exist between the cross-sectional area of

several gates, between gates and runners and between the runners and the sprue.

This dimensional characteristic of a gating system is represented in term of what is

called the `Gating Ratio' [11].

Thus, Gating Ratio [G.R.] = SA: RA : GA

where SA = cross-sectional area of sprue

41
 RA = total cross-sectional area of runner

GA = total cross-sectional area of ingates

The gating ratio provides the desired distribution of metal and favorable

flow rate and patterns.

After deciding the gating ratio and runner area its shape should be chosen.

Henzel [18] has shown that a runner of circular cross-section suffers least heat loss

and has the smoothest flow. However, as this is difficult to mould accurately, the

more convenient is a rectangular cross-section and Howarth suggest that the

runner should have a width: height, ratio of 1:1.5 and that the ingates should be

positioned at its base so that the runner is situated in the cope. This practice traps

any oxide or loose sand at the top of the runner.

Another significant way of removing slag, dross and sand particles is to

provide a runner extension [20]. The runner extension is a typical feature of the

runner design. It extends beyond the farthest ingate as a blind end. Although the

length the runner is governed by the position of the ingates and the sprue, the

runner should extend part the last ingate, so that the first flush of metal, which is

liable to contain oxides and loose sand is retained in the extension. There appear to

be no rules for determining the optimum length of the extension and it is often

dictated as the size of the molding box.

Webster [18] suggested that as the metal flows through the runner its

velocity decreases due to friction which demands for an increasing cross-sectional

area of the runner away from sprue, in accordance with the law of continuity.

42
 But Grube and Eastwood [18] suggested that the gates nearer the sprue will

have less metal flowing through them because of higher velocities and lower

pressures, while the farthest gate will have more inflow due to higher pressure

there. This will lead to an uneven distribution of metal. Thus it was suggested that

the runner beyond each gate should also be reduced in cross-section to balance the

distribution and flow of metal. However, the final choice of the runner cross-

sectional area depends on the gating ratio employed and fulfillment of flow

characteristics.

2.4.8 Sprue-Runner-Gating Ratio

If the primary chokes of the feeding system in the sprue, the balance of the

feeding area is commonly expressed as ratios of the sprue-choke area. Thus, in

some of the succeeding references to Al-alloy, a ratio of 1:2:4 is used. The

deviations that can be encountered in pouring practices for other metals are

indicated to by the ratios given in Table 2.6

Thus it is seen in Fig. 2.13 and Fig. 2.14 that the gating system can be two

types: Non-pressurized and pressurized.

A non-pressurized gating system having choke at the bottom of the sprue base,

having total runner area and ingate areas higher than the sprue area. In this system

there is no pressure existing in the metal flow system and thus it helps to reduce

turbulence. When the metal is to enter the mould cavity through multiple ingates,

the cross section of the runner should accordingly be reduced at each of a runner

break-up to allow for equal distribution of metal through all the ingates.

43
 In the case of a pressurized gating system normally the ingate area is the

smallest, thus maintaining a back pressure throughout the gating system. Because

of this back pressure in the gating system, the metal is more turbulent and

generally flows full and thereby, can minimize the air aspiration even when a

straight sprue is used.

The gating system cab be very widely from one leading to a non-pressurized or

`reverse choke' system, such as 1:3:3, to one where the choke and pressure are at

a maximum at the ingate such as 1:0.75:0.5. If more than one ingate is used, the

ratios pertain to the total area of the all the ingates [11]. In other words, in

changing from one ingate to two while maintaining the same ingate ratio, the area

of the two ingates should equal that of the single ingate system.

The difference between these two systems is in the choice of the location of

flow-controlling constriction, or choke that will determine the ultimate flow rate

for the gating system. This decision involves the determination of a desired gating

ratio, that is, the relative cross-section areas of the sprue, runner, and gates. This

ratio, numerically expressed in the order sprue: runner: gate, defines whether a

gating system is increasing in area (non-pressurized) or constricting (pressurized).

Common non-pressurized gating ratios are 1:2:2, 1:2:4, and 1:4:4. A typical

pressurized gating ratio is 4:8:3 [1].

44
Metal and Alloy Gating Ratio
Aluminum 1: 2 : 1
1:1.2:2
1:2:4
1:3:3
1:4:4
1:6:6
Aluminum bronze 1: 2.88 : 4.8
Brass 1 : 1 : 1
1:1:3
1.6:1.6:1
Copper 2:8:1
3:9:1
Ductile iron 1.15: 1.1 : 1
1.25:1.13:1
1.33 : 2.67: 1
Grey cast iron 1: 1.3 : 1.1
1:4:4
1.4:1.2:1
2:1.5:1
2:1.8:1
2:3.1
4 3 1
Magnesium 1:2:2
1:4:4
Malleable iron 1: 2 : 9.5
1.5 : 1: 2.5
2:1:4.9
Steels 1 : 1 : 7
1:2:1
1:2:1.5
1:2:2
1:3:3
1.6:1.3:1

Table 2.6 Some gating ratio used in practice for different metals and alloys [211

45
 IJI

Figure 2.13 Example of a Non-pressurized gating system [25]

(Gating Ratio- 1: 3: 3)

Figure 2.14 Example of a Pressurized gating system [25]

(Gating Ratio- 1 : 0.75 : 0.5)

46
 CHAPTER 3

RISER DESIGN

3.1 RISERING TERMINOLOGY

The terminologies of riser is shown in figure 3.1

Riser: A reservoir connected to the casting for the purpose of feeding

liquid metal to the casting during solidification, to offset the shrinkage

which takes place while the casting is solidifying.

Shrink: The difference in volume between liquid metal and solid metal or

the hole left in a casting because of that difference. Castings of high

shrinkage alloys require that extra metal flow into the casting during

solidifying; otherwise there will be a shrinkage cavity in place of the last

metal to solidify.

Feed metal: The volume of liquid metal that passes from the risers to the

casting to make up for the shrink.

Top Riser: A riser attached to the top surface of a casting.

Side Riser: A riser attached to the side of a casting.

Open Riser: A riser which cuts through the cope surface of a mould.

Blind Riser: A hidden riser, not visible at the top surface of the cope. Blind

risers are generally more efficient and less expensive than open risers, but

can be used only under certain conditions.

