RADPHYSICS 1

USEFUL UNITS IN RADIOLOGY MULTIPLICATION

SI PREFIXES SI BASE UNITS a. 102 × 104 = 102+4 = 𝟏𝟎𝟔
18 -18
b. 10−2 × 10−4 = 10(−2)+(−4) = 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
10 Exa 10 Atto Quantity Name Symbol
c. 102 × 10−4 = 10(2)+(−4) = 𝟏𝟎−𝟐
1015 Peta 10-15 Femto Length Meter m d. 102 × 104 = 10(−2)+(4) = 𝟏𝟎𝟐

1012 Tera 10-12 Pico Mass Kilogram kg DIVISION Example:

104 10−6
109 Giga 10-9 Nano Time Second s a. = 104−2 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐 a. = 10(−6)−(3) = 𝟏𝟎−𝟗
102 103
10−4 106
106 Mega 10-6 Micro Electricity Ampere A b. = 10(−4)−(−2) = 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 b. = 10(6)−(−3) = 𝟏𝟎𝟗
10−2 103
104 106
103 Kilo 10-3 Mili Substance Mole mol c. = 10(4)−(−2) = 𝟏𝟎𝟔 c. = 106−3 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑
10−2 103
10−4 10−6
102 Hecto 10-2 Centi Light Candela cd d. = 10(−4)−(2) = 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 d. = 10(−6)−(−3) = 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
102 10−3
101 Deca 10-1 Deci Temperature Kelvin K

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
RADIOLOGIC QUANTITIES
An easy way to writing very large or very small numbers
CUSTOMARY UNITS SI UNITS Example: 𝑐 = 3 × 108 = 300,000,000
Quantity Name Symbol Name Symbol 9.1 × 10−31 = 0.000….91

Exposure Roentgen R Coulomb per kilogram C/kg RULES OF ADDITION

Air KERMA Gya (3 × 102 ) + (4 × 102 ) = 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
RULES OF SUBTRACTION
Absorbed dose rad rad Gray Gyt (3 × 102 ) − (4 × 102 ) = −𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
Effective dose rem rem Sievert Sv RULES OF MULTIPLICATION
Equivalent dose (3 × 102 ) × (4 × 102 ) = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒
RULES OF DIVISION
Radioactivity Curie Ci Becquerel Bq (8 × 102 )
= 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
(4 × 102 )

EXPONENTS Scientific notation → original (≥ 1 move decimal point to the right)

3 × 108 4.7 × 101

24 →Exponent
→Base
300,000,000 = 47

Original → scientific notation (≤ 1 decimal point to the left)

