2015

CASTING AND CASTING PROCESSES

Prof.(Dr.) Dalgobind Mahto

3/10/2015
 Casting & Casting Processes

CHAPTER 2

CASTING AND CASTING PROCESSES

2. O. INTRODUCTION
The casting process was discovered probably around 3500 BC in Mesopotamia.
CASTING is unique manufacturing processes for a variety of reasons. Perhaps the
most obvious is the array of molding and casting processes available that are capable
of producing complex components in any metal, ranging in weight from less than an
ounce to single parts weighing several hundred tons. Foundry processes are available
and in use that are economically viable for producing a single prototype part, while
others achieve their economies in creating millions of the same part. Virtually any
metal that can be melted can and is being cast. Many parts and components are made
by casting, including automotive components such as carburettors, engine blocks,
crankshafts, agricultural and rail road equipments, pipe and pumping fixtures, power
tools, gun barrels and large components of hydraulic turbines etc.

Since 1950, partially automated casting processes have been developed for production
lines.It is estimated that castings are used in 90% or more of all manufactured goods
and in all capital goods machinery used in manufacturing. The diversity in the end use
of metal castings is a direct result of the many functional advantages and economic
benefits that castings offer compared to other metal forming methods. The beneficial
characteristics of a cast component are directly attributable to the inherent versatility
of the casting process.

2.1 SAND CASTING

Sand casting is also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process
characterized by using sand as a mold material. It is relatively cheap and sufficiently
refractory even for steel foundry use. A suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed
or occurs with the sand. The mixture is moistened with water to develop strength and
plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate suitable for molding. The term "sand
casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand
castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal
castings are produced via a sand casting process.
The six steps in this process are:
(i) Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.
(ii) Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
(iii) Remove the pattern.
(iv) Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
(v) Allow the metal to cool and
(vi) Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.

2
 Casting & Casting Processes

2.2 MOLDING SAND

Sand casting operations use silica sand (SiO2). The general sources of receiving
molding sands are the beds of sea, rivers, lakes, granulular elements of rocks, and
deserts. Sand is inexpensive and suitable as mold material because of its high
temperature resistance. Generally there are two types of sand: naturally bonded (bank
sand) and synthetic (lake sand). Natural molding sands contain sufficient binder.
Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared artificially using basic sand molding
constituents (silica sand in 88-92%, binder 6-12%, water or moisture content 3-6%)
and other additives in proper proportion by weight with perfect mixing and mulling in
suitable equipments. Because its composition can be controlled more accurately,
synthetic sand is preferred by most factories.

Several factors are important for the selection of sand for mold.
(i) Sand having fine, round grains can be closely packed and form a smooth
mold surface. Fine-grained sand enhanced the mold strength; the fine grains
also lower the permeability of mold.
(ii) Good permeability of mold and core allows gases and steam evolved during
casting to escape easily.
(iii) The mold should have good collapsibility to avoid defects in the casting,
such as hot tears and cracking.

2.3 CONSTITUENTS OF MOLDING SAND

The main contents of molding sand are
(i) Silica sand (SiO2), or chromite sand (FeCr2O), or zircon sand (ZrSiO4), 75
to 85%, or olivine (Mg2SiO4), or staurolite, or graphite.
(ii) Bentonite(clay), 5 to 11%
(iii) Water, 2 to 4%
(iv) inert sludge 3 to 5%
(v) Anthracite (0 to 1%)
Mulling machine is used to uniformly and thoroughly mix sand with additives. Clay
(bentonite) is used as a cohesive agent to bond sand particles, giving the sand
strength. Zircon sand, olivine and iron silicate (Fe2SiO4) sands are often used in steel
foundries for their low thermal expansion. Chromite (FeCr2O4) is used for its high
heat- transfer characteristics.

2.3.1 Silica Sand

Silica sand in form of granular quarts is the main constituent of molding sand having
enough refractoriness which can impart strength, stability and permeability to
molding and core sand. Some impurities like lime, magnesia, alkalis etc. also present
in the silica sand. The presence of excessive amounts of iron oxide, alkali oxides and
lime can lower the fusion point to a considerable extent which is undesirable. The
silica sand can be specified according to the size (small, medium and large silica sand
grain) and the shape (angular, sub-angular and rounded).

Effect of grain shape and size of silica sand

The shape and size of sand grains has a significant effect on the different properties of
molding and core sands. The shape of the sand grains in the mold or core sand
determines the possibility of its application in various types of foundry practice. The

3
 Casting & Casting Processes

shape of foundry sand grains varies from round to angular. According to shape,
foundry sands are classified as rounded, sub-angular, angular and compound. Use of
angular grains is avoided as these grains have a large surface area. Molding sands
composed of angular grains will need higher amount of binder and moisture content
for the greater specific surface area of sand grain. However, a higher percentage of
binder is required to bring in the desired strength in the molding sand and core sand.
For good molding purposes, a smooth surfaced sand grains are preferred. The smooth
surfaced grain has a higher sinter point, and the smooth surface secures a mixture of
greater permeability and plasticity while requiring a higher percentage of blind
material. Rounded shape silica sand grain sands are best suited for making permeable
molding sand. These grains contribute to higher bond strength in comparison to
angular grain. However, rounded silica sand grains sands have higher thermal
expandability than angular silica grain sands.
Silica sand with rounded silica sand grains gives much better compactability under the
same conditions than the sands with angular silica grains. This is connected with the
fact that the silica sand with rounded grains having the greatest degree of close
packing of particles while sand with angular grains the worst. The green strength
increases as the grains become more rounded. On the other hand, the grade of
compactability of silica sands with rounded sand grains is higher, and other, the
contact surfaces between the individual grains are greater on rounded grains than on
angular grains. As already mentioned above, the compactability increases with
rounded grains. The permeability or porosity property of molding sand and core sand
therefore, should increase with rounded grains and decrease with angular grains.
Thus the round silica sand grain size greatly influences the properties of molding
sand. The characteristics of sub-angular sand grains lie in between the characteristics
of sand grains of angular and rounded kind. Compound grains are cemented together
such that they fail to get separated when screened through a sieve. They may consist
of round, sub-angular, or angular sub-angular sand grains. Compound grains require
higher amounts of binder and moisture content also. These grains are least desirable in
sand mixtures because they have a tendency to disintegrate at high temperatures.
Moreover the compound grains are cemented together and they fail to separate when
screened. Grain sizes and their distribution in molding sand influence greatly the
properties of the sand. The size and shape of the silica sand grains have a large
bearing upon its strength and other general characteristics. The sand with wide range
of particle size has higher compactability than sand with narrow distribution. The
broadening of the size distribution may be done either to the fine or the coarse side of
the distribution or in both directions simultaneously, and a sand of higher density will
result. Broadening to the coarse side has a greater effect on density than broadening
the distribution to the fine sand. Wide size distributions favour green strength, while
narrow grain distributions reduce it. The grain size distribution has a significant effect
on permeability. Silica sand containing finer and a wide range of particle sizes will
have low permeability as compared to those containing grains of average fineness but
of the same size i.e. narrow distribution. The compactability is expressed by the green
density obtained by three ram strokes. Finer the sand, the lower is the compactability
and vice versa. This results from the fact that the specific surface increases as the
grain size decreases. As a result, the number of points of contact per unit of volume
increases and this in turn raises the resistance to compacting. The green strength has a
certain tendency, admittedly not very pronounced, towards a maximum with a grain
size which corresponds approximately to the medium grain size. As the silica sand
grains become finer, the film of bentonite becomes thinner, although the percentage of