47
 Riser_
Riser
height nr
:. ser Riser neck
Riser pad
height
Riser ,/•
Pouring distance I
Cup : •Side
:rlserr
Casting j
Downsprue

Runner
Riser base
Riser neckJ1 Riser vad

Figure 3.1 Riser terminology [9]

48
 Riser Height: The distance from the top of the riser when liquid to top of

the riser neck. The height of riser when solid may be several inches less

because of loss of feed metal to the casting.

Riser Neck: The connecting passage between the riser and casting.

Usually, only the height and width, or diameters of the riser neck are

reported, although the shape may be equally important.

Riser Pad: An enlargement of riser neck where it joins the casting. The

purpose of the pad is to prevent the riser from "breaking in" when it is

struck or cut from the casting.

Riser Distance: The length of the riser neck. The term is applied to side

risers only.

Riser base: The shape of the bottom of a side riser.

Riser Gating: Practice of running metal for the casting through the riser to

help directional solidification [9].

Risering Design, or risering, deals with the development of suitable

reservoirs of feed metal in addition to the desired casting shape so that undesirable

shrinkage cavities in the casting are eliminated or moved to locations where they

are acceptable for the intended application of the casting. When metals solidify

and cool to form a casting, they generally undergo three distinct stages of volume

contraction, or shrinkage. These stages are:

(i) Liquid shrinkage: The liquid metal loses volume as it gives up superheat

and cools to its solidification temperature.

49
(ii) Solidification shrinkage: The metal freezes, changing from a liquid to a

higher-density solid. For pure metals, this contraction will occur at a single

temperature, but for alloys it will take place over some temperature range or

freezing interval.

(iii) Solid shrinkage: The solid casting cools from its solidification temperature

to room temperature. The volumetric shrinkage of various metals and alloys are

shown in table 3.1

Metals and Alloys Shrinkage, (%)

Medium carbon steel 2.50 to 3.50

High carbon steel 4.00

Nickel 6.10

Monel 6.30

Aluminum 6.60

Aluminum alloy 3.50

Aluminum bronze 4.10

Copper 4.92

70-30 Brass 4.50

Grey cast iron 1.90 to negative

White cast iron 4.00 to 5.75

Magnesium 4.20

Zinc 6.50

Table 3.1 Volumetric shrinkage for different metals and alloys [21 ]

* ~I 50
\II T. ROOR~'84
 Liquid

Solid
(a) (b)

Void

C~ O

Figure 3.2 Solidification of cube casting [21]

51
 The last of these, solid shrinkage (also called patternmaker's shrinkage), is

accommodated by making the pattern (and therefore the mould cavity) somewhat

longer than the desired dimensions of the final casting. Liquid shrinkage and

solidification shrinkage are the concern of risering practice. In the absence of

risers, a casting would otherwise solidify as shown in Figure 3.2.

Visible signs of shrinkage induced casting defects include internal

shrinkage voids, surface deformation or dishing, and surface puncture. These

defects will vary with different alloys; for example, internal shrinkage may be

more dispersed, or alloys with strong skin-forming behavior may not exhibit

surface deformation. To eliminate these undesirable defects in the casting, a riser

will be added to accommodate the liquid shrinkage and to supply liquid feed metal

to compensate for the solidification shrinkage within the casting. Therefore, the

shrinkage in the riser/casting system is concentrated in the riser, which will then

be removed from the finished casting [1].

The biggest problem faced by a foundry engineer is the shrinkage voids

produced on cooling in the central region of the mass of the molten metal poured

into the cavity of the mould. The reason for the formation of the void in the

casting is that the liquid metal in the centre which solidifies in the end is not fed

during the solidification, hence the liquid shrinkage occurred end up as a void.

Riser is a vertical channel in the mould generally located at the top or side of the

mould cavity. When molten is also filled up in this vertical channel it provides a

column of reservoir of molten metal connected with the casting. When molten

52
metal in the casting cools, it shrinks in volume. To compensate for this shrinkage,

the molten metal is supplied from the riser column. Thus, riser is an ingenious

device which if properly designed will force the shrinkage voids or cavities to shift

from within the casting to the riser. Riser is thus an extraneous portion cast as an

integral but distinct portion of the casting like gating system. After the casting has

solidified, all extraneous parts including riser, are cut off from it leaving behind

the desired casting free of any shrinkage cavity.

This leads to the following two basic requirements of the riser design:

(i) The molten metal in the riser must solidify only after the molten metal in

the main casting has solidified. This will ensure that the riser has molten metal

ready to supply to the location in the casting where shrinkage void could have

occurred, thus eliminating the shrinkage void in the casting.

(ii) The riser volume should be as small as possible but sufficient enough to

supply the molten metal needed for compensating the shrinkage in the volume of

the main casting.

3.2 DESIGN OF RISER

Most of these risers use much more material than is actually required.

Certain attempts for determining the optimal designs of risers have recently been

made. However, these investigations are not exhaustive and there is a need for

further investigations in this direction. Although many method of riser design have

been proposed. These are as follows:

53
3.2.1 Chvorinov's method

The earliest and most widely known quantitative risering analysis is that of

Chvorinov. Chvorinov showed that the time for complete solidification of a cast

shape is proportional to the square of he volume of the casting divided by the

square of the surface area of the casting i.e., solidification time,

t=K V z

(SA)

One of the requirements of an adequate riser is that it must remain molten

longer than the casting it is to feed. With this in mind, chvorinovs rules serves as a

rough guide in determine riser sizes [25].

This is also to be expected intuitively since the amount of heat content is

proportional to volume and the rate of heat dissipation depends on the surface

area. This information is utilized when designing a rises to ensure that

solidification time of riser should be greater than that of the casting.

V V
SA Ricer SA casting

It may be argued that the sphere has highest volume-to-area ratio and hence

that it should be used as a riser, but spheres are usually difficult to mould however,

and would present feeding problems as well, since the last metal to freeze would

be near he centre of the sphere, where it could not be used to feed a casting. The

next best shape of riser is the cylindrical type which is most commonly used for

their ease in molding [11].

54
3.2.2 Caine's Method

According to caine, if the casting solidifies very rapidly, the feeder volume

need be only equal to the solidification shrinkage of the casting. On the other

hand, if the feeder and casting solidify at the same rate, the feeder must be

infinitely large. This signifies that hyperbolic relationship exists between relative

freezing time and relative volume.