3 × 10−8 4.7 × 10−2
. 000000003 . 047
CONVERSION 1st pair = x; 2/3 2/3 = 0.67
1. 4𝑐𝑚 = ? 𝑚 2nd pair = 3/2; 4/6 3/2 = 1.5
1 × 10−2 𝑚 1. Cross multiply:
4𝑐𝑚 = = 4 × 10−2 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝒎 4/6 = 0.67
1𝑐𝑚 𝑥 2/3
2. 7.6𝑀𝑚 = ? 𝑚 = =
3/2 4/6
1 × 106 𝑚 2. Divide both sides by 0.67
7.6𝑀𝑚 = = 7.6 × 106 = 𝟕, 𝟔𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎
1𝑀𝑚 0.67𝑥 1.005
3. 36𝑛𝑚 = ? 𝑚 = 0.67
= 0.67
1 1×10−9 𝑚 −8 𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟓
3.6 × 10 𝑛𝑚 = = 3.6 × 10 =. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟔m
1𝑛𝑚
4. 4.7𝑐𝑚 = ? 𝑘𝑚
1×10−2 𝑚 1𝑘𝑚 4.7×10−2 INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL
4.7 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚 = × = = 𝟒. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓km 1st pair = x; 6
1𝑐𝑚 1×103 𝑚 1×103
5. 6.7𝑚𝑠 =? 𝑛𝑠 2nd pair = 2; 3
1 × 10−3 𝑠 1𝑚𝑠 6.7 × 10−3 1. Cross multiply:
6.7𝑚𝑠 = × = = 𝟔. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒏𝒔
1𝑚𝑠 1 × 10−9 𝑛𝑠 1 × 10−9 𝑥 3
6. 424𝜇𝑠 =? 𝑀𝑠 = = = 6𝑥 = 6
2 6
1 × 10−6 𝑠 1𝑀𝑠 4.24 × 10−5 2. Divide both sides by 6
4.24 × 101 𝜇𝑠 = × =
1𝜇𝑠 1 × 106 𝑠 1 × 106 6𝑥 6
−𝟏𝟏
= 𝟒. 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑴𝒔 = =
6 6
RULES OF ALGEBRA 𝒙=𝟏
Addition & Subtraction Multiplication & Division
𝑥 + 5 = 12 𝑥 2 1st pair = x; 2/3
= 2/3 = 0.67
𝑥 = 12 − 5 1 3 2nd pair = 3/2; 4/6
3𝑥 2 3/2 = 1.5
𝒙=𝟕 1. Cross multiply:
= 4/6 = 0.67
3 3 𝑥 4/6
𝑥 − 5 = 12 𝟐 = =
𝒙 = 𝒐𝒓 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕 3/2 2/3
𝑥 = 12 + 5 𝟑
𝒙 = 𝟏𝟕 2. Divide both sides by 0.67
0.67𝑥 1.005
= 0.67
= 0.67
DIRECT SQUARE LAW/INVERSE SQUARE LAW 𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟓
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL
1st pair = x; 6 INTRODUCTION
2nd pair = 2; 3 WORK = energy in transit/motion
1. Cross multiply: 𝑤 =𝑓×𝑑
𝑥 6 Joules = 𝑁 × 𝑚
= = = 3𝑥 = 12
2 3 Ex. Calculate the work done by the nurse pushing the bed to 3m using 25N
2. Divide both sides by 3 Given: f=25N; d=3m
3𝑥 12
= = 𝑤 =𝑓×𝑑
3 3 𝑤 = 25𝑁 × 3𝑚
𝒙=𝟒
Joules = 75
POWER = work done per unit of time Electrical Work done through electrons moving through an electric
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 potential
𝑃=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 3 ways to dissipate heat:
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Watt = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 a. Conduction – direct contact (solid-solid)
Traditional unit = horsepower b. Convection – liquid/gas
c. Radiation – no medium (primary way of heat
ENERGY = ability to do work dissipation)
Energy is measured in?
a. Joules 1. X-rays released – radiation
b. Electron volts 2. Oil for cooling – convection
c. Heat units – capacity of x-ray tube to store 3. Anode spinning – conduction
heat
To compute for heat units: Chemical Energy released by a chemical reaction
Single phase = 1 × 𝑘𝑉𝑝 × 𝑚𝐴𝑠 Kinetic Energy in motion
1
3 phase; 6 pulse = 1.35 × 𝑘𝑉𝑝 × 𝑚𝐴𝑠 KE=2 𝑚𝑣 2
3 phase; 12 pulse = 1.41 × 𝑘𝑉𝑝 × 𝑚𝐴𝑠 Law of conservation of energy
High frequency = 1.45 × 𝑘𝑉𝑝 × 𝑚𝐴𝑠 ✗ Created/destroyed
✓ Transformed
TYPES OF ENERGY Mass-energy equivalence
Electromagnetic Disturbance of electric and magnetic field travelling in a 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
speed of light
Potential Energy by virtue of position/ energy at rest Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ Law of conservation of matter
Nuclear Energy within the nucleus ✗ Created/destroyed
Thermal Energy in motion at molecular level ✓ Transformed
Temperature – measures thermal energy 3 fundamental properties of matter Mass vs. Weight
Thermometer – measures temperature 1. Mass Mass – quantity/ component itself
Calorie – unit of temperature; 1 calorie can raise the temperature of 1g of water 2. Energy equivalence Weight – mass under the influence of
to 1◦C 3. Electric charge gravity
◦C 0 ◦C 100 ◦C Earth = 9.8m/s2
◦F 32 ◦F 212 ◦F Moon = 1.6m/s2
K (SI) 273K 373 K
9 48𝑘𝑔 × 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 48𝑘𝑔 × 1.6𝑚/𝑠 2
F = (5 ×◦ 𝐶) + 32
𝑊𝐸 = 392𝑁 𝑊𝑀 = 64𝑁
5
C = (9) ×◦ 𝐹 − 32
K=◦ C + 273
FUNDAMENTAL FORCES OF NATURE 2. Dalton (1808) – hook and eye model
-39
Gravitational Graviton 10 Infinite Arranged elements by atomic mass
force Dmitri Mendeleev – periodic table of elements;
Electromagnetic Photon 1/137 Infinite arranged elements according to increasing
force atomic number
Nuclear force Gluon 1 Short Elements in the same GROUP (COLUMN)
Weak force W and Z◦ bosons 10-6 Short reacted the same; same valence electrons
Elements in the same PERIOD (ROW) have
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER same number of valence shells
Physical Properties
1. Solid
2. Liquid 3. Thomson (1890) – plum pudding model
3. Gas Pudding – uniform positive charges
Chemical properties Plum – negative charges
4. Rutherford (1911) – nuclear model
Pure
Mixture Compound Small dense positive center (nucleus)
substances
surrounded by a negative electron cloud
5. Bohr (1913) – miniature solar system
Homogenous Heterogenous Element Organic Non organic Electrons moved in prescribed orbits or energy levels
6. Arnold Sommerfeld – quantum model (shells + innershells s,p,d,f)