4
 Casting & Casting Processes

bentonite remains the same. Due to reducing the thickness of binder film, the green
strength is reduced. With very coarse grains, however, the number of grains and,
therefore, the number of points of contact per unit of volume decreases so sharply that
the green strength is again reduced. The sands with grains equal but coarser in size
have greater void space and have, therefore greater permeability than the finer silica
sands. This is more pronounced if sand grains are equal in size.

2.3.2 Binder
The purpose of adding a binder to the molding sand is to impart its strength and
cohesiveness so as to enable it to retain its shape after the mold has been rammed and
the pattern withdrawn. The binders can be either inorganic or organic substance. The
inorganic group includes clay sodium silicate and port land cement etc. In foundry
shop, the clay acts as binder which may be Kaolonite, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite,
Fuller’s earth and Bentonite. Binders included in the organic group are dextrin,
molasses, cereal binders, linseed oil and resins like phenol formaldehyde, urea
formaldehyde etc. Organic binders are mostly used for core making. Among all the
above binders, the bentonite variety of clay is the most common. However, this clay
alone cannot develop bonds among sand grins without the presence of moisture in
molding sand and core sand.

2.3.3 Moisture
The clay content added to the molding sand will not give the required strength until a
suitable quantity of water is added to it. The quantity of water varies generally
between 2 to 8 percent. This amount is added to the mixture of silica sand for
developing bonds. This is the amount of water required to fill the pores between the
particles of clay without separating them. This amount of water is held rigidly by the
clay and is mainly responsible for developing the strength in the sand. The effect of
clay and water decreases permeability with increasing clay and moisture content. The
green compressive strength first increases with the increase in clay content, but after a
certain value, it starts decreasing. For increasing the molding sand characteristics
some other additional materials besides basic constituents are added which are known
as additives.

2.3.4 Additives
Additives are the materials generally added to the molding and core sand mixture to
develop some special property in the sand. Some common used additives for
enhancing the properties of molding and core sands are discussed as under.

 Coal Dust
The main purpose of Coal dust is to react chemically with the oxygen present in the
sand pores and thus producing a reducing atmosphere at the mold metal interface and
prevent oxidation of metal. It is usually added in the molding sands for making molds
for production of grey iron and malleable cast iron castings.

 Corn Flour
The purpose of Corn flour is to increase the collapsibility of the molding and core
sand. It is completely volatilized by heat in the mould, thereby leaving space between

5
 Casting & Casting Processes

the sand grains. This allows free movement of sand grains, which finally gives rise to
mould wall movement and decreases the mold expansion and hence defects in
castings. Corn sand if added to molding sand and core sand improves significantly
strength of the mold and core.

 Dextrin and Mollases

Dextrin increases dry strength of the molds. It belongs to starch family of
carbohydrates that behaves also in a manner similar to that of the corn flour.

 Sea Coal
Sea coal is the fine powdered bituminous coal which positions its place among the
pores of the silica sand grains in molding sand and core sand. When heated, it changes
to coke which fills the pores and is unaffected by water: Because to this, the sand
grains become restricted and cannot move into a dense packing pattern. Thus, sea coal
reduces the mould wall movement and the permeability in mold and core sand and
hence makes the mold and core surface clean and smooth.

 Pitch
It enhances hot strengths, surface finish on mold surfaces and behaves exactly in a
manner similar to that of sea coal. It is distilled form of soft coal. It can be added from
0.02 % to 2% in mold and core sand.

 Wood Flour
It will increase mould wall movement and decrease expansion defects. It can be added
from 0.05 % to 2% in mold and core sand. It volatilizes when heated, thus allowing
the sand grains room to expand. It also increases collapsibility of both of mold and
core.

 Silica Flour
It is called as pulverized silica and it can be easily added up to 3% which increases the
hot strength and finish on the surfaces of the molds and cores. It also reduces metal
penetration in the walls of the molds and cores.

2.4 KINDS OF MOULDING SAND

Molding sands can also be classified according to their use into number of varieties
which are described below.

2.4.1 Green Sand

Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared
mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to
8%. The clay and water furnish the bond for green sand. It is fine, soft, light, and
porous. Green sand is damp, when squeezed in the hand and it retains the shape and
the impression to give to it under pressure. Molds prepared by this sand are not
requiring backing and hence are known as green sand molds. This sand is easily
available and it possesses low cost. It is commonly employed for production of
ferrous and non-ferrous castings.

6
 Casting & Casting Processes

2.4.2 Dry Sand

Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold and
cores is called dry sand. It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability. It is
mainly suitable for larger castings. Mold prepared in this sand are known as dry sand
molds.

2.4.3 Loam Sand

Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand
possesses high clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water. Patterns are not used for loam
molding and shape is given to mold by sweeps. This is particularly employed for loam
molding used for large grey iron castings.

2.4.4 Facing Sand

Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mould. It is directly next to the
surface of the pattern and it comes into contact molten metal when the mould is
poured. Initial coating around the pattern and hence for mold surface is given by this
sand. This sand is subjected severest conditions and must possess, therefore, high
strength refractoriness. It is made of silica sand and clay, without the use of used sand.
Different forms of carbon are used to prevent the metal burning into the sand. A
facing sand mixture for green sand of cast iron may consist of 25% fresh and specially
prepared and 5% sea coal. They are sometimes mixed with 6 to 15 times as much fine
molding sand to make facings. The layer of facing sand in a mold usually ranges from
22-28 mm. From 10 to 15% of the whole amount of molding sand is the facing sand.

2.4.5 Backing Sand

Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill the
whole volume of the molding flask. Used molding sand is mainly employed for this
purpose. The backing sand is sometimes called black sand because that old,
repeatedly used molding sand is black in color due to addition of coal dust and
burning on coming in contact with the molten metal.