Caine uses the ratio (surface area/ volume), which is inversely related to the

(VISA)2 ratio of chvorinov rule. Caine's reasoning is that heat dissipation is a

function of the surface of the casting, while the heat content is a function of

volume. It is assumed intuitively that the linear relation (SAN) determines caning

rate and hence is inversely related to freezing time. While the chvorinov

relationship has a firmer theoretical basis, the simpler caine ratio apparently falls

within the limit of error, considering the many other factors involved.

Based on the chvorinov's rule, caine developed a relationship empirically

for the freezing ratio as follows:

a
X= +c
y—b

The freezing ratio, `X' of a mould is defined as the ratio of cooling

characteristics of casting to the riser.

(SAl V)ec,,t,n g
x=
(SA IV)ruer

55
The x-axis represents the freezing ratio and y-axis represents the .volume ratio of

riser to casting,

= Riser volume
Y
Casting volume

where a, b and c are constants whose values for different materials as shown

in table 3.2.

Material a b c
Steel 0.10 0.03 1.00
Aluminum 0.10 0.06 1.08
Cast iron, Brass 0.04 0.017 1.00
Grey cast iron 0.33 0.030 1.00
Aluminum bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00
Silicon bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00

Table 3.2 Value of constants a, b and c for different materials [21]

The following equations are used for calculating the risering requirements

for Aluminum alloys LM4 (Cu 2-4%: Si 4- 6%) and LM 11(Cu 4-5%) [19].

When height to diameter ratio of the riser is equals to 1.

33.45
LM4: X =
23.98—y

X = 17.11
LM 11:
12.78 — y

When height to diameter ratio of riser is equals tol .5.

LM4:X= 32.09
23.98—y

56
 1.4

U 1.2
O

1.0
0 Sound casting
ps 0.8

w 0.6

0.4
Shrinkages
0.2

0.0
0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
Freezing ratio

Figure 3.3 Caine's equation [21]

57
 LM 11: X= 16.75
12.58 — y

With the help of a graph which is as shown in Fig 3.3, the values of X and

Y may be potted. If they meet above the soundness curve, the value the selected

riser size will be satisfactory. If the meeting point is below the curve, the riser will

be unsuitable and another value of rises diameter should be tried [21].

3.2.3 Modulus method

Another method for finding the optimum riser size is the `modulus

method', extensively documented by Wlodawer. It has been empirically

established that if the modulus of the riser exceeds the modulus of the casting by a

factor 1.2, the feeding during solidification would be satisfactory.

The modulus is the inverse of the cooling characteristic (surface area/

volume) as defined earlier. In the other word, modulus is defined as the ratio of

volume to surface area.

Most authorities and researchers in risering agree that the minimum height

of a riser should be no less than one half of its diameter and the maximum height

should be no more than one and a half times its diameter [3]. In steel castings, it is

generally preferable to choose a riser with a height to diameter ratio of 1. The

modulus of such a cylindrical riser, M r would be

Mr = 0.2Dr

Since, Mr = 1.2 M,

Dr = 6 M,

58
 Thus in this method, the calculation of the riser size is simplified to the

calculation of the modulus of the casting itself and no trail and error solution as is

given in the previous case. Though, this takes into account the cooling effect of the

riser, it does not consider exactly the amount of feeding metal required to

compensate for the shrinkage of the casting. If allowance is made for the volume

of metal to be fed to counteract the contraction of the casting, the equation would

change to

Dr3— 5.46 M Dr2 — 0.05093 Vc = 0

The above is valid when the height to diameter ratio of the riser is one.

When the third term in the equation . relating to feed volume is neglected, the

previous simplified equation would be arrived at. With chunky castings, e.g.,

cubes, the volume component may be negligible, but for those rangy castings,

similar to plate like, the influence of volume component becomes increasingly

significant. it is sometime useful to have a parameter called `ranginess factor' R to

define the casting type. It may be defined as

R = modulus of a cube of same volume as casting

modules of casting

Figure 3.4 gives the moduli of simple geometrical shapes.

For calculating the modulus of a complex shape, it is useful to consider it as

a combination of these simple shapes as shown in figure 3.4, or by a suitable

approximation [21].

59
 The freezing time of risers and castings are proportional to their respective

moduli, and if the modulus of the riser, Mr, is sufficiently greater than the modulus

of the casting, M,, good feeding will be obtained. In steel, if Mr = 1.2 Mc, feeding

will be satisfactory. For other skin forming alloys, including many aluminum and

copper-base alloys, the Mr /Mc ratio of 1.2 : 1 is appropriate. With grey and ductile

irons, depending on the carbon equivalent, the required M r/Mc ratio can range from

0.8:1 to 1.2 : 1 because the riser may not be required to supply feed metal

throughout the entire solidification time of the casting [1].

The calculation of riser dimensions is based on the solidification time

requirements and the feed metal requirements. These dimensions vary with the

fraction of the riser available for feeding and the minimum size which meets both

the solidification time and feed metal requirements is selected as the optimal

size [6].

From Chvorinov's rule, the solidification time of riser must be greater than

or equal to the solidification time of casting.

tr ~ tc (1)

t = B(V / SA)" (2)

From equation (2), equation (1) will become

Br (Vr /SAr )n >_B c (Vc /SA c )", (3)

60
 Shape Modulus, M~

Plate aS5t 0.5t

Disc d 5 5t 0.51

a
axb
Long bar
2(a + b)
b

Cube T D
6

D
Cylinder U"
6
1

D
Sphere D
6

DH
Cylinder

r
2(D+2H)

Annulus
1J H
rH
2(r + H)

cross-sectional area
Any bar with no cooling ends
perimeter of cross section

Figure 3.4 Moduli of different geometric shapes [21 ]

11
 There is a transfer of metal from the riser to the casting as the casting

directionally solidifies to the riser. Under the conditions of complete feeding, the

amount of metal transferred to the casting would be (3Vc The amount of metal

available for feeding is aVr. The connecting area of the riser must be subtracted

from the initial surface area of the casting to properly evaluate the casting modulus.

Equation (3) with these addition restrictions becomes:

Sr((Vr —aVr)/SAr)n` ? Bc((Vc +RVc)/(SA c — Aco))n° (4)

Some simplifying assumptions which reduce the complexity are:

(i) nr = n, ; the solidification exponents of the riser and casting are equal.

(ii) Br = Bc ; the solidification constants for the riser and casting are equal.

(iii) a >_ f3; the riser fraction available for feeding must be greater than the

volumetric contraction.

