BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS

CITY OF MALOLOS, BULACAN

CEA 423 Ar: TIMBER AND STEEL DESIGN

CHAPTER 08

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF TENSION MEMBERS

SUBMITTED BY:

OPLE, MICO

PACHECO, CARMEN DIONIROSE

PENAROYO, JEFTE MARION

QUIJANO, JOHN MICHAEL

ROQUE, NOREEN JOY

SANTOS, RUTH

SANTOS, SYRA CLARISSE

SIMBULAN, MARY JUSTINE

TAMANI, BREMAN

BSAR-IV C

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. MA. VILMA P. GONZALES

 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF TENSION MEMBERS

I. INTRODUCTION

Steel and Tension

 Excellent in Tension (and compression)

 Very ductile (highly desirable structural property for stress redistribution and

safety)

 Connections induce loss of effective area

-Bolt holes, etc.

-Shear lag in outstanding parts (of both bolted and welded connections)

Tension members are structural elements that subjected to axial tensile forces.

Tension members do not buckle. Therefore, steel can be used most efficiently as tension

members. They are used in various types of structures and include truss members,

bracing for building and bridges, cables in suspended roofs, cables in suspension and

cable-stayed bridges, hanger and sag rods, towers and tie rods.

Any cross-sectional configuration may be used, because for any given section,

the only determinant of the strength of a tension member is the cross-sectional area.

Different types of sections used as tension members are shown below. Circular rods and

rolled angle shapes are frequently used. Built up shapes either from plates, rolled shapes

or a combination of plates and rolled shapes are sometimes used when large loads

must be resist. The most common built-up shapes is the double –angle section which

available in AISC manual.

 Steel cables are constructed of a number of wire ropes or strands have very high
 yield strength in the range of 200 to 250 ksi. Thus, cables are particularly suitable

for covering large spans and are used in long-span suspension bridges, cable

roofs, and cable-stayed bridges. Cables, of course, are flexible. To provide

stiffness, cable structures may be stiffened by adding stiffening members.

 When the magnitude of tensile force is small in a tension member, solid round or

rectangular bars are used.

 For larger tensile forces or when more stiffness is required, round or rectangular

tubes may be used. Round tubes or pipes might be preferred when the tension

member is exposed to high-wind condition. Connection details for round tube,

however, are cumbersome to construct.

 Single angles are commonly used as tension members, for example, as bracing

for carrying lateral forces due to wind or earthquake. Angle end connection is

simple but eccentric to its centroidal axis. The eccentric application of tensile

force produces bending stresses in members which are often ignored in design

practice.
  Compared with an angle, a channel connected to the joint at its web often

produces less eccentricity, since the centroid of most channels is close to their

web.

 For carrying a large tensile force, W sections are used.

 For a very large tensile force, built-up sections (for example, channels with lacing

bars) or double angles may be used.

1.1. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

 Stress: The stress in an axially loaded tension member is given by Equation

P
f 
A

where P is the magnitude of load, and

A is the cross-sectional area normal to the load

 The stress in a tension member is uniform throughout the cross-section except:

- near the point of application of load, and

- at the cross-section with holes for bolts or other discontinuities, etc.

 For example, consider an 8 x ½ in. bar connected to a gusset plate and loaded in

tension as shown below in Figure 1

 Gusset plate

b Section b-b
b
7/8 in. diameter hole

a a
Section a-a
8 x _ in. bar

Figure 1 Example of tension member.

 Area of bar at section a – a = 8 x ½ = 4 in2

 Area of bar at section b – b = (8 – 2 x 7/8 ) x ½ = 3.12 in2

 Therefore, by definition (Equation 2.1) the reduced area of section b – b will be

subjected to higher stresses

 However, the reduced area and therefore the higher stresses will be localized

around section b – b.

 The unreduced area of the member is called its gross area = Ag

 The reduced area of the member is called its net area = An

II. STEEL STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR

Fu

Fy
Stress, f

y u
Strain, 
 Figure 2 Stress-strain behavior of steel

 The stress-strain behavior of steel is shown below in Figure 2

 In Figure 2, E is the elastic modulus = 29000 ksi.

Fy is the yield stress and Fu is the ultimate stress

y is the yield strain and u is the ultimate strain

 Deformations are caused by the strain . Figure 2 indicates that the structural

deflections will be small as long as the material is elastic (f < Fy)

 Deformations due to the strain will be large after the steel reaches its yield stress Fy.