ATOM
A/tom – from atomos (greek) – indivisible
First described by Democritus

ATOMIC MODEL
1. Greek atom – atom is made up by 4 substances with 4 essences
4 substances:
1. Air
2. Fire 3 FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN ATOM
3. Earth Electron (1897) 9.31×10-31 0.000549 0.511 MEv -1
4. Water J.J. Thomson Est. 0
4 essences: Proton (1886) 1.673×10-27 1.00728 938.3 MEv +1
Eugene Goldstein Est. 1
1. Cold
Neutron (1932) 1.675×10-27 1.00867 939.6 MEv 0
2. Wet
James Chadwick Est. 1
3. Hot
4. Dry
 MATTER Electricity
LEPTONS # Protons = #Electrons
QUARKS Positive valence (less than 4e) – conductors; gives off electrons
Up Charm Top +2/3 Negative valence (more than 4e) – insulators; receives electrons
Down Strange Bottom -1/3 Semiconductor (exactly 4e)

Proton – 2 up quarks; 1 down quark Rationale – electrification = electrons moving through a path
2 2 −1 3 It is simpler to give off/receive “unti” na electrons rather than acquire/give off
+ + = =𝟏
3 3 3 3 “marami” na electrons.
Neutron – 1 up quark; 2 down quarks
−1 −1 2 −2 2
+ + = + =𝟎 3 CHEMICAL BONDS
3 3 3 3 3 1. Ionic – direct transfer of electrons
2. Covalent – sharing of electrons
ELECTRON BINDING ENERGY
3. Hydrogen – attraction between hydrogen atoms (weakest bond)
Closer to nucleus ↑ EBE
Farther to nucleus ↓ EBE
NUCLEUS – contains nucleons
Proton – T ½ = million years
Centripetal – center seeking
Neutron – T ½ = 12.8 mins
Centrifugal – flying out

NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY

Protons repel – distances GREATER than the nuclear diameter (10-10m)
Same charges (repel)
Protons remain – distances LESSER than the nuclear diameter (10-15m)
→ Negative-negative
→ Positive-positive
NUCLEAR ARRANGEMENTS
Different charges (attract)
Atomic # (Z) = protons
→ Positive-negative
Atomic mass # (A) = protons + neutrons
Neutral charges (no attraction)
Example:
OCTET RULE – 8 electrons in the outermost shell (stable configuration) 15P 30 17X 32
Z = 15 Z = 17
A = 30 A = 32
P = 15 P = 17
N = 15 N = 15
e = 15 e = 17
25Z 90 19Y 30
Z = 25 Z = 19
A = 90 A = 30
P = 25 P = 19
Positive valence (2e) Negative valence (6e) N = 65 N = 11
e = 25 e = 19
 RADIOACTIVITY – emission of excess energy or particles to reach stability
Z A N Unstable → Stable
isotoPe SAME D D Parent/ original nuclide → Daughter/resultant nuclide
Excited state → Ground state “lowest state”
isobAr D SAME D
isotoNe D D SAME
isomEr SAME SAME SAME Natural radioactivity Artificial radioactivity
3 families: Particle bombardment/
ISOTOPE → Uranium electromagnetic irradiation
→ Actinium
16X 31 16X 32 16X 33
→ Thorium
Z = 16 Z = 16 Z = 16
Same number of protons and neutrons = STABLE
A = 30 A = 31 A = 32
# Protons # Neutrons Stable
P = 16 P = 16 P = 16
Even Even 165
N = 14 N = 15 N = 16
Even Odd 57
ISOBARS
Odd Even 53
16X 30 17Y 30 18Z 30
Odd Odd 4
Z = 16 Z = 17 Z = 18
A = 30 A = 30 A = 30
DECAY MODES
P = 16 P = 17 P = 18
N = 14 N = 13 N = 12 BETA MINUS DECAY/NEGTIVE BETA DECAY/ NEGATRON EMISSION
ISOTONE Condition:
Negative beta decay
16X 31 17Y 32 18Z 33 → Neutron rich; proton poor
Negatron
Z = 16 Z = 17 Z = 18 Product:
Neutron rich
A = 31 A = 32 A = 33 → Negatron
Neutron → Proton
P = 16 P = 17 P = 18 → Change into new element
Nuclear reactor
N = 15 N = 15 N = 15
15X 60 16Y 60
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS (Dmitri Mendeleev) Z = 15 Z = 16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 A = 60 A = 60
1 A P = 15 + 1 P = 16
GROUP (COLUMN)