2.4.6 System Sand

In mechanized foundries where machine molding is employed. So-called system sand
is used to fill the whole molding flask. In mechanical sand preparation and handling
units, no facing sand is used. The used sand is cleaned and re-activated by the
addition of water and special additives. This is known as system sand. Since the
whole mold is made of this system sand, the properties such as strength, permeability
and refractoriness of the molding sand must be higher than those of backing sand.

2.4.7 Parting Sand

Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand not to stick to
the pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface the cope and drag to
separate without clinging. This is clean clay-free silica sand which serves the same
purpose as parting dust.

7
 Casting & Casting Processes

2.4.8 Core Sand

Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand. This is
highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which composed of
linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other bind materials. Pitch or flours and water
may also be used in large cores for the sake of economy.

2.5 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND

The basic properties required in molding sand and core sand are described as under.

2.5.1 Refractoriness
Refractoriness is the property of molding sand which enables it to withstand high
temperatures of molten temperature without breaking down or fusing thus facilitating
to get sound casting. It is a highly important characteristic of molding sands.
Refractoriness can only be increased to a limited extent.
Molding sand with poor refractoriness may burn on to the casting surface and no
smooth casting surface can be obtained. The degree of refractoriness depends on the
SiO2 i.e. quartz content, and the shape and grain size of the particle. The higher the
SiO2 content and the rougher the grain volumetric composition the higher is the
refractoriness of the molding sand and core sand. Refractoriness is measured by the
sinter point of the sand rather than its melting point.

2.5.2 Permeability
It is also termed as porosity. It is that property of sand which allows the escape of any
air, gases or moisture present or generated in the mould when the molten metal is
poured into it. All these gaseous generated during pouring and solidification process
must escape otherwise the casting becomes defective. Permeability is a function of
grain size, grain shape, and moisture and clay contents in the molding sand. The
extent of ramming of the sand directly affects the permeability of the mould.
Permeability of mold can be further increased by venting using vent rods

2.5.3 Cohesiveness
It is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles interact and
attract each other so that the pattern is withdrawn from the mold without damaging
the mold surface and edges. Thus, the binding capability of the molding sand gets
enhanced to increase the green, dry and hot strength property of molding and core
sand.

2.5.4 Adhesiveness
It is property of molding sand due to which it is capable of adhering with foreign
material such sticking of molding sand with inner wall of molding box. It is entirely
due to this property that the heavy sand mass is successfully held in the moulding
flask and manipulated as desired without any danger of its falling down.

8
 Casting & Casting Processes

2.5.5 Green strength

The green sand after water has been mixed into it must have sufficient strength and
toughness to permit the making and handling of the mould. For this, the sand grains
must be adhesive, i.e. they must be capable of attaching themselves to another body
and. therefore, and sand grains having high adhesiveness will cling to the sides of the
molding box. Also, the sand grains must have the property known as cohesiveness i.e.
ability of the sand grains to stick to one another. By virtue of this property, the pattern
can be taken out from the mould without breaking the mould and also the erosion of
mould wall surfaces does not occur during the flow of molten metal. The green
strength also depends upon the grain shape and size, amount and type of clay and the
moisture content.

2.5.6 Dry Strength

As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mould, the moisture in the sand layer
adjacent to the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry sand layer must have sufficient
strength to its shape in order to avoid erosion of mould wall during the flow of molten
metal. The dry strength also prevents the enlargement of mould cavity cause by the
metallostatic pressure of the liquid metal.

2.5.7 Flowability
It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and flow uniformly to all portions of
pattern when rammed and distribute the ramming pressure evenly all around in all
directions. Generally sand particles resist moving around corners or projections. In
general, flowability increases with the addition of moisture and clay content and
reduction of green strength and grain size.

2.5.8 Collapsibility
After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the sand mould must be
collapsible so that free contraction of the metal occurs and this would naturally avoid
the tearing or cracking of the contracting metal. In absence of this property the
contraction of the metal is hindered by the mold and thus results in tears and cracks in
the casting. This property is highly desired in cores.

2.5.9 Plasticity
It refers to the condition of acquiring predetermined shape under pressure and to
retain it, when the pressure is removed. In order to have a good impression of the
pattern in the mold, molding sand must have good plasticity. Generally, fine grained
sand has better plasticity. It depends on the content of clay, which absorbs moisture,
when sand is dampened.

2.5.10 Miscellaneous Properties

In addition to above requirements, the molding sand should also possess the following
properties.
(i) It should not chemically react with the metal.
(ii) Molding sand should be cheap and easily available.

9
 Casting & Casting Processes

(iii)It should be reusable for economic reasons.

(iv) Its coefficients of expansion should be sufficiently low.
(v) It should be cheap and easily available.

2.6 SAND PREPRATION AND CONDITIONING

Natural sands are generally not well suited for casting purposes. On continuous use of
molding sand, the clay coating on the sand particles gets thinned out causing decrease
in its strength. Thus proper sand conditioning accomplish uniform distribution of
binder around the sand grains, control moisture content, eliminate foreign particles
and aerates the sands.
Therefore, there is a need for sand conditioning for achieving better results. The
foreign materials, like nails, gaggers, hard sand lumps and metals from the used sand
are removed.
 For removing the metal pieces, particularly ferrous pieces, the sand from the
shake-out station is subjected to magnetic separator, which separates out the
iron pieces, nails etc. from the used sand. Next, the sand is screened in riddles
which separate out the hard sand lumps etc. These riddles may be manual as
well as mechanical. Mechanical riddles may be either compressed air operated
or electrically operated. But the electrically operated riddles are faster and can
handle large quantities of sand in a short time. The amount of fine material can
be controlled to the maximum possible extent by its removal through exhaust
systems under conditions of shake out.
 The sand constituents are then brought at required proper proportion and
mixed thoroughly. Next, the whole mixture is mulled suitably till properties
are developed. After all the foreign particles are removed from and the sand is
free from the hard lumps etc., proper amount of pure sand, clay and required
additives are added to for the loss because of the burned, clay and other corn
materials. As the moisture content of the returned sand known, it is to be
tested and after knowing the moisture the required amount of water is added.
Now these things are mixed thoroughly in a mixing muller.
 The main objectives of a mixing muller is to distribute the binders, additives
and moisture or water content uniformly all around each sand grain and helps
to develop the optimum physical properties by kneading on the sand grains.
Inadequate mulling makes the sand mixture weak which can only be
compensated by adding more binder. Thus the adequate mulling economizes
the use of binders.
 There are two methods of adding clay and water to sand. In the first method,
first water is added to sand follow by clay, while in the other method, clay
addition is followed water. It has been suggested that the best order of adding
ingredients to clay bonded sand is sand with water followed by the binders. In
this way, the clay is more quickly and uniformly spread on to all the sand
grains. An additional advantage of this mixing order is that less dust is
produced during the mulling operation. The muller usually consists of a
cylindrical pan in which two heavy rollers; carrying two ploughs, and roll in a
circular path. While the rollers roll, the ploughs scrap the sand from the sides
and the bottom of the pan and place it in front of For producing a smearing
action in the sand, the rollers are set slightly off the true radius and they move
out of the rollers can be moved up and down without difficulty mounted on