2.1 MATERIAL BEHAVIOR

III. TENSION MEMBER FAILURE MODES

- The tensile load is uniform along the length of a member. Since the net cross‐
section is smallest at the bolted connection, the stress is highest in this
location.
 - As the tensile load on a member is increased, the steel adjacent to the bolt
holes yields first. Since the bolt holes represent a small segment of the overall

length of the member, the elongation due to the yielding adjacent to the
bolt holes is negligible.

Tension Members

- These are structural elements that are subjected to axial tensile forces.

As load continues to increase, one of the following failures occurs:

 Gross – Section Yielding Failure – excessive deformation can occur due to the
yielding of the gross section along the length of the member.

 Net – Section Rupture Failure – tensile rupture occurs when the stress on the
effective area of the section is large enough to cause the member to fracture,
which usually occurs across a line of bolts where the tension member is weakest.
It can occur if the stress at the net section reaches the Ultimate Stress.

 Block Shear Failure – the tension member can fail due to „tear-out‟ of material at
the connected end. This failure usually occurs along the path of the centerlines
of the bolt holes for bolted connections. It could also occur along the perimeter
of welded connections.
IV. TENSION MEMBER DESIGN

The design of a tension member involves finding the lightest steel section for angle,
wide-lange, or channel section with design strength (φPn) greater than or equal to the
maximum factored design tension load (Pu) acting on it.

- Pu is determined by structural analysis for factored load

combinations

- φt Pn is the design strength based on the gross section yielding, net

section

fracture, and block shear rupture limit states.

Three Tension Limit States

1. Yielding failure of the gross cross-section (away from a connection).

2. Fracture of the net cross-section (through the bolt holes at a connection).

3. Slenderness limit.

Tension Member Design Criteria

The design strength φt Pn is taken as the smaller of the yielding limit state and the
fracture limit state:

1. Yielding failure of the gross cross-section

Φt Pn = Φt Fy Ag = 0.90 Fy Ag
2. Fracture of the net cross-section
Φt Pn = Φt Fu Ae = 0.75 Fu Ae
Design requirement:

Required strength ≤ Design strength

Pu Φt Pn or < 1

Slenderness ratio requirement

rL ≤ 300

Tension Member Design requires the following considerations :

1. Shear Rupture
Φt Pn = Φ ( 0.6 Fu ) Anv

2. Tension Rupture: Φt Pn = Φt Fu Ant

Anv is the net area subject to shear
Ant is the net area subject to tension
φ = .750

3. Shear-Tension Combination:
 When: Fu Ant > 0.6 Fu Anv
Φt Pn = Φ (0.6 Fy Agv + Fu Ant ) < Φ (0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant )

When: Fu Ant < 0.6 Fu Anv

Φt Pn = Φ ( 0.6 Fu Anv + Fy Agt) < Φ (0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant )

Agv = the gross area subject to shear

Agt = the gross area subject to tension
Anv = the net area subject to shear
Ant = the net area subject to tension
Φ = 0.75

The foregoing failure modes are referred to as Block Shear failure. Block shear is a
failure phenomenon at the bolted connection for the member. The member or the
gusset plate can shear-off and/or rupture in tension. There can be several modes of
block shear failure and all of these need to be analyzed. Failure can happen in either
yielding or fracture in all modes. We calculate the yield capacity on the gross area and
the fracture capacity on the net area. Block shear capacity is the combined shear and
tensile capacity of the failure mode (smallest capacity governs).

Design Procedure

Make sure that all three criteria described above are satisfied. There is no standard rule
for designing tension members, but it is useful to follow the basic three steps:

1. Calculate the design load Pu .

2. Calculate

(a) Required gross area ( Ag )

(b) Required (effective) net area ( An or Ae )

(c) Radius of gyration (r ).

3. Pick a member and try different sections that satisfy the criteria. Choose the lightest
member. 4. Check other criteria.

Notations:

Φt - Resistance factor for tension (0.9 for yielding; 0.75 for fracture).

Ag - Gross cross-sectional area.

Ae - Effective net area (reduction of the net area to account for stress concentrations
at holes and shear

lag effects where not all the cross-sectional elements are connected to transmit
the load).

An - Net cross-sectional area (gross area minus the areas of the bolt holes
U - The reduction coefficient. Whenever the tension is transmitted through some but not
all of the

cross-sectional elements of the tension member = − lxU ≤ 9.0/1 (such as angle

section where only

one leg of the angle is connected to a gusset plate). Approximate values of U used
prior to the current

LRFD may also be used according to LRFD.

x - Distance from the plane of shear transfer to the centroid of the tension member
cross-section.