2 N = 45 – 1 N = 44
# OF VALENCE
ELECTRONS

3 C D 2X 21 3X 21
4 Z=2 Z=3
5 A = 21 A = 21
6 B P=2+1 P=3
7 N = 12 – 1 N = 11
PERIOD (ROW) # OF VALENCE SHELLS

A = 2Ve-; 1 shell B = 8Ve-; 6 shells

C = 2Ve-; 3 shells D = 4Ve-; 3 shells
BETA PLUS DECAY/ POSITIVE BETA DECAY/ POSITRON EMISSION
Condition: 17X 20 16Y 20
Positive beta decay → Proton rich; neutron poor Z = 16 Z = 16
Positron Product: A = 20 A = 20
Proton rich → Positron P = 17 - 1 P = 16
Proton → Neutron → Change into new element N=3+1 N=4
Cyclotron e- = 17 - 1 e- = 16
21X 30 20Y 30
16X 20 15Y 20 Z = 21 Z = 20
Z = 16 Z = 15 A = 30 A = 30
A = 20 A = 20 P = 21 - 1 P = 20
P = 16 - 1 P = 15 N=9 N = 10
N=4+1 N=5 e- = 21 e- = 20
25X 27 24Y 27
Z = 25 Z = 24 ALPHA DECAY
A = 27 A = 27 Conditions: Z> 82; A> 150
P = 25 - 1 P = 24 Product: alpha particle, helium
N=2+1 N=3
Uranium Thorium Radium
Z = 92 Z = 90 Z = 88
ELECTRON CAPTURE/ K-CAPTURE A = 312 - 4 A = 308 - 4 A = 304 - 4
P + e- = N P = 92 - 2 P = 90 - 2 P = 88 - 2
Condition: N = 220 - 2 N = 218 = 2 N = 216 - 2
→ Same as beta plus
Product: Radon Polonium Lead
→ CR Z = 86 Z = 84 Z = 82
A = 300 A = 296 A = 292
P = 86 - 2 P = 84 =2 P = 82
N = 214 - 2 N = 212 - 2 N = 210