If assumptions (i) and (ii) are applied to equation (4) it becomes:

Vr (1— a) / SAr >_ Vc (1 + (3) /(SAc — Aco) (5)

For a cylindrical top riser one has

Vr = 7cDr2Hr / 4 (6)

SAr = ltDrHr + 7tDr2 / 4 (7)

Ar = 7tDr2 /4 (8)

Using the equations (6) (7) and (8), in equation (5), reducing the terms, and

rewriting the equation in the standard geometric programming form, equation (5)

becomes:

62
nD,' 1434 +4D -'V.(1+ (3)/((1-a)S4,) = H -'V~.(1+ (3)/((1-a)SA,) < 1 (9)

The solution which minimizes the riser volume produces the following

expressions for Dr and Hr;

Dr = 6(Vc / SA~)(1 + I3) /(1+a)
(10)

Hr =3((Vc /(SAc —3nDr2 /4))((1+p)/(1—a) (11)

Vrt = nDr2Hr / 4 (12)

When the feed metal is critical, the feed metal from the riser must be

sufficient to feed the casting. This can be expressed by stating that the feed metal

available for the casting must be equal to the feed metal required by the casting i.e.

V@-l) = VCP

Vrf = Vca/(a — a) (13)

The value of a must be greater than (i and less than the maximum value

available, which is 0.16 [6].

3.2.4 Naval Research Laboratory Method

After several years of successful use of the caine risering calculation, the

NRL group worked out a new and simplified procedure which has the advantage

of eliminating trial and error calculations. The method is based on the observation

that the ratio (riser volume/ casting volume) must be greater for chunky castings

because of their relatively low surface/ volume ratios. This requirement is also a

63
characteristic of the Caine relationship [9]. This method defines a shape factor to

replace the freezing ratio. The shape factor is defined by adding the length and

width of a casting section and dividing this sum by the section thickness i.e.,

(length + width) / thickness.

The underlying argument is that calculating volumes and surface areas is

too complicated and therefore simplification would be desirable. The length, width

and thickness are computed by using the maximum dimensions of the parent

section of the casting.

Then, the ratio of the riser volume to casting volume can be obtained from

graph shown in Fig 3.5. This shows when sound castings would be obtained for

C20 to C50 steels. Having obtained the riser volume, the reference may be made

to Fig 3.6 to obtain riser diameter and height for the obtained riser volume. It has

been proven empirically that for side risers the height to diameter ratio is 1 and for

top risers it is 0.5.

For circular plates, the length and width are same as that of the diameter.

But for cylinders, the width and thickness are same as the diameter for calculating

the shape factor. But for calculating the riser volume, the actual casting volume is

to be used.

64
 1.0
A N RL Experiment point
• Calculated points (Caine method)
All risers have. HID in range 0.5 to 1

1
0.8
A rD

i .
0 0.6

0.4
0

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
L+W
Shape factor T

Figure: 3.5 Riser volume selection chart [21 ]

65
 The values obtained by NRL method are generally conservative in nature

and corresponds to Caine's method for most of the simple geometries. The NRL

method, however, has been further extended to include calculations for complex

casting shapes such as shown in Fig 3.7. When ribs or other appendages are thin,

they do not appreciably increase the freezing time of the main portion of the

casting, and therefore only a small increase of liquid metal is needed in the riser to

allow for the appendages. As the appendages become heavier, the riser must be

increased considerably to ensure that the freezing time of riser is sufficiently larger

than that of the casting. Very thin fins can be used to reduce the cooling time;

however the effect of such an arrangement is difficult to calculate and is not taken

into account in Fig 3.7.

The increase in riser volume, in terms of percentage of liquid metal to be

added, due to addition of branches (parasitic volumes) can be estimated from the

Fig 3.8 based on the thickness variation. Because of the greater surface area, a bar

will have a greater cooling rate than a plate of same thickness.

Hollow cylindrical shapes such as bushings also present a special case. The

heat flow from the center core is restricted, and he casting as a whole has a lower

cooling rate than a plate of the same cross-section. The simplest approach is to

consider the shape as a plate, but to correct for an effective plate thickness (as

indicated by experimental observations) as follows.

 8
U _
7

1111
6

IIIUU1l■
5

0-
0
Ii
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 Wuu
Riser volume. cmI

12

11

10

a 7

I
4 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 19(X) 2100 2300
Riser volume, cm.

67
 22

20

18

nii
to

h SW4SI
I5(M) 2(MMI 25(() 30(X) 40(M) 50(0 6000 6500
Riser volume, cm3

Figure 3.6 Selection chart for riser dimensions based on NRL method [21]

(n) Bar-plate (b) Plate-Plate

(c) Bar-bar (d) Plate-bar

Figure 3.7 Types of branches found in casting [21]

 ■■■t■II■■■t
80

u 60

a
0
40 4UUI
rim
20

0
0 0,2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.() 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Thickness parasitic/thickness parent

Figure 3.8 Appendage volume calculation chart [211

Ell
 Let T be the true wall thickness and T, the effective plate thickness, then

the following approximation may be used for correction factors, k

T= kT

L+W
Shape factor =
kT

Core diameter 0.5T T 2T 4T

Correction factor, k 1.17 1.14 1.02 1.00

Table 3.3 Values of the correction factor [9]

3.3 FEEDING DISTANCE

The solidification mode of the casting affects its structure and soundness. It

occurs by the nucleation of very small grains or crystals which grow under thermal

and crystallographic conditions till the complete melt solidifies. The crystal

growth occurs in a dendritic manner and finally results in grain boundary

generation.

Depending on the location, the riser is described as a top riser or side riser

and may be either an open riser or blind one. Since risers are designed to stay

liquid while the casting solidifies, the riser shape and size and the feeding distance

are the important aspects in its design. The riser should be placed within effective

feeding distances of the casting sections requiring liquid metal. Feeding distance

plays an important role in establishing favorable temperature gradients during

solidification. The Feeding distance of a riser is the length upto which the riser can
supply liquid metal. Thus, the riser feeding distance should be greater than the

maximum path length of the casting to be fed.

When a long bar or plate is cast without a riser, it found that a certain

length from each end of the bar or plate is sound. This result from the directional

solidification that develops at the ends because of the greater heat extraction from

those points compared with others. This effect occurs despite the absence of a

riser. Similarly, if a long bar or plate is cast horizontally with one adequate riser at

the centre, it will be found that, for a certain distance from the riser, the casting

will be sound because of the feeding action of the riser, whereas beyond this

points, some form of shrinkage will be evident. These two effects can be referred

to as the end effect and riser effect respectively [11].