L - Length of the connection in the direction of loading.

Fy - Specified minimum yield stress.

Fu - Specified minimum ultimate stress.

Pn - Nominal axial strength.

Pu - Required axial strength. L Laterally unsupported length of the member.

r - Radius of gyration (smallest).

Tables for the Design of Tension Members

Tables for design of tension member tabulates the tension design strength of standard
steel sections - Include: wide flange shapes, angles, tee sections, and double angle
sections.

- The net section fracture strength is tabulated for an assumed value of U = 0.75,
obviously because the precise connection details are not known.

- For all W, Tee, angle and double-angle sections, Ae is assumed to be = 0.75 Ag

- Select the tension member based on the tabulated gross yielding and net section
fracture strengths, and then check the net section fracture strength and the block
shear strength using the actual connection details.

V. NET AND EFFECTIVE NET AREA

Net Areas, An
 Whenever a tension member is to be fastened by means of bolts or
rivets, holes must be provided at the connection.
 Therefore, the member cross sectional area is reduced and the
strength of the member may also be reduced depending on the
size and location of the holes.
 The term “net cross-sectional area” or “net area” refers to the gross
 sectional area of the member minus the holes, notches, or other
indentations.

Methods for Cutting Holes

 The most common and least expensive method is to punch standard

holes 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) larger than the diameter of the rivet or bolt.
In general the plate thickness is less than the punch diameter. This is
accounted in design by assuming that the extend of the damage is
limited to a radial distance of 1/32 in. (0.8 mm) around the hole.

 A second method of cutting holes consists of subpunching them 3/16 in.

(4.8 mm) diameter undersize and them reaming the holes to the finished
size after the pieces being joined are assembled.
This method is more expensive, but offers the advantage of accurate
alignment. This method produces better strength.

 A third method consists of drilling holes to a diameter of the rivet or bolt

plus 1/32 in. (0.8 mm).
This method is used to join thick pieces, and is the most expensive of the
all common methods.

How to find the area of the hole?

The area of the hole is considered a rectangular area, and is computed
as follows:

For fastener in standard holes,

dh = diameter of bolt + 2mm
t p = thickness of plate or metal used

Effective Net Area

 The net area gives the reduced section that resists tension but still may
not correctly reflect the strength. This is particularly true when the
tension member has a profile consisting of elements not in a common
plane and where the tensile load is transmitted at the end of the
member by connection to one leg only is an example of such situation.

 When a tensile load is applied eccentrically to a wide plate the stress

distribution across the width of the plate is non uniform. The mechanism
 by which stress gets transmitted from the location of the applied load to
sections distant from the load is by shear stresses acting in the plane of
the plate.
The LFRD and ASD-B3 provide that the effective net area A e is to be
computed as A e = UA n

Where U = reduction coefficient

A e = net area
EFFECTIVE NET AREA FOR BOLTED OR RIVETED CONNECTIONS

 The net area as computed, has been reduced due the presence of
the hole which obviously increases the unit stress in a tension member
even if the hole is occupied by a rivet or bolt.
 It refers to the gross cross sectional area of a member minus any holes.
NSCP provides for an effective area =U where U is a reduction
coefficient as given in NSCP
 But when the load is transmitted directly to each of the cross
sectional elements by connectors, the effective net area is =
VALUES OF REDUCTION COEFFICIENT U FOR BOLTED OR RIVETED CONNECTIONS

EFFECTIVE NET AREA FOR WELDED CONNECTIONS

 When the load is transmitted by welds through some but not all of the
cross sectional elements of the member, the effective net area

according to NSCP

=U

where = gross area of member

 When the load is transmitted to a plane by longitudinal welds along both

edges at the ends of the plate, the length of the welds shall not be less
than the width of the plate.
VALUES OF REDUCTION COEFFICIENT U FOR WELDED CONNECTIONS

EFFECTIVE AREAS FOR RIVETED SPLICE AND GUSSET PLATES

 Bolted and riveted splice and gusset plates and other connection fittings
subjected to tensile force shall be design in accordance with the provision
of the NSCP where the effective area shall be taken as the actual net
area, except that, for the purpose of design calculations, it shall not be
taken as greater than 85% of the gross area.

VI. PLATE IN TENSION WITH BOLTS

Tension Load-
Gusset plate
 a plate for connecting beams and girders to columns.
 can be fastened to a permanent member either by bolts, rivets or welding or a
combination of the three.