GAMMA DECAY
Condition: excess energy
Product: gamma ray (10-12 s)
15X 30 15X 30
Z = 15 Z = 15
A = 30 A = 30
P = 15 P = 15
N = 15 N = 15
Transition to lower shell = CR E = 50keV E = 40keV
Transition to higher shell = heat Energy released – 10 keV
Tc99m – metastable Given: E = 3hrs; P = 6 hrs
Gamma emission – 10-9s Substitute: Cross multiply: Find common
T ½ >10-6s 1 1 1 1 1 denominator:
= + = 1 2
3 𝐵 6 6 𝐵
=
40keV 3 6
2 1 1
Internal conversion electron/ inverse − =
6 6 6 1
photoelectric effect
6
HALF-LIFE B = 6hrs
Biological – removed through excretion, urination, or perspiration
Physical – dependent on decay method ACTIVITY
Effective – biological and physical How much activity is required to reduce the nuclide to less than 1%
1 1 1 Activity Half-life Amount
= +
𝐸 𝐵 𝑃 1 0 100%
What is the effective half life of the nuclide w/ BT ½ of 2hrs and PT ½ of 3hrs?
2 I 50%
Given: B = 2hrs; P = 3hrs 3 II 25%
1 1 1
= + 4 III 12.5%
𝐸 2 3 5 IV 6.25%
6 V 3.125%
Substitute: Cross multiply: Find common 7 VI 1.5625%
1 1 1 1 5 denominator:
= + = 8 VII 0.78%
𝐸 2 3 𝐸 6 1 3
= Activity – number of half-life per unit of time
2 6
1 3 2 6 5𝐸 On 6am. 70mCi of Tc99m is present. Tc99m has a half-life of 6hrs. how many will
= + = 1 2 remain at 6pm?
𝐸 6 6 5 5
= Half-life Time Amount
3 6
0 6 am 70 mCi
E= 6/5 or 1.2 hrs 1 12 nn 35 mCi
2 6pm 17.5 mCi
Given: E = 2hrs; B = 5 hrs Given: T ½ = 3hrs
Substitute: Cross multiply: Find common Original amount = 50 mCi
1 1 1 3 1 denominator: Time = 12am – 3pm
= + = 1 5
2 5 𝑃 10 𝑃 Half-life Time Amount
=
2 10 0 12 am 50 mCi
5 2 1 3𝑃 10
− = = 1 3 am 25 mCi
10 10 𝑃 3 3 1 2
= 2 6 am 12.5 mCi
5 10 3 9 am 6.25 mCi
P = 3.33 hrs 4 12 pm 3.125 mCi
5 3 pm 1.56 mCi
UNITS FOR RADIOACTIVITY Radiation – energy exerted and transformed through matter
Curie = traditional Non-ionizing – excitation (Ex. Radiofrequency, microwave, infrared)
Bequerel = SI Ionizing – direct – w/charge; capable of releasing an electron
1 Curie = 3.7 × 1010 Bq/dps
Direct – proton, positron, electron
CONVERSION Indirect – x-ray, gamma ray, neutron
1. Given: 3.7 × 102 Bq __ Ci
1 𝐶𝑖 Particulate – w/ mass and charge
3.7 × 102 𝐵𝑞 ×
3 × 1010 𝐵𝑞 Proton Positron
3.7 × 102 𝐶𝑖 Electron Alpha particle
3 × 1010 Neutron Negatron
=𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑪𝒊
Electromagnetic – no mass, no charge, speed of light
2. Given: 3.7 × 1020 Bq __ mCi X-ray
1 𝐶𝑖 1 𝑚𝐶𝑖 Gamma ray
3.7 × 1020 𝐵𝑞 × ×
3.7 × 10 𝐵𝑞 1 × 103 𝐶𝑖
10

=𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝒎𝑪𝒊 Origin AMU Charge Ionization Energy

Beta particles Nucleus 0
→ Negatron -1 ↑ 0-7 MeV
3. Given: 3.7 × 1014 MBq __ nCi
→ Positron +1 cm 0-7 MeV
1 × 10−3 𝐵𝑞 1𝐶𝑖 1𝑛𝐶𝑖
3.7 × 1014 𝑚𝐵𝑞 × × × Alpha particle Nucleus 4 +2 ↑ 4-7 MeV
1𝐵𝑞 3.7 × 10 𝐵𝑞 1 × 10−9 𝐶𝑖
10
40,000
11
3.7 × 10 𝐶𝑖 ionpair/cm
3.7 × 101 X-ray Electron 0 0 ↓ 0-5 Mev
=𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒏𝑪𝒊 cloud
Gamma ray Nucleus 0 0 ↓ 0-5 MeV
4. Given: 1.7 × 1014 Ci __ mBq
3.7 × 1010 𝐵𝑞 1𝑚𝐵𝑞
1.7 × 1014 𝐶𝑖 × ×
1𝐶𝑖 1 × 106 𝐵𝑞
12 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
6.29 × 10
1540 (speed of ultrasound in soft tissue)
1 × 106
=𝟔. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝑩𝒒 Electromagnetic/wave-particle duality – behaves as a wave or as a particle

5. Given: 1 × 108 nCi __ mBq

1 × 10−9 𝐶𝑖 3.7 × 1010 𝐶𝑖 1 𝑚𝐵𝑞
1 × 108 𝑛𝐶𝑖 × × ×
1 𝑛𝐶𝑖 1 𝐶𝑖 1 × 10−3 𝐵𝑞
3.7 × 109
3.7 × 10−3
=𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝑩𝒒
WAVE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Longitudinal – motion of particles is parallel to the direction of the waves Wavelength Energy Frequency
Propagation Ex. Ultrasound Gamma-ray
Transverse – motion of the particle is perpendicular to the direction of wave X-ray
propagation Ex. EMR

PROPERTIES
Amplitude – distance from the equilibrium to the trough
Wavelength (meter or Angstrom) – distance from crest to crest or through to
UV light
Visible light
Infrared light
Microwave
Radiofrequency
↓↑↑
Bundle of energy – quanta/quantum
trough; meter/cycle
Angstrom = 10-10 E = hf or E=hc/λ
Frequency (Hz) = number of rise and fall (cycles)/sec
h = 6.6252×10-34J
4.15×10-15 eVs
4.15×10-18 eVs

Ex. What is the frequency?