All of the preceding calculations are based upon the assumption that the

riser or risers are placed within the effective feeding distances of the casting

sections requiring liquid metal. Each combination of alloy and mould material

exhibits own characteristic centre line feeding resistance. It is necessary to

determine experimentally the effecting feeding distance for each combination until

sufficient data are compiled to permit the derivation of a general relationship.

While calculating the risering dimensions, it was assumed that the riser

would be able to feed, whatever the length the casting may be. If the casting is

long, not the entire casting would be sound because the riser would not be able to

feed the entire length of the casting. In the determination of feeding distance, it is

assumed, for simplicity, that any casting can be divided into plate, bar, cubical and

71
spherical sections. The cubical or spherical sections offer no problem of feeding

distance because the riser can be placed near the location to be fed. Hence, if we

can develop feeding distance data for bar and plate sections, we shall be able to

position risers properly for any casting [9].

Naval research laboratory after extensive tests on steel casting has arrived

at a number of rules for these feeding distances. Their results are presented in Fig

3.9 for bars and in Fig 3.10 for plates. Similarly for those shapes with varying

section thickness, the results are presented in Fig 3.11

It can be noted from the Fig 3.9, 3.10 and 3.11, that the effective feeding

distance of a riser is more in a plate than in a bar because in the former the

solidification progresses only from two sides whereas in the latter, it progresses

from all the four sides.

72


Mu. distance (1)

— I_
6JTi►
T
O.ST to 2T—t, t.ST b 27._
Riser contribution Edge contribution
4T Mu, feeding
Length greater than mix. distance
'\distance (I)
0.5T to 2T-0 t,itro 2T (~ Max. feeding
Sound lIT 3T distance (II)
SO mm Edge \N
Centerline shrinkage contribution
Max. distance (1) tT `
IT to 4T
0.5T to 2T O.ST to 2T - R)xr
=T IT contribution

Length greater than max. distance

OST is 2T fist b 2 Section size. mm

IT
SO mm 50 mm

Figure 3.9 Feeding distances for bars [21 ]

Max, distance

Length greater than max. distance
4
~ ST 4.5T 2T
r''1 2.ST
T _
_I14 j4 Sound lIT
27 2.5T Variable
Riser Edge Centerline shrinkage
contribution contribution

Max. distance
4T
2T 2T
IT .
Length greater than mu. distance

P~-2"
T V
~T

Figure 3.10 Feeding distances for plates [21 ]

73
 n - i rr Ir % .
I.5 trim

It

DH = (TH - T,) + 115 mm

DM.-3.5 TH - TL
DL =3.5TM

Figure 3.11 Feeding distances for varying plate thicknesses [21]

74
 CHAPTER 4

SOFTWARE DETAILS

In order to process a particular set of data, the computer must be given

an appropriate set of instruction, called a program. These instructions are

stored in the computer memory and can be executed at any time. The high

speed processing is accompanied by an equally high level of reliability.

4.1 COMPUTER LANGUAGE

The C language was developed at Bell Laboratories in the early 1970,s

by a systems programmer named Dennis Ritchie. It was written originally for

programming under an operating system called UNIX, which itself was later

rewritten almost entirely in C. The C language is often described as a "middle-

level" language. It permits programs to be written in much the same style as

that of most modem high-level languages, such as FORTRAN, COBOL,

BASIC, PL/I, and PASCAL. Where it differs is that C permits very close

interaction with the inner working of the computer.

This language is attracting considerable attention worldwide because the

software industry is adopting the language to great advantage. One reason for

this popularity is portability. That is to say, a program written in C can be

transferred easily one comport to another with minimal changes or none at all.

Programs written in C are fats and efficient. This versatility makes C a

75
desirable language in the highly competitive software industry. These features

prompt the users to go for programming with C language.

4.2 COMPUTER UTILIZATION IN RIGGING SYSTEMS DESIGN

This involves the creation of the component designs and their

interlinking with the help of software program. Computer offers the choice of

various alternatives like type of pouring basin, sprue, runners, choke location

for gating system and for riser designs offers the type of riser and dimensions

of riser.

The program is capable of repeating of design process, with changed values of

parameters concerned in a very short time. The design engineer can select and

modify for the final design in view of the economic and functional

requirements.

First, all the system design parameters must be enlisted. This includes

all information about casting and factors affecting it. Then, a software program

should be written, which should be interactive and user friendly. The basic data

remains same for a particular casting must be input at the beginning of the

program. The other input data which are to be varied during the running of the

program to obtain the best design, should be input to the computer as and when

required in the program. These variable data include the choke area, metal

head, gating ratio and the ratios between the dimensions of the various

components of gating system. Finally, when the dimensions of the riser and

76
gating system have been calculated, the program should be capable of

accurately finding the proper size of rigging systems for a given casting.

4.3 STEPS INVOLVED IN PROGRAMMING OF RISERING AND

GATING DESIGN

The steps listed below describe the approach used to design a riser and

gating system.

1. Information about the casting is the starting point. The casting volume is

required:

2. Determine the casting weight.

3. Determine the diameter and height of riser.

4. Calculate volume of riser based on solidification time and feed metal

requirement then compare which one is greater after that decide the riser

volume.

5. Determine the pouring time for the weight of casting and riser.

6. Determine the choke cross sectional area required to deliver the liquid in the

time desired.

7. Select the type of gating system: a) Pressurized system; b) Non-pressurized.

If the pressurized system (a) is selected —

al) Select the geometry and calculate the dimensions of the gate(s).

a2) Calculate the sprue cross sectional area by gating ratio and the

calculate sprue diameter.

a3) Calculate the total runner cross sectional area by gating ratio.

77
 a4) select the geometry and calculate the dimensions of the runner(s).

If the Non-pressurized system (b) is selected —

b 1) Select the geometry and calculate the dimensions of the choke and

sprue.

b2) calculate the total runner cross sectional area by gating ratio.

b3) Select the geometry and calculate the dimensions of the runner(s).

b4) Calculate the total gate cross sectional area by gating ratio.

b5) select the geometry and calculate the dimensions of the gate(s).

For any type gating system selected —

8. Calculate the pouring cup dimension.

9. Calculate the sprue base well dimension.

10.Check for turbulence.

11.Check for aspiration.

12.Calculate the total temperature loss and actual pouring temperature.

13.Calculate the casting yield and its repetitive checking.