Angle in Tension with Bolts

Angles with End Connection

Typical Truss Connection

Typical Frame Connection

Steel Connection is divided into two common methods: bolting and welding.

 Bolting - a fastening system using screw-

threaded devices such as nuts, bolts, or studs. It is the preferred method
of Steel connecting members on the site.
 Welding - a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, by using
high heat to melt the parts together and allowing them to cool causing fusion.
 Due to high costs of labor, extensive field -welding is the most expensive
component in a steel frame.

1. Moment frames
A moment frame consists of a system of columns and beams that are connected to
one another with fully and/or partially restrained moment connections.

2. Braced Frames are a very common form of construction, being economic to

construct and simple to analyse. Which provides stability and resists lateral loads, may
be from diagonal steel members or, from a concrete 'core'.

Considering the Pros and Cons

 Moment frames
Pros: - logical choice when large, open spaces are desired. “wide-open spaces-
friendly”

Cons: -generally more expensive than shearwall and braced-frame systems

-column and beam sizes can be significantly heavier per linear foot than
in braced frames due to their means of transferring forces and resisting
lateral drift.

-require more field-welding than braced frames, which leads to higher

erection costs.

-limited number of pre-qualified connections allowed in mid/high-seismic

regions

 Shearwalls and brace frames

Pros: -cheaper than moment frames
 Cons: -tend to create barriers within structural floor plans, which are often
acceptable for highly partitioned spaces.

*A recent cost study resulted in an increase in installed price of approximately 250

percent for the moment frame as compared with a braced frame.

*If moment frames are selected, costs can be minimized by paying attention to some
rules of thumb.

Comparison of Frame and Truss

In summary,

- A member is categorized as a truss and frame by the way it is connected at its

ends which determines its ability to carry certain types of loads.
- Truss members are free to rotate and can only carry axial loads, whereas frame
members are rigidly connected and can support all load types.
- When it comes to usage in structures, a truss member can afford to be lighter
than frame members since it only carries axial loads. This light-weight nature of
the member can come in handy with structures that span large distances.

VII. EFFECTIVE AREA

The connection has a significant influence on the performance of a tension member. A

connection almost always weakens the member, and a measure of its influence is
called joint efficiency.
Joint efficiency is a function of: (a) material ductility; (b) fastener spacing; (c) stress
concentration at holes; (d) fabrication procedure; and (e) shear lag. All factors
contribute to reducing the effectiveness but shear lag is the most important.

Shear Lag

Shear lag occurs when the tension force is not transferred simultaneously to all elements
of the cross-section. This will occur when some elements of the cross-section are not
connected. A consequence of this partial connection is that the connected element
becomes overloaded and the unconnected part is not fully stressed as shown in figure
below.

Shear lag can be accounted for by using a reduced or effective net area Ae. Shear lag
affects both bolted and welded connections. Therefore, the effective net area
concept applied to both types of connections.

- For bolted connection, the effective net area is Ae = An U

- For welded connection, the effective net area is Ae = Ag U

Shear Lag Effects

It is a short span supporting concentrated loads. Where the beam has a span of less
than 30wf (wf as defined below) and it carries one concentrated load, or several loads
spaced farther apart than 2wf , the effective design width of any flange, whether in
tension or compression, shall be limited by the values in Table 552-1.

Where;
L = full Span for simple beams; or the distance between inflection points for
continuous beams;

wf = width of flange projection beyond web for Ibeam and similar sections; or half
the distance between webs for box-or U-type sections

For flanges of I-beams and similar sections stiffened by lips at the outer edges, wf shall
be taken as the sum of flange projection beyond the web plus the depth of the lip.
VIII. ECCENTRICITY

Definition:

It is the distance between the actual line of action of compressive or tensile loads and
the line of action that would produce a uniform stress over the cross section of the
Deformation resulting from the action upon a rod of two equal longitudinal forces of
opposite directions, parallel to the axis of the rod; a form of combined strength.
Eccentric tension-compression is characterized by the composition of deflections from
bending and from longitudinal forces.

 Recent investigations on tension members have shown that connection the

failure capacity of a section.

ECCENTRIC JOINTS

1. Load lying perpendicular to the plane of weld joint

ECCENTRICITY OF ELEMENTS

Where:x

for Various connections

STAGGERED BOLTS

For a bolted tension member, the connecting bolts can be staggered for several
reasons:

(1) To get more capacity by increasing the effective net area

(2) To achieve a smaller connection length

(3) To fit the geometry of the tension connection itself.