10
 Casting & Casting Processes

rocker arms. After the mulling is completed sand can be discharged through a
door. A figure of sand muller is given in figure.2.1
 The mechanical aerators are generally used for aerating or separating the sand
grains by increasing the flowability through whirling the sand at a high speed
by an impeller towards the inner walls of the casting. Aerating can also be
done by riddling the sand mixture oil on a one fourth inch mesh screen or by
spraying the sand over the sand heap by flipping the shovels. The aeration
separates the sand grains and leaves each grain free to flow in the direction of
ramming with less friction.
 The final step in sand conditioning is the cooling of sand mixture because of
the fact that if the molding sand mixture is hot, it will cause molding
difficulties.

Fig. 2.1: Sand mixing muller

2.7 REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD MOLDING SAND

The requirements of good molding sands are as follows
(i) It must allow the free passage of air and sasses generated when in contact
with molten metal. This is the “permeability” of the sand.
(ii) When rammed it must retain the shape given to it and resist the pressure of
the molten metal. This is known as its “cohesive” quality.
(iii)It must be able to withstand high temperature without fusion. This is called
“refractory” quality.
(iv) It should easily come away from the cold casting, and leave a clean, smooth
surface. This is known as its “stripping” quality.

2.8 TYPES OF SAND MOLDS

Sand molds are characterised by the type of sand that comprise them and by the
methods used to produce them. Some important types of sand molds are
 Green Sand Mold,
 Dry Sand Mold,
 Loam Mold,
 Cemented bonded Sand Mold,
 Core sand Mold,
 Carbon-dioxide Mold,

11
 Casting & Casting Processes

 Shell Mold.

2.8.1 Green Sand Mold

Green sand is not green in color, but "green" in the sense that it is used in a wet state
(akin to green wood). Green sand is a just prepared mixture of silica sand with 18 to
30 percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to 8%. The clay and water furnish the
bond for green sand. It is fine, soft, light, and porous. In green sand mold, the molten
metal is poured immediately after the same is ready, i.e., as soon as the mold is
complete after ramming. No baking is performed in this case. These molds are
relatively weaker and softer than other types of molds. These molds are chipper and
take less time but there use is limited to the production of small and medium castings
only, particularly in non-ferrous metals and alloys.

2.8.2 Dry Sand Mold

These molds are made from fine grained sand mixed with suitable binders and
additives. They are baked in an oven before being finally closed for pouring. They are
stronger and harder than green sand molds. These molds evolved less steam and gases
during casting, thus requiring less permeability. Use of fine sand enables smoother
surface on casting. These molds are often used for large castings and those small
castings which needs high accuracy. However, on account of their higher production
cost, they are preferred only when green sand molds are found to be unsuitable for the
purpose.

2.8.3 Loam Mold

Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand
possesses high clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water. Loam molds are first built up
with bricks and often reinforced with iron plates. A loam mortar, consisting of coarse
grained silica sand, saw dust, fire clay and water, is then prepared and plastered on to
the backing made from brick and iron. The mold is then finished by sweeps, giving a
refractory coating and finally baked to provide strength to resist the heavy flow of
molten metal. Construction of these molds reduces the pattern cost, but, at the same
time, their construction involves a lot of time and skill. They are used for extremely
large castings.

2.8.4 Cemented bonded Sand Mold

These molds are also used for large castings. The mixture essentially consists of silica
sand, Portland cement and water, mixed thoroughly to prepare a strong band. A
typical mixture consists of 10% cement, 4.5% water and 85.5% pure silica sand.
Drying and setting of cement takes about72 hours. Separate preparation of cope and
drag is needed due to low green strength of cement in wet state. On setting, it
produces a mold of high strength and hardness. Cement bonded sand requires less
ramming than usual. A perfect alignment of cope and drag should be ensured. The
main advantage of these molds is the casting made in them carries very accurate and
smooth surfaces. Thus minimize the need of further machining or cleaning of
surfaces.

12
 Casting & Casting Processes

2.8.5 Core sand Mold

Dry sand cores, prepared separately in the usual manner, can be assembled together to
form a mold. Such a mold is known as core sand mold. In these molds core oil is used
as a binder. The main advantages of these molds are very high collapsibility at
elevated temperatures, thereby allowing a free contraction of metals and alloys during
solidification and a high degree of surface finish on casting.

2.8.6 Carbon-dioxide Mold

These molds are made from a mixture of clean and dry silica sand and sodium silicate
base binder, in which the binder varies from 3 to 7%. The carbon-dioxide gas is used
only as the mold hardened. After preparing the mold from above mixture, the gas is
passed through it to obtain the desired hardness. Cores are also prepared in the same
manner.

2.8.7 Shell Mold

These molds are used in a special molding process called shell molding. These molds
are prepared by heating sand and resin over the surface of the metallic pattern. This
enables the production of thin and uniform thickness which, when separate from the
pattern surface, forms one part of the shell. Two such parts are joined together to form
the shell mold.

2.9 Terms Related To Sand Mold

The various terms related to sand mold are illustrated in the Figure 2.2
 Cope: The upper part of the molding flask.
 Cheek: The middle part of the molding flask.
 Drag: The lower part of the molding flask.
 Runner: It is the passage through which the molten metal is poured.
 Gate: It is the small passage connecting the runner to the mold cavity.
 Parting Line: It is the line along which the sand surface of the drag and cope
meet each other.
 Riser: It is the passage through which the molten metal rises up after filling the
cavity. On seeing the metal through it, it is ensured that the mold has
completely filled.
 Pouring Basin: It is the enlarged portion in the form of a countersunk, at the
top of the runner.
 Vent: Vents are placed in the mold to carry off gases produced when the
molten metal comes into contact with the sand in the mold and core. They also
exhaust air from the mold cavity as the molten metal flows in to the mold.