A. E = 56 keV
56 × 100 (4.15 × 10−18 )𝑓
=
4.15 × 10−18 4.15 × 10−18
18
= 13.49 × 10 = 𝑓
= 13.49 × 101 × 1018 = 𝑓
= 𝟏. 𝟑𝟒𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗
Velocity – speed of wave propagation
𝑐 = 3 × 108 B. E = 74 J
186, 000 m/s 74 (6.6252 × 10−34 )𝑓
=
6.6252 × 10−34 6.6252 × 10−34
0
V = frequency × wavelength 74 × 10
V=fx 6.6252 × 10−34
= 11.17 × 1034 = 𝑓
What is the frequency? = 11.17 × 101 × 1034 = 𝑓
Given: 3x10-12 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟓
𝑣
𝑓=
𝜆 C. E = 64eV
3 × 108 64 (4.15 × 10−15 )𝑓
𝑓= =
3 × 10−12 4.15 × 10−15 4.15 × 10−15
= 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝑯𝒛 64 × 100

4.15 × 10−15
= 15.42 × 1034 = 𝑓
= 15.42 × 101 × 1034 = 𝑓 Transmission – image forming x-rays, exit beam, remnant beam
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝟒𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟓
ATOMIC # 5 INTERACTIONS WITH MATTER
X-ray energy Approx. energy Uses Iodine 53 1. CLASSICAL/UNMODIFIED/COHERENT
Bone 13.8
Diffraction (less than) <10 kVp Research a. Thomson
Air 7.6
Grenz 10 – 20 kVp Dermatology b. Rayleigh
Lung 7.4
Superficial 50 – 100 kVp Therapy; superficial 2. COMPTON/ MODIFIED/ ELASTIC/ PARTIAL
Soft tissue 7.4
Diagnostic 30 – 150 kVp Anatomic images Muscle 7.4 ABSORPTION
Orthovoltage 200 – 300 kVp Fat 6.3 3. PHOTOELECTRIC
Deep lying tissues
Supervoltage 300 – 1000 kVp 4. PAIR PRODUCTION (1.02MeV)
Megavoltage (more than) >1MV Industrial (ex. holes in 5. PHOTODISINTEGRATION
ships)
RADPHYSICS 2
CONVERSION
X-RAY PRODUCTION
CONVERSION OF SIMILAR UNITS
1. Anode heat – from multiple excitation of outer shell electrons; release of
SOLVED THROUGH =
infrared (98-99% heat)
+ ADDITION (going to the left);
2. Characteristic x-ray – innershell electron removed, electron
- SUBTRACTION (going to the RIGHT)
transition/cascading effect, discrete
1. 200mSv__μSv
(TUNGSTEN TARGET = 15% at >69.53keV, 0% below)
mSV (10-3) + (10-3) = (10-6) μSv
3. Bremsstrahlung – breaking/slowing down, nuclear feild interaction,
10-3 is added to get 10-6 decimal point going to the right
continuous spctrum
200.000
Interaction closer to the nucleus ↑ energy produced
= 200,000 μSv
Interaction farther from the nucleus ↓ energy produced
2. .005Mrad__rad
Mrad (106) - (106) = (10-0) rad
X-RAY INTERACTION WITH MATTER
106 is subtracted to get 100 decimal point going to the left
Attenuation – decrease of radiation as it passes through a material
.005000
1. Absorption – total transfer of energy
= 5000 rad
a. Chemical changes (film)
CONVERSION OF DIFFERENT UNITS
b. Electrical changes CONVERSION TABLE SOLVED THROUGH
c. Biological changes (living tissue)
NEW → OLD (DIVIDE)
2. Scatter NEW(D) FACTOR (M)OLD
OLD → NEW (MULTIPLY)
a. Grazing hit
C/kg R
b. Direct/backscatter 0.01
Gya Ex.
c. 90◦ scatter
5mSv__rem
Factors of attenuation: (MATE) Gyt 0.01 rad
Mass density Thickness
Sv 0.01 rem Step 1. convert different units: NEW → OLD (DIVIDE)
Atomic # Energy
5mrad/0.01 = 2.5mGyt
Bq 0.01 Ci
Step 2. convert exponents Negative Positive
mrem (10-3) + (103) = (100) rem Arsenic Indium
103 is added to get 100 decimal point going to the left Phosphorus Gallium
0.0025Gyt Antimony Aluminum
= 0.0025Gyt
Conduction process:
ELECTRIC CLASSIFICATION 1. Electrons always flow from negative to positive
Valence electrons Example 2. Electrons are attracted to “hole”; travel to positive
Conductor -4 Metals 3. Electron will fill the hole
+Valence 4. Movement is from negative to positive only
Insulator +4 Rubber
- Valence Induction process:
Semiconductor =4 Silicon 1. Pag na “fill” ang hole hindi na papakawalang ng p-junction kasi complete na
Superconductor Need cryogen Niobium-titanium P-N junction – also called “diode tube” or “rectfier”