Empirical methods have been developed to calculate the net section fracture strength

According to AISC Specification B4.3

s2
d  4g
-net width = gross width – -

-where, d is the diameter of hole to be deducted (dh + 1/16, or db + 1/8)

-s2/4g is added for each gage space in the chain being considered

-s is the longitudinal spacing (pitch) of the bolt holes in the direction of loading

-g is the transverse spacing (gage) of the bolt holes perpendicular to loading dir.

-net area (An) = net width x plate thickness

-effective net area (Ae) = U An where U = 1- /L

net fracture design strength = t Ae Fu ( t = 0.75)

The controlling failure line is the line which gives the

minimum net area.

For a bolted tension member, the connecting bolts

•To get more capacity by increasing the effective

net area

•To achieve a smaller connection length

•To fit the geometry of the tension connection itself.

For a tension member with staggered bolt

holes (see example figure), the relationship f
= P/A does not apply directly, and the
stresses are a combination of tensile and
shearing stresses on the inclined portion b-c.

Net section fracture can occur along any

zig-zag or straight line. For example, fracture
can occur along the inclined path a-b-c-d
in the figure above. However, all possibilities
must be examined.

Staggered bolts in angles

Effect of staggered holes

If there is more than one hole

and the holes are not lined up
transverse to the loading
direction, more than one
potential failure line may exist.

If staggered lines of bolts are present in both legs of an angle, then the net area is
found by first unfolding the angle to obtain an equivalent plate. This plate is then
analyzed like shown above.

-The unfolding is done at the middle surface to obtain a plate with gross width equal to
the sum of the leg lengths minus the angle thickness.

-AISC Specification B4.3 says that any gage line crossing the heel of the angle should
be reduced by an amount equal to the angle thickness.

-See Figure. For this situation, the distance g will be = 3 + 2 – ½ in.

GAUGE LENGTH

The gauge length is the length of the section.

The distance along the specimen upon which extension

calculations are made. The gauge length is sometimes
taken as the distance between the grips.

BLOCK SHEAR

• For some connection configurations, the tension member can fail due to „tear-
out‟ of material at the connected end. This is called block shear.

• For example, the single angle tension member connected as shown in the Figure
below is susceptible to the phenomenon of block shear.
(a)

(b)

Shear failure
(c)

Tension failure
 Figure 2.4 Block shear failure of single angle tension member

• For the case shown above, shear failure will occur along the longitudinal section
a-b and tension failure will occur along the transverse section b-c

BLOCK SHEAR FAILURE/ TEAR-OUT

Block shear failure is a limit state that combines tension

failure on one plane and shear failure on a perpendicular
plane

Block shear is, in some ways, similar to tensile rupture in that

the main part of the member tears away from the
connection.

There is a combination of tension and shear on the failure path. Like tensile rupture,
there frequently is more than one failure path.

IX. TENSION RODS

Rods with a circular cross section are commonly used as tension members when
slenderness is not consideration.

 Tension rods might be referred

to as hanger rods or sag
rods.
 Hangers are tension members that are hung from one member to support other
members.
 Sag rods are often provided to prevent a member from deflecting (or sagging)
under its own self weight.
  Tension rods are also commonly used as diagonal bracing in combination with a
clevis and turnbuckle to support lateral loads.

The more commonly used threaded

rods is a rod where the nominal diameter is
greater than the root diameter. The tensile
capacity is based on the available cross-sectional
area at the root where the threaded portion of
the rod is the thinnest. The AISC specification does not limit the size of tension rods, but
the practical minimum diameter of the rod should not be less than 5⁄8 in. since smaller
diameter rods are more susceptible to damage during construction.

 The design strength of a tension rod is given in the AISC specification as:

The Fu term in the above equations is the

minimum tensile stress of the threaded rod. There are
several acceptable grades of threaded rods that are
available in AISCM, the most common of which are
summarized in Table below.
SAMPLE PROBLEM #1

Find the net area of the angle bar shown.

Thickness = 12mm

Diameter of bolt = 20mm

( )( ) ( – )

( )

SAMPLE PROBLEM #2
Compute the net area of the plate shown.

Thickness = 12mm

Diameter of bolt = 18mm

Net widths:

Path ABC

– ( )

( )

( )=0

Path ABDE

– ( )
 ( )

( ) ( )
( )

Path ABFDE

– ( )

( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Net Area

( )