13
 Casting & Casting Processes

Fig. 2.2: Illustration of various terms through Sectional view of a sand mold

2.10 STEPS INVOLVED IN MAKING A SAND MOLD

(i) Initially a suitable size of flask is selected for a two piece pattern. Sufficient
care should also be taken in such that sense that the molding box must
adjust mold cavity, riser and the gating system.
(ii) Place the drag portion of the pattern with the parting surface down on the
bottom board.
(iii) The facing sand is then sprinkled carefully all around the pattern so that the
pattern does not stick with molding sand during withdrawn of the pattern.
(iv) The drag is then filled with loose prepared molding sand and ramming of
the molding sand is done uniformly in the molding box around the pattern.
Fill the molding sand once again and then perform ramming. Repeat the
process three four times,
(v) The excess amount of sand is then removed using strike off bar to bring
molding sand at the same level of the molding flask height to completes the
drag.
(vi) The drag is then rolled over and the parting sand is sprinkled over on the
top of the drag.
(vii) Now the cope pattern is placed on the drag pattern and alignment is done
using dowel pins.
(viii) Then cope (flask) is placed over the rammed drag and the parting sand is
sprinkled all around the cope pattern.
(ix) Sprue and riser pins are placed in vertically position at suitable locations
using support of molding sand. It will help to form suitable sized cavities
for pouring molten metal etc.
(x) The gaggers in the cope are set at suitable locations if necessary. They
should not be located too close to the pattern or mold cavity otherwise they
may chill the casting and fill the cope with molding sand and ram
uniformly.
(xi) Strike off the excess sand from the top of the cope.
(xii) Remove sprue and riser pins and create vent holes in the cope with a vent
wire. The basic purpose of vent creating vent holes in cope is to permit the
escape of gases generated during pouring and solidification of the casting.
(xiii) Sprinkle parting sand over the top of the cope surface and roll over the cope
on the bottom board.
(xiv) Rap and remove both the cope and drag patterns and repair the mold
suitably if needed and dressing is applied

14
 Casting & Casting Processes

(xv) The gate is then cut connecting the lower base of sprue basin with runner
and then the mold cavity.
(xvi) Apply mold coating with a swab and bake the mold in case of a dry sand
mold.
(xvii) Set the cores in the mold, if needed and close the mold by inverting cope
over drag.
(xviii) The cope is then clamped with drag and the mold is ready for pouring.

The making of mold is shown in figure 2.3 below

Fig: 2.3: Making of simple mold

2.11 STEP INVOLVED IN SAND CASTING

SAND CASTING is one of the most versatile of metal-forming processes, providing
tremendous freedom of design in terms of size, shape, and product quality. Sand
molding processes are classified according to the way in which the sand is held
(bonded). For the purposes, sand molding processes have been categorized as:
 Resin Binder Processes. These organically bonded systems include no-bake
binders, heat-cured binders (the Shell process and warm box, hot box, and
oven-bake processes), and cold box binders. Each of these systems is
described in the articles "Resin Binder Processes" and "Coremaking" in this
Volume
 Bonded sand molds are based on inorganic bonds and include such processes
as green sand molding, dry sand molding, skin dried molds, and loam
molding, sodium silicate-carbon dioxide systems, and phosphate bonded
molds
 Unbonded Sand Molds. With unbonded sand molding processes, dry,
unbonded, free-flowing sand surrounds the pattern. Lost foam processing,
which uses expandable polystyrene patterns, and vacuum molding, are
examples of unbonded sand molds. Lost foam molds for large castings are
sometimes backed up with a no-bake binder system.

15
 Casting & Casting Processes

Fig. 2.4: Sand Casting Step

2.12 SAND TESTING

Sand testing is necessary to determine the essential qualities of foundry sand. The
properties of molding sand and core sand depend upon shape, size composition and
distribution of sand grains, amount of clay, moisture and additives.
The sand can be tested either by chemical or mechanical methods. Sand testing often
allows the use of less expensive local sands. It also ensures reliable sand mixing and
enables a utilization of the inherent properties of molding sand. Sand testing on
delivery will immediately detect any variation from the standard quality, and
adjustment of the sand mixture to specific requirements so that the casting defects can
be minimized. It allows the choice of sand mixtures to give a desired surface finish.
Thus sand testing is one of the dominating factors in foundry and pays for itself by
obtaining lower per unit cost and increased production resulting from sound castings.
Generally the following tests are performed to judge the molding and casting
characteristics of foundry sands:
(i) Moisture content Test
(ii) Clay content Test
(iii) Chemical composition of sand
(iv) Grain shape and surface texture of sand.
(v) Grain size distribution of sand
(vi) Specific surface of sand grains
(vii) Water absorption capacity of sand
(viii) Refractoriness of sand
(ix) Strength Test
(x) Permeability Test
(xi) Flowability Test
(xii) Shatter index Test
(xiii) Mould hardness Test.
Some of the important sand tests are discussed as under.

2.12.1 Moisture Content Test

The moisture content of the molding sand mixture may determined by the loss of
weight, after evaporation. A sample of tempered sand weighting 50 grams is dried at
100°C to 115°C in an oven for about one hour. It is then cooled to a room temperature
and then reweighing the molding sand. The moisture content in molding sand is thus

16
 Casting & Casting Processes

evaporated. The loss in weight of molding sand due to loss of moisture, gives the
amount of moisture which can be expressed as a percentage of the original sand
sample. The percentage of moisture content in the molding sand can also be
determined in fact more speedily by an instrument known as a speedy moisture teller.
This instrument is based on the principle that when water and calcium carbide react,
they form acetylene gas which can be measured and this will be directly proportional
to the moisture content. This instrument is provided with a pressure gauge calibrated
to read directly the percentage of moisture present in the molding sand. Some
moisture testing instruments are based on principle that the electrical conductivity of
sand varies with moisture content in it.

2.12.2 Clay Content Test

The amount of clay is determined by carrying out the clay content test in which clay
in molding sand of 50 grams is defined as particles which when suspended in water,
fail to settle at the rate of one inch per min. Clay consists of particles less than 20
micron, per 0.0008 inch in dia.

2.12.3 Grain Fineness Test

The grain size of the molding sand provides a significant effect on its permeability.
The grains of similar size increase permeability whereas those of different sizes
increase compactness i.e. reduce the permeability. Therefore, the grain size should be
properly controlled through adequate testing of the sand before use.