4.4 FLOW CHART

The flow chat shown below has been designed specially for Aluminum

alloy of simple casting shapes.

78
 START

Input Parameters
Type of metal, Casting
dimensions, Gating ratio,
avg. casting thickness etc.

Casting volume, Casting

weight, Casting modulus etc.

D=6
V ~ )(1+ p

(SA, 1-a

H V
SA,-3n 4
D
2 WN
iJJ

V,., =7t D Z H/4

vc

V,.i >V'f Vr = Vrf

Vr =V

/ Hr n of Riser
Dimensins

79
 A

Filling time of mold and

riser (tm)

Gating system filling time=l0%

filling time of mold and riser

Total Pouring time (t)

=tm + t 8

Top Bottom
T e of Sprue height
Sprue height
Gating?
(H)=h

Parting Line

Sprue height (H)

=h — P /2c
 B

Choke area(A)
W
Cpt (2gH)

Pressurized Unpressurized
Gating ratio Types of Gatingg ratio
(SA:RA:GA) gating (SA:RA:GA)
system

R Gate area(Ag)=A*GA
Gate area(Ag)=A*GA S
Choke Sprue bottom area (A,)
Sprue bottom area (At)
location =SA*A
=A
Runner a~ea(Ar)=RA*A Runner area(Ar)=RA*A

Gate area(Ag)=A
Sprue bottom area (Ac)
=A*SA
Runner area(Ar)=RA*A

81
 C

Sprue well area

Sprue well diameter
Sprue well depth

Sprue top area

Pouring cup diameter
Sprue bottom area
Pouring cup depth
Sprue top diameter

Gate area
Gate thickness
Gate width
Gate height

Runner area
Runner thickness
Runner width

Gating system
dimension

Check for turbulence

Reyonlds number
Re =pVd/µ

>20,000

Is Re ?

< 20,000
E D

82
83
Flow chart for the riser and gating system design
 CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

On the basis of the flow chart, a program has been developed for the

design of riser and gating system. This program was developed using C

programming language. When the program is run, its output can be obtained.

This output predicts the desired characteristics and dimensions of the rigging

system, obtained with a particular set of input data.

The following are the some of results obtained by running the program

with different inputs. Some of the inputs, which are kept constant for all the

cases and some of the input varies during the running program like dimensions

of the casting, type of gating system (Pressurized or Non-pressurized), gating

ratio etc.

85
RESULTS:

CASE I

Input parameters required

Type of metal = aluminum
Shape of the casting = cuboid
Average casting thickness of the casting = 50.000000
mm
Length of casting = 250.000000 mm
Width of casting = 125.000000 mm
Thickness of casting = 50.000000 mm
Type of riser = cylindrical
Type of gating = bottom
Type of gating system
Non-pressurized gating system

Gating ratio: 1.000000: 4.000000: 4.000000

Number of gates = 1
Number of runners = 1
Metal density=0.00000265 kg/cu.mm
Viscosity=0.00000385 kg/mm.sec
Pouring basin depth=50.0 mm
Sprue height=200.0 mm
Volumetric shrinkage=6.6%
Riser fraction available for feeding=0.16
Number of riser=1

Output for the given data is:

Volume of the casting= 1562500.000000 cu.mm

Weight of the casting=4.140625 kg
Casting modulus = 15.625000 mm

Riser design
Riser volume=1097074.500000 cu.mm
Riser height=111.784660 mm
Riser diameter=111.784660 mm

Gating system design

Total pouring time=5.759282 sec.

Choke area=152.175491 sq.mm
Sprue design
Sprue bottom area=152.175491 sq.mm
Sprue top area=304.350983 sq.mm
Sprue bottom diameter=13.919627 mm
Sprue top diameter=19.685326 mm

Sprue well design

Sprue well area=760.877441 sq.mm
Sprue well diameter=31.125233 mm
Sprue well depth = 17.445658 mm

Sprue cup design

Pouring cup diameter=68.898636 mm
Pouring cup depth=49.213314 mm

Runner design
Individual runner area=608.701965 sq.mm
Runner thickness=17.445658.mm
Runner width=34.891315 mm

Gate design
Individual gate area=608.701965 sq.mm
Gate thickness=17.445658 mm
Gate width=34.891315 mm
Gate height=34.460033 mm

Pressure at the sprue top=0.257311 kg/sq.mm

Pressure at the sprue bottom=0.998210 kg/sq.mm

No aspiration in the whole system

Turbulence check
Reynolds number at choke location=17081.255859

Yield of the casting

Total poured volume of metal=3081221.500000 cu.mm
Casting yield in percentage = 50.710407
CASE II
Input parameters required
Type of metal = aluminum
Shape of the casting = cuboid
Average casting thickness of the casting = 25.000000
Length of casting = 200.000000
Width of casting = 200.000000
Thickness of casting = 25.000000
Type of riser = cylindrical
Type of gating = bottom
Type of gating system
Non-pressurized gating system

Gating ratio: 1.000000 : 3.000000 : 3.000000

Number of gates = 1
Number of runners = 1
Metal density=0.00000265
Viscosity=0.00000385
Pouring basin depth=50.0
Sprue height=200.0
Volumetric shrinkage=6.6o
Riser fraction available for feeding=0.16
Number of riser=1
Output for the given data is:
Volume of the casting= 1000000.000000 cu.mm
Weight of the casting=2.650000 kg
Casting modulus = 10.000000 mm

Riser design
Riser volume=702127.687500 cu.mm
Riser height=96.333099 mm
Riser diameter=96.333099 mm

Gating system design

Total pouring time=3.694750 sec.