Conductors – allows the flow of electrons (metals) ELECTROSTATIC LAWS

Insulators – inhibit electron flow 1. Like charges repel; unlike charges attract
Voltage – nagpapatulak/nagpapatakbo sa electrons 2. Coulombs law – electrostatic charge and distance
Superconductor – allowselectron flow even without voltage 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=𝑘 2
Condition: temperature is below freezing point 𝑑
Cryogenic material: 3. Electric charges in a conductor is uniformly distributed
Liquid hydrogen – 20K freezing point Walang mataas; walng mababa
Liquid helium – 4K freezing point 4. Charges are concentrated along the sharpes curvature
Semiconductor – paano naging conductor/insulator? Can cause problems due to heat

LAWS OF RESISTANCE
Resistance – hindrance to flow of electrons
Factors affectomg resostamce
1. Law of length (↑length ↑resistance)
2. Law of diameter (↓diameter2 ↑resistance)
3. Law of nature of material - Lahat ng conductor nagooffer ng resistance
4. Law of temperature (↑ temperature ↑resistance)

OHMS LAW
N-type – impurity carries excess P-type – impurity produces serIes paraVel
electron holes/butas Constant = current (I) Constant = voltage (V)
IT = I1 = I2= I3 VT = V1 = V2 = V3
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 IT = I1 + I2 + I3
1
RT = R 1 + R2 + R 3 /RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
 TRANSFORMER LAW
January 29, 1896 – Radioactivity applied in radiotherapy (curie therapy)
1st treated breast CA
July 1898 – polonium
December 1898 – radium

Hittorf-Geissler Crookes
High vaccum tube
Ex. 3 resistors of 3Ω, 6 Ω, 9 Ω are connected in series, determine the values if Max voltage 50kV
the voltage is 220V
SERIES Stationary anode
A. Total resistance D. Voltage across R2 Fixed anode
RT = R 1 + R2 + R 3 V = IR ↓Expansion coefficient
=3 Ω + 6 Ω + 9 Ω = 18 = 12.22×6 = 73.32 ↑Heat capacity
RT = 18 Ω =73.32 V
B. Total current E. Voltage across R3 CATHODE
I = v/R V = IR 1. Filament (Thoriated tungsten)
=220/18 = 12.22 = 12.22×9 = 109.98
Tungsten (98-99%) – high melting point; high atomic number, efficient for
I = 12.22 A =109.98 V
thermionic emission
C. Voltage across R1
V = IR Thorium (1-2%) – prolongs tube life; increase efficiency of thermionic
= 12.22×3 = 36.66 emission
=36.66 V 2. Focusing cup (Nickel -)
Negative to concentrate the electrons
Electrostatic – not moving, no energy
PARALLEL
A. Total resistance C. Current across R1 ANODE
1
/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 I = v/R 1. Target (Tungsten alloy: tungsten + rhenium)
=1/3Ω + 1/6Ω + 1/9Ω = 1.64 =220/3 = 73.33 2. Anode stem (Molybdenum)
=1/3Ω = 0.33 =73.33 A 3. Rotor (Copper + soft iron)
=1/6Ω = 0.17 D. Current across R2 4. Stator (coil of wire)
=1/9Ω = 0.11 I = v/R
RT = 1.64 Ω =220/6 = 36.67 GRID CONTROLLED X-RAY TUBES
B. Total current I = 36.67 A 3 electrodes
I = v/R E. Current across R3
Cathode
=220/1.6 = 134.14 I = v/R
Anode
=132.14 A =220/9 = 24.44
I = 24.44 A Focusing cup = given its own circuit
Grid = serves as the switch X-RAY CIRCUIT
Focusing cup – turn on and off the exposure in a very rapid way
Used in angiography and fluoroscopy PRIMARY CIRCUIT