Fig. 2.5: Grain fitness testing mechanical shaker

The grain size of the foundry sand is tested either by Boswell Method or Mechanical
Sieve Shaker Method. The sieve shaker method is more common in use. Grain
Fineness number of the sand is determined directly by this method. The equipment
used for this purpose is called sieve shaker. For carry out grain fineness test a sample
of dry silica sand weighing 50 gms free from clay is placed on a top most sieve. It
consists of a standard set of sieves, having aperture of different sizes in them. A set of

17
 Casting & Casting Processes

eleven sieves having U.S. Bureau of standard meshes 6, 12, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, 100,
140, 200 and 270 are mounted on a mechanical shaker. The series are placed in order
of fineness from top to bottom. The free silica sand sample is shaked in a mechanical
shaker for about 15 minutes. After this weight of sand retained in each sieve is
obtained sand and the retained sand in each sieve is multiplied by 2 which gives % of
weight retained by each sieve. The same is further multiplied by a multiplying factor
and total product is obtained. It is then divided by total % sand retained by different
sieves which will give G.F.N. The sieve set used to determine the AFS (American
Foundrymen’s Society) Grain Fitness Number consist of 11 sieves with their standard
numbers and sizes of opening. To find the AFS the weight of the sand on each sieve
and pan is multiplied by a standard multiply factor shown against each sieve and pan
in Table 2.1. These products are then added and their sum is divided by the total sum
of percentage of sand retained on each sieve and pan. The mathematical form is
shown in equation 2.1 below.
AFS Grain fineness Number
Sum of the product

Total sum of percentage retained on each sieve and pan ………(Eq.2.1)

Table 2.1 AFS Sieve detail, multiplying factors and grain classification

S.No Sieve Opening in Multiplying AFS grain Class of

No. Inch Factor fineness No. grain
size

1 6 0.132 3 10 to 15 10

2 12 0.0661 5 15 to 20 9

3 20 0.0331 10 20 to 30 8

4 30 0.0232 20 30 to 40 7

5 40 0.0165 30 40 to 50 6

6 50 0.0117 40 50 to 70 5

7 70 0.0083 50 70 to 100 4

8 100 0.0059 70 100 to 140 3

9 140 0.0041 100 140 to 200 2

10 200 0.0029 140 200 to 300 1

11 270 0.0021 200

12 Pan Nil 300

18
 Casting & Casting Processes

2.12.4 Refractoriness Test

The refractoriness of particular sand is determined y its Sintering Temperature, i.e.
the temperature at which appear the first signs of fusing of loose grains of sand. For
establishing the suitability of this sand for a particular use its sintering temperature is
required to be higher than the temperature to which it is subjecting during casting.
The refractoriness of the molding sand is judged by heating the standard sand
specimen to very high temperatures ranges depending upon the type of sand. The
heated sand test pieces are cooled to room temperature and examined under a
microscope for surface characteristics or by scratching it with a steel needle. If the
silica sand grains remain sharply defined and easily give way to the needle. Sintering
has not yet set in. In the actual experiment the sand specimen in a porcelain boat is
placed into an electric furnace. It is usual practice to start the test from l000°C and
raise the temperature in steps of 100°C to 1300°C and in steps of 50° above 1300°C
till sintering of the silica sand grains takes place. At each temperature level, it is kept
for at least three minutes and then taken out from the oven for examination under a
microscope for evaluating surface characteristics or by scratching it with a steel
needle.

2.12.5 Strength Test

Green strength and dry strength is the holding power of the various bonding materials.
Generally green compression strength test is performed on the specimen of green sand
(wet condition). The well defined apparatus, called the strength tester, is used to
perform these tests. The sample specimen may of green sand or dry sand which is
placed in lugs and compressive force is applied slowly by hand wheel until the
specimen breaks. The reading of the needle of high pressure and low pressure
manometer indicates the compressive strength of the specimen in kgf/cm2. The most
commonly test performed is compression test which is carried out in a compression
sand testing machine (Fig. 2.6). Tensile, shear and transverse tests are also sometimes
performed. Such tests are performed in strength tester using hydraulic press. The
monometers are graduated in different scales. Generally sand mixtures are tested for
their compressive strength; shear strength, tensile strength and bending strength. For
carrying out these tests on green sand sufficient rammed samples are prepared to use.
Although the shape of the test specimen differs a lot according to the nature of the test
for all types of the strength tests can be prepared with the of a typical rammer and its
accessories. To prepare cylindrical specimen bearing 50.8 mm diameter with for
testing green sand, a defined amount of sand is weighed which will be compressed to
height of 50.8 mm. by three repeated rammings. The predetermined amount of
weighed molding sand is poured into the ram tube mounted on the bottom. Weight is
lifted by means of the hand 1ever and the tube filled with sand is placed on the
apparatus and the ramming unit is allowed to come down slowly to its original
position. Three blows are given on the sample by allowing the rammer weight to fall
by turning the lever. After the three blows the mark on the ram rod should lie between
the markings on the stand. The rammed specimen is removed from the tube by means
a pusher rod. The process of preparing sand specimen for testing dry sand is similar to
the process as prepared before, with the difference that a split ram tube is used. The
specimen for testing bending strength is of a square cross section. The various tests
can be performed on strength tester. The apparatus can be compared with horizontal
hydraulic press. Oil pressure is created by the hand-wheel and the pressure developed
can be measured by two pressure manometers. The hydraulic pressure pushes the

19
 Casting & Casting Processes

plunger. The adjusting cock serves to connect the two manometers. Deformation can
be measured on the dial. The compression strength of the molding sand is determined
by placing standard specimen at specified location and the load is applied on the
standard sand specimen to compress it by uniform increasing load using rotating the
hand wheel of compression strength testing setup. As soon as the sand specimen
fractures for break, the compression strength is measured by the manometer. Also,
other strength tests can be conducted by adopting special types of specimen holding
accessories.

Fig. 2.6: Strength testing machine

2.12.6 Permeability Test

Initially a predetermined amount of molding sand is being kept in a standard
cylindrical tube, and the molding sand is compressed using slightly tapered standard
ram till the cylindrical standard sand specimen having 50.8mm diameter with 50.8
mm height is made and it is then extracted. This specimen is used for testing the
permeability or porosity of molding and the core sand. This test is applied for testing
porosity of the standard sand specimen. The test is performed in a permeability meter
consisting of the balanced tank, water tank, nozzle, adjusting lever, nose piece for
fixing sand specimen and a manometer. A typical permeability meter is shown in Fig.
2.7 which permits to read the permeability directly. The permeability test apparatus
comprises of a cylinder and another concentric cylinder inside the outer cylinder and
the space between the two concentric cylinders is filled with water. A bell having a
diameter larger than that of the inner cylinder but smaller than that of outer cylinder,
rests on the surface of water. Standard sand specimen of 5.08 mm diameter and 50.8
mm height together with ram tube is placed on the tapered nose piece of the
permeability meter. The bell is allowed to sink under its own weight by the help of
multi-position cock. In this way the air of the bell streams through the nozzle of
nosepiece and the permeability is directly measured.
The Permeability number, which is an absolute number, is then determined by the
relation given in equation 2.2 as follows.

Vh
P
p.a.t …………(Eq.2.2)
Where, P = permeability
V = volume of air passing through the specimen in c.c.

20
 Casting & Casting Processes

h = height of specimen in cm
p = pressure of air in gm/cm2
a = cross-sectional area of the specimen in cm2
t = time in minutes.