Choke area=151.812653 sq.mm

Sprue design:
Sprue bottom area=151.812653 sq.mm
Sprue top area=303.625305 sq.mm
Sprue bottom diameter=13.903023 mm
Sprue top diameter=19.661842 mm

88
Sprue well design
Sprue well area=759.063232 sq.mm
Sprue well diameter=31.088102 mm
Sprue well depth'= 15.090361 mm

Sprue cup design

Pouring cup diameter=68.816452 mm
Pouring cup depth=49.154606 mm

Runner design
Individual runner area=455.437958 sq.mm
Runner thickness=15.090361 mm
Runner width=30.180721 mm

Gate design
Individual gate area=455.437958 sq.mm
Gate thickness=15.090361 mm
Gate width=30.180721 mm
Gate height=45.261703 mm

Pressure at the sprue top=0.257311 kg/sq.mm

Pressure at the sprue bottom=0.998210 kg/sq.mm

No aspiration in the whole system

Turbulence check
Reynolds number at choke location=17060.878906

Yield of the casting

Total poured volume of metal=2058208.000000 cu.mm
Casting yield in percentage = 48.585953

89
CASE III

Input parameters required

Type of metal = aluminum
Shape of the casting = cuboid
Average casting thickness of the casting = 70.000000
Length of casting = 300.000000
Width of casting = 150.000000
Thickness of casting = 70.000000
Type of riser = cylindrical
Type of gating = bottom
Type of gating system
Non-pressurized gating system

Gating ratio: 1.000000 : 2.000000 : 4.000000

Number of gates = 1
Number of runners = 1
Metal density=0.00000265
Viscosity=0.00000385
Pouring basin depth=50.0
Sprue height=200.0
Volumetric shrinkage=6.6%
Riser fraction available for feeding=0.16
Number of riser=l

Output for the given data is:

Volume of the casting= 3150000.000000 cu.mm
Weight of the casting=8.347500 kg
Casting modulus = 20.588236 mm

Riser design:
Riser volume=2434068.750000 cu.mm
Riser height=126.109192 mm
Riser diameter=156.764709 mm

Gating system design

Total pouring time=9.271670 sec

Choke area=190.566071 sq.mm

Sprue design:
Sprue bottom area=190.566071 sq.mm
Sprue top area=381.132141 sq.mm
Sprue bottom diameter=15.576793 mm
Sprue top diameter=22.028912 mm

Sprue well design

Sprue well area=952.830322 sq.mm
Sprue well diameter=34.830765 mm
Sprue well depth = 13.804567 mm

Sprue cup design

Pouring cup diameter=77.101189 mm
Pouring cup depth=55.072281 mm

Runner design
Individual runner area=381.132141 sq.mm
Runner thickness=13.804567 mm
Runner width=27.609135 mm

Gate design
Individual gate area=762.264282 sq.mm
Gate thickness=19.522606 mm
Gate width=39.045212 mm
Gate height=67.119392 mm

Pressure at the sprue top=0.257311 kg/sq.mm

Pressure at the sprue bottom=0.998211 kg/sq.mm

No aspiration in the whole system

Turbulence check
Reynolds number at choke location=19114.818359

Yield of the casting

Total poured volume of metal=6080831.000000 cu.mm
Casting yield in percentage = 51.802132

91
CASE IV

Input parameters .
Type of metal = aluminum
Shape of the casting = cuboid
Average casting thickness of the casting = 50.000000
Length of casting = 350.000000
Width of casting = 200.000000
Thickness of casting = 50.000000
Type of riser = cylindrical
Type of gating = bottom
Type of gating system
Non-pressurized gating system

Gating ratio: 1.000000 : 3.000000 : 3.000000

Number of gates = 1
Number of runners = 1
Metal density=0.00000265
Viscosity=0.00000385
Pouring basin depth=50.0
Sprue height=200.0
Volumetric shrinkage=6.6%
Riser fraction available for feeding=0.16
Number of riser=1

Output for the given data is:

Volume of the casting= 3500000.000000 cu.mm
Weight of the casting=9.275000 kg
Casting modulus = 17.948717 mm

Riser design:
Riser volume=2457447.000000 cu.mm
Riser height=146.262009 mm
Riser diameter=146.262009 mm

Gating system design

Total pouring time=8.619703 sec.

Choke area=249.092743 sq.mm

Sprue design:
Sprue bottom area=249.092743 sq.mm
Sprue top area=498.185486 sq.mm

92
Sprue bottom diameter=17.808846 mm
Sprue top diameter=25.185513 mm

Sprue well design

Sprue well area=1245.463745 sq.mm
Sprue well diameter=39.821793 mm
Sprue well depth = 19.329746 mm

Sprue cup design

Pouring cup diameter=88.149292 mm
Pouring cup depth=62.963783 mm

Runner design
Individual runner area=747.278198 sq.mm
Runner thickness=19.329746 mm
Runner width=38.659492 mm

Gate design
Individual gate area=747.278198 sq.mm
Gate thickness=19.329746 mm
Gate width=38.659492 mm
Gate height=45.894535 mm

Pressure at the sprue top=0.429961 kg/sq.mm

Pressure at the sprue bottom=1.688813 kg/sq.mm

No aspiration in the whole system

Turbulence check
Reynolds number at choke location=19981.843750

Yield of the casting

Total poured volume of metal=6743819.000000 cu.mm
Casting yield in percentage = 51.899376

93
CASE V
Input parameters
Type of metal = aluminum
Shape of the casting = cuboid
Average casting thickness of the casting = 50.000000
Length of casting = 300.000000
Width of casting = 250.000000
Thickness of casting = 50.000000
Type of riser = cylindrical
Type of gating = bottom
Type of gating system
Non-pressurized gating system

Gating ratio: 1.000000 : 1.200000 : 2.000000

Number of gates = 1
Number of runners = 1
Metal density=0.00000265
Viscosity=0.00000385
Pouring basin depth=50.0
Sprue height=200.0
Volumetric shrinkage=6.6o
Riser fraction available for feeding=0.16
Number of riser=l

Output for the given data is:

Volume of the casting= 3750000.000000 cu.mm
Weight of the casting=9.937500 kg
Casting modulus = 18.292683 mm

Riser design:
Riser volume=2632978.750000 cu.mm
Riser height=149.664673 mm
Riser diameter=149.664673 mm

Gating system design

Total pouring time=8.922240 sec.

Choke area=268.304718 sq.mm

Sprue design:
Sprue bottom area=268.304718 sq.mm
Sprue top area=536.609436 sq.mm

94
Sprue bottom diameter=18.482870 mm
Sprue top diameter=26.138725 mm

Sprue well design

Sprue well area=1341.523560 sq.mm
Sprue well diameter=41.328953 mm
Sprue well depth = 12.687901 mm

Sprue cup design

Pouring cup diameter=91.485535 mm
Pouring cup depth=65.346817 mm

Runner design
Individual runner area=321.965668 sq.mm
Runner thickness=12.687901 mm
Runner width=25.375803 mm

Gate design
Individual gate area=536.609436 sq.mm
Gate thickness=16.380011 mm
Gate width=32.760021 mm
Gate height=122.816528 mm

Pressure at the sprue top=0.497312 kg/sq.mm

Pressure at the sprue bottom=1.958217 kg/sq.mm

No aspiration in the whole system

Turbulence check
Reynolds number at choke location=19928.912109

Yield of the casting

Total poured volume of metal=7075760.000000 cu.mm
Casting yield in percentage = 52.997841

95
DISCUSSION:

The following discussion gives the clear idea of the riser and gating

system design.