TURNS RATIO
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝐼𝑝 > 1 step-up transformer
= =
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝐼𝑠 <1 step-down transformer Power Supply 220V
Operates by mutual induction w/ 2 windings: and 60Hz
primary and secondary

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Autotransformer ↑

Any charged particle in motion induces magnetic and ↓ Voltage and SECONDARY CIRCUIT
Current
field.
Motor: electricity → motion
Hans Oersted = electricity + magnetism = motion
Michael Faraday = magnetism + motion = electricity High Voltage Circuit Filament Circuit

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Induction = produce/create
Constant ang pag ikot ng magnetism Supply energy to
electrons to Thermionic emission
bombard the target
STEP-UP AND STEP-DOWN
Depends of # of turns
# of turns is directly proportional to voltage; but inversely proportional to
current High Voltage Low Voltage

AUTOTRANSFORMER
↑ and ↓ voltage pero unti lang
Operates by self-induction: only 1 winding Low current High current
Increase voltage wide gap in taps
Decrease voltage narrow gap in taps
Limitation – maliit lang pwede iadjust na voltage Types of transformer according to construction
1. Autotransformer
Same number of turns – isolation transformer 2. Closed core – laminated layers of iron
3. Shell type – confines even more of the magnet field lines because
secondary is wrapped around primary winding
POWER LOSSES Full-wave rectification – negative half of the cycle is reversed. Negative is
1. Copper loss – energy loss in the transformer due to the resistance of the coil converted to positive
(copper), heat is produced when current flows through the resistance. Heat Resultant current = No gaps in output waveform, 2 pulses per cycle (4 rectifiers)
produced will result in energy loss 1 sec = 120 pulses (2 pulse per cycle; 120 pulses per second)
Solution: use larger diameter of copper
2. Eddy current loss – all metals produce resistance; the current opposed the Positive half-cycle
magnetic field that induced it
Solution: laminate the core
3. Hysteresis loss – nag overlap due to alternating current; produces magnetic
field

RECTIFICATION
Process that converts AC → DC
X-ray tube (self-rectifier) allows electrons to move in 1 direction
(negative → positive)
Once converted to x-ray di na babalik because NO CHARGE na
Negative half-cycle
SINGLE PHASE

Half-wave rectification – inverse voltage is removed; negative portion of the

cycle is blocked, rectifier does not conduct, no electric current is allowed.
Resultant current = positive pulses separated by gaps (2-rectifiers)
1 sec = 60 pulses (1 pulse per cycle; 60 pulses per second)
THREE PHASE HIGH-FREQUENCY
Multiple voltages are superimposed (3 simultaneous waves) Uses inverter circuits – high speed switches that convert DC into a series of
square pulses

Three Phase, Six pulse Generator Voltage ripple

RIPPLE FACTOR
Six pulses are generated per 1/60 second (6-rectifiers) Half-wave 100%
↓Ripple factor
1 sec = 360 pulses (6 pulse per cycle; 360 pulses per second) 100 max
↑X-ray quality and quantity
-100 min
Three Phase, Twelve pulse Full wave 100%
HEAT UNITS
Twelve pulses are generated per 1 100 max
1 full wave
Twelve pulses are generated per 1/60 second (12-rectifiers) 0 min
1.35 3 phase 6 pulse
1 sec = 720 pulses (12 pulse per cycle; 720 pulses per second) 3 phase 6 pulse 14%
1.41 3 phase 12 pulse 100 max
1.45 High frequency 86 min
Timer Accuracy
Ex. 1 pulse = 1 dot 3 phase 12 pulse 4%
Formula: 100 max
How many number of dots can be seen in a radiograph with the following
𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 × 𝑘𝑉𝑝 × 𝑚𝐴𝑠 96 min
technical factors: 80kVp, 200mA, 100msec using a 3 phase, 6 pulse generator?
Ex. Determine the total heat unit High-frequency 1%
1𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 360 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠
360 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠
generated in 5 skull radiographs with the 100max
. 100 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 following radiographic technique selection 99 min
0.1 × 360 = 𝟑𝟔 𝒅𝒐𝒕𝒔 70kVp, 200mA, 200msec, 40in distance

Full wave generator used as default for questions (if no specific generator is 1 × 70 × 200 × .2
mentioned) = 2,800 × 5
1𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 120 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝟏𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑯𝑼 𝒐𝒓 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒄
120 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠
. 100 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.1 × 360 = 𝟏𝟐 𝒅𝒐𝒕𝒔

To check for timer accuracy in three phase and high frequency generators a
solid-state radiation detector connected to an oscilloscope is used.