Fig. 2.7: Permeability meter

2.12.7 Flowability Test

Flowability of the molding and core sand usually determined by the movement of the
rammer plunger between the fourth and fifth drops and is indicated in percentages.
This reading can directly be taken on the dial of the flow indicator. Then the stem of
this indicator rests again top of the plunger of the rammer and it records the actual
movement of the plunger between the fourth and fifth drops.

2.12.8 Shatter Index Test

In this test, the A.F.S. standard sand specimen is rammed usually by 10 blows and
then it is allowed to fall on a half inch mesh sieve from a height of 6 ft. The weight of
sand retained on the sieve is weighed. It is then expressed as percentage of the total
weight of the specimen which is a measure of the shatter index.

2.12.9 Mould Hardness Test

This test is performed by a mold hardness tester shown in Fig. 2.8. The working of
the tester is based on the principle of Brinell hardness testing machine. In an A.F.S.
standard hardness tester a half inch diameter steel hemi-spherical ball is loaded with a
spring load of 980 gm. This ball is made to penetrate into the mold sand or core sand
surface. The penetration of the ball point into the mould surface is indicated on a dial
in thousands of an inch. The dial is calibrated to read the hardness directly i.e. a
mould surface which offers no resistance to the steel ball would have zero hardness
value and a mould which is more rigid and is capable of completely preventing the
steel ball from penetrating would have a hardness value of 100. The dial gauge of the
hardness tester may provide direct readings of the mold hardness.

21
 Casting & Casting Processes

Fig. 2.8: Mold hardness tester

2.13 MOLDING MACHINES

This section will discuss jolt-type, jolt squeeze, and sand slinger molding machines.

2.13.1 Jolt-type molding machines

This machine operates with the pattern mounted on a pattern plate, which in turn is
fastened to the machine table. The table is fastened to the top of an operating air
piston. A flask is placed on the pattern and is positively located by pins relative to the
pattern. The flask is filled with sand, and the machine starts the jolt operation. This is
usually accomplished by alternately applying and releasing air pressure to the jolt
piston, which causes the flask, sand, and pattern to lift a few inches and then fall to a
stop, producing a sharp jolt. This process is repeated a predetermined number of
times, depending on sand conditions and pattern configuration. Because the sand is
compacted by its own weight, mold density will be substantially less at the top of a
tall pattern. The packing that results from the jolting action will normally be
augmented by some type of supplemental compaction, usually hand or pneumatic
ramming. When ramming is complete, push-off pins, bearing against the bottom
edges of the flask, lift the flask and completed mold half off the pattern. Various
mechanisms are used to lift the mold from the pattern and turn it over (in the case of
the drag mold) or turn it for finishing operations (in the case of the cope mold).

Fig. 2.9: Primary components of a jolt-type molding machine

22
 Casting & Casting Processes

2.13.2 Jolt squeeze molding machines

This machine operates in much the same manner as jolt-type molding machines. The
main difference is that the supplemental compaction takes place as the result of a
squeeze head being forced into the molding flask, thus compacting the loose sand at
the top. The required pressure can be applied pneumatically or hydraulically. In many
cases, the squeeze head will be one piece (Fig. 2.10) and may even have built-up areas
to provide more compaction in deep areas that are hard to ram. In other cases, the
squeeze head may be of the compensating type, which consists of a number of
individual cylinders, each exerting a specified force on the rear mold face (Fig. 2.11).
Some machines exert the same force on all areas of the mold, while other machines
allow the operator to adjust squeezing pressure in zones. Jolt squeeze machines are
available in many sizes and are suitable for many different purposes and production
levels. They can be operated manually or automatically. The operator has the option
of independently adjusting the number of jolts from zero to any number and adjusting
the squeeze pressure from zero up to pressure that is considered excessive. Hand or
pneumatic ramming is often combined with this process; supplemental ramming
normally takes place after jolting but before squeezing.

Fig. 2.10: Jolt squeeze molding machine Fig. 2.11: Jolt squeeze molding machine
with solid squeeze heads with compensating heads

2.13.3 Sand slinger molding machines

This machine delivers the sand into the mold at high velocity from a rotating impeller.
Molds made by this method can have very high strengths because a very dense mold
can be made. Density is a function of sand velocity and the thickness through which
the high-velocity sand must compact previously placed sand. Sand stingers may or
may not be portable. Some ride on rails to the mold, while others have the molds
brought to the slinger. Generally speaking, larger molds have the slinger brought to
the mold, while smaller molds are brought to the molding station. Although slingers
are useful in producing larger molds, it should be noted that the sand entry location
and angle are critical to the production of good molds. Entry location is controlled by
the operator, while entry angle and, to some extent, location are controlled by internal
adjustment. It is extremely important that these adjustments be maintained in
accordance with the appropriate maintenance manual. Error can and does lead to soft
spots in the mold or to excessive pattern wear. A considerable amount of operator
skill is required to achieve consistent results. A number of variations are possible in
the above methods. Smaller patterns (resulting in smaller molds) can be constructed
such that both the cope and drag impressions are mounted on opposite sides of the

23
 Casting & Casting Processes

same plate. These squeezer or match plate patterns (Fig.2.12) are often used to
produce molds with any combination of hand ramming, jolting, and squeezing, just as
cope and drag patterns are (Fig. 2.13).

Fig. 2.12: Primary components of a match plate (squeezer) pattern

2.13.4 Rap-jolt machines

These machines are similar in many respects to jolt squeeze machines. Rap-jolt
machines have the option of jolting the mold as described above and/or rapping the
mold. Rapping is accomplished by rapidly striking the bottom of the platen on which
the pattern is mounted with a weight. The force imparted to the platen/flask/mold
combination may not exceed 1 g, or separation between the flask and pattern will
occur. Therefore, there is very little if any vertical movement of the pattern and flask.
This method allows for the possibility of squeezing and rapping simultaneously. Some
machines of this type allow the operator to jolt prior to the rap-jolt operation.
Depending on the individual molding machine, any one or any combination of the
operations can be used to make the mold. The equipment described thus far has all
made use of some type of flask either the snap or tight flask configuration.

2.13.5 Match Plate Pattern Machines.

Automatic molding machines that use match plates have been used in both tight flask
and flask-less designs. Because the patterns do not have the strength to withstand the
pressure exerted during compaction without flexing, both the cope and drag (Fig.
2.13) must be squeezed simultaneously. Some match plate machines (Fig. 2.14) fill
both the cope and drag by gravity. This type of machine will close up the molding
chambers to the pattern and then rotate the assembly so that the drag surface of the
pattern is facing up. Sand is then dropped into the drag chamber, and a sealing plate
(usually aluminium) is inserted. The molding chamber/pattern assembly is then
rotated so that the cope pattern face is up, and the cope chamber is filled with sand.
The mold is then compacted by squeezing, the molds are withdrawn from the pattern,
and the pattern is removed. The open mold is then available for any finishing work or
core setting. The mold is then closed and removed from the molding chambers.