The riser and casting were both assumed to follows Chvorinov's rule for

solidification and the feed metal supplied by the riser. This method involves

the calculation of the riser volume based upon the sum of two components, one

representing the effect of solidification time and the other representing the

effect of feed metal requirements.

The fraction of the riser available for feeding is very important in

determining the optimal riser size. The maximum value of the fraction of riser

available for feeding is 0.16 in conventional method of casting and more than

the volumetric shrinkage. Riser calculation is based on feed metal requirement,

which provide sufficient fed metal to the casting.

The existence of riser, had relatively effect on the pouring time,

however, the casting yield is considerably reduced. This clearly indicates that

the riser volume is quite high and this high volume is forced by the modulus

criterion for the casting and riser.

The gating system is designed for cuboid casting shape and its

dimensions are the input of the program. Pouring time is calculated for bottom

type of gating system, which depends upon thickness of the casting, casting

and riser weight. The total pouring time consist casting filling time, riser

filling time and gating system filling time, which is 10% of the casting, and

96
riser filling time. With the help of this pouring time, first calculate the choke

area then decided the location of choke, which depends on gating ratios, after

that the dimensions of the gating system elements were calculated.

From the results, we can say as the pouring time increase, choke area

starts decrease. In the gating design, it probably reflects the wide range of

casting sizes made in this alloys as there is a tend to pour large casting at

higher rates. This covered different casting designs, gating ratios, gating

system etc. timing the pour and weighing the complete casting including sprue,

runner, gate, riser etc calculated the pouring rates. The poring rate is a function

of casting weights and thickness.

Reducing the mold fill time allows more for correct thermal gradients

and to be established, and inclusions and dross to separate. However, it is

argued that high pouring rates lead to turbulence, which entraps gas and dross

inclusions, and causes more mold erosions. However, these defects are a

function of velocity rather than flow rates.

Whatever, the type of pouring system is used (e.g., Pressurized or Non-

pressurized), the maximum achievable pouring rate is that which just keeps the

pouring basin and sprue full at all times metal spilled on the top of the mold or

on the floor obviously serves no useful purpose. The minimum pouring is one

below which sound casting cannot be obtained. Most foundryman consider it

essential to fill the sprue as quickly as possible, to keep it full throughout the

pouring the molten metal, and to use a tapered sprue of the correct proportions.
This prevents air aspiration and with an adequate pouring basin, minimizes the

entry if slag and dross from the ladle. With the sprue full, all molds are poured

at the maximum rate. This ensures reproducibility as the design of the system,

not the whim of the operator, controls the pouring rate.

Theoretically, the terminal velocity attained by the metal as it

accelerates under the influence of gravity in the spure. We can see from this

mathematical expression.

V= 2gH

Although in the first place flow rate is a function of the velocity and

mold passage sizes, it is affected by other factors. These include friction losses,

which increase as the mold passage size and its volume to surface area ratio

decrease.

In practical terms, flow rates can be derived from a series of

nomograms calculated by Ruddle, et al. from measurements of actual flow rate

on a limited number of experimental molds. These therefore include frictional

effects and indeed the flow rates measured were only about 60% of those

expected from theoretical calculations based on above expression. The

influence of parallel sprues in generating turbulence and aspiration is widely

known. However, it is often appreciated that in Non-pressured system only the

top diameter of the sprue and the height of metal in the pouring basin control

the delivery rate of metal. If a pouring basin is not used, then the height of the

ladle lip above the mold determines the delivery rate.

For simplicity all castings are bottom gated and different gating system and

gating ratios are used in this result. It is noted that that the velocity in gating

systems are far higher than those in the casting cavity so that most of the

problems ascribed to turbulence are probably caused before the metal level in

the casting rises above the top of the gates. With bottom gating, this occurs

quickly, the high gate inlet velocity is hydraulically damped, the exposed

surface area is reduced and turbulence is minimized although, even here, it

may persist for some time. With top gating, where a substantial volume of the

casting is in the drag, the high rate velocities projected into the casting cavity

without damping until a late stage of the pour. Indeed, there is every possibility

of further acceleration under gravity as the gate streams either free falls or

flows over a steely sloping mold surface. This emphasizes the need for tapered

spure, non-pressurized systems, high gating ratios and bottom pouring for

dross prone alloys. It should also be noted that higher gating ratios are needed

with large castings using long sprue if initial turbulence and consequent dross

inclusions are to be avoided. It was shown that for the same size sprue, a non-

pressurized system should deliver more weight of metal per unit time than a

pressurized system.

Finally, we concluded that the metal velocity within the mold is

dependent primarily on the height of the sprue. Metal velocity, not pouring

rate, is the factor that controls turbulence in the mold. Metal velocity in those

parts of the mold beyond the sprue can be controlled by appropriate sizing of
the mold passages (gating ratio) in non-pressurized systems, but this does not

reduce the gate velocity in pressurized systems.

100
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS

Efficient and effective design of riser and gating system plays an

important role in the present day manufacturing industries of cast components.

The two important aspects on which the entire gating system design depends

are the metal flow characteristics and the casting yield. The flow characteristics

depend on the pouring rate and the casting yield on the size of the gating

system. So, if a high casting yield can be achieved without compromising the

flow characteristics, then the gating system design can be called as a successful

one. Proper design of riser gives less prone to the cavities in the casting.

Excess volume of the riser results less yield of casting.

The program developed for the gating and riser design working

effectively for different riser and gating system combinations. In the design of

riser, riser volume is the volume predicted by solidification time or the feed

metal requirement, which ever gives maximum volume to feed the casting. The

algorithm predicted a reasonable pouring time which influence the rigging

system design. The gating system designed has been given no turbulence and

aspiration problems. End result of the riser and gating system design is high

casting yield. This fact is evident from the case studies made in this work.

101
 Hence, we conclude that a functionally and economically sound rigging

system design can be achieved by implementing the design with the aid of

computer.

102
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t18R9~1~

:4 AL NNo.........
103 ~r>. xo ..............
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104
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105 _` • -~ J : _ '_'.~