24
 Casting & Casting Processes

Fig. 2.13: Drag half of a cope and drag Fig. 2.14: Gravity-fill pressure squeeze
pattern molding machine using match plate
patterns

Other match plate machines fill cope and drag molding chambers simultaneously by
blowing the sand into the cavity (Fig. 2.15). After the blowing operation, the mold is
compacted by a squeezing operation. After squeezing, the mold halves are withdrawn
from the pattern and are available for any necessary finishing or core setting
operations. Depending on the design of the machine, it may or may not be necessary
to add to the machine cycle time to complete these operations.

Fig.2.15: Blow-fill pressure squeeze molding machine using match plate patterns

Match plate pattern machines are available in tight flask and flaskless designs. These
machines normally utilize gravity fill of both cope and drag molds. The cope is filled
in much the same manner as for a flaskless machine. The drag is filled by sealing the
bottom of the drag flask prior to the gravity-fill operation. The drag flask, still sealed,
is then closed to the pattern, and the mold is compacted by squeezing. The squeeze
pressure is applied by individual cylinders, each covering a small area of the mold.

2.13.6 Cope and Drag Machines

Automatic molding machines that use cope and drag patterns can also be utilized in
tight flask and flaskless designs. Because the patterns normally do not have the
strength to withstand the pressure exerted during compaction without flexing, the
pattern plates are usually mounted against a platen or grid. In most cases, the cope and
drag mold halves are filled and compacted with the pattern facing up. Except in the
case of special finishing operations to the cope half of the mold, it is not necessary to
rotate either the patterns or the cope half of the mold. However, it is necessary to turn
the drag half of the mold over to allow for setting of cores, close up, and pouring.
Most of the first automatic molding machines were automated versions of the rap jolt
machine mentioned earlier. The automation of rollover, transportation, and in some
cases core setting has greatly increased the rate at which these machines produce
molds. A relatively common method of compaction in tight flask machines utilizes
pressure from one or several compensating squeeze heads. This pressure is normally
adjustable in order to optimize the molding conditions. The mold halves can be filled
by gravity or the sand blown in using air pressure.

25
 Casting & Casting Processes

2.13.7 Pressure Wave Method

More recent designs utilize pressure wave technology as the compaction method.
These designs normally fill the flasks with sand by gravity. The top of the mold is
sealed by a chamber. The chamber then emits a pressure wave, either by rapid release
of air pressure or by an explosion of a combustible gas mixture (Fig. 2.16). As the
pressure wave hits the back side of the mold, the sand grains are accelerated toward
the pattern. The pattern immediately stops the downward movement of the sand
grains, causing the kinetic energy of the mass to compact the sand. Molds made using
this method are most dense at the pattern face and progressively less dense as distance
increases from the pattern face. There is no need for additional compaction by the
application of squeeze pressure.

Fig. 2.16: Pressure wave molding machine that compacts sand by the rapid release of
air pressure or an explosive combustible gas mixture. Part (a) shows the mold filled
by gravity prior to being compacted by the pressure wave at (b).

2.13.8 Horizontal flask-less molding machines

These machines are a relatively recent design. The patterns are mounted in these
machines on a hollow pattern carrier (Fig. 2.17). A grid supports the underside of the
pattern to avoid flexing during compaction. The molding chambers are formed by the
pattern, the four sides of the molding chamber, and a plate with a sand injection slot.
Vacuum is used to evacuate the chamber formed by the pattern carrier and the pattern
plates. Vents in the pattern carrier and pattern plates allow the vacuum into the
molding chambers, which causes sand to flow into the molding chambers. Upon
completion of the filling sequence, the mold is compacted by squeeze pressure and the
molds are withdrawn from the pattern. The pattern carrier retracts as the drag half of
the mold swings out for blow out and/or core setting while another mold is being

26
 Casting & Casting Processes

produced. Because the molds are produced in the same attitude as they will be used,
there is no need to turn either half of the mold over.

Fig. 2.17: Vacuum-fill pressure squeeze machine that uses cope and drag patterns

2.13.9 Vertically parted molding machines

Molds are made in these machines by closing the ends of a four-sided chamber with
the patterns, which in turn are mounted on platens. The top chamber wall has a slot
through which molding sand is blown. After the molding chamber is filled with sand,
it is subsequently compacted by squeeze pressure (Fig. 2.18). Blow and squeeze
pressure are both adjustable to optimize molding conditions. After compaction, one of
the platens with its mounted pattern swings out of the way, allowing the other platen
and pattern to push out the newly made mold to join with previously made molds. At
this position, the mold is available for core setting. Blow off is accomplished
automatically. Some models are capable of porting vacuum to the back side of the
pattern to assist in the filling of deep pockets.

Fig. 2.18: Blow-fill pressure squeeze molding machine making vertically parted
molds. (a) Molding chamber filled with sand. (b) Sand compacted by squeeze
pressure. (c) Finished sand mold pushed out of molding chamber

The vertically parted molding machines that are available are flaskless by nature.
However, many deliver the mold to a device that will provide added physical support
for the mold sides, thus increasing their flexibility.

2.14 Advantages and disadvantages of casting processes

Advantages:

27
 Casting & Casting Processes

Casting process entails the following advantages and disadvantaged.

(i) Cheapest method of fabrication
(ii) Objects of large up to 200 Tons size can be produced easily.
(iii) The objects having complex and complicated shapes, which cannot be
produced by any other method of production, can usually be cast.
(iv) Casting with wide range of properties can be produced by adding various
allowing elements.
(v) By proper selection of type of molding and casting process, required
dimensional accuracy in casting can be achieved.
(vi) Almost all the metals and alloys and some plastics can be cast.
(vii) The number of castings can vary from very few to several thousands.

Disadvantages:
(i) The time required for the process of making casting is quite long.
(ii) Metal casting involves melting of metal which is a high energy consuming
process.
(iii) The working conditions in the foundry are quite bad due to heat, dust,
fumes, and slag etc., compared to other processes.
(iv) Metal casting is still highly labour –intensive compared to other processes.

2.15 CONCLUSION
It may be summed up that virtually any metal that can be melted and can be cast.
Many parts and components are made by casting, including automotive components
such as carburettors, engine blocks, crankshafts, agricultural and rail road equipments,
pipe and pumping fixtures, power tools, gun barrels and large components of
hydraulic turbines etc. It is estimated that castings are used in 90% or more of all
manufactured goods and in all capital goods machinery used in manufacturing. The
diversity in the end use of metal castings is a direct result of the many functional
advantages and economic benefits that castings offer compared to other metal forming
methods. The beneficial characteristics of a cast component are directly attributable to
the inherent versatility of the casting processes.

28