Composite Structures 88 (2009) 595–601

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Tension behavior of unidirectional glass/epoxy composites under

different strain rates
Mahmood M. Shokrieh *, Majid Jamal Omidi
Composites Research Laboratory, Mechanical Engineering Department, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran 16846-13114, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: By considering wide applications of composite materials, having a proper knowledge of them under
Available online 22 June 2008 dynamic loading is necessary. In order to study the effects of strain rates on the behavior of the materials,
special testing machines are needed. Most of the research in this field is focused on applying real loading
Keywords: and gripping boundary conditions on the testing specimens. In this study, behavior of unidirectional glass
Polymeric composites fiber reinforced polymeric composites under uni-axial loading is determined at quasi-static and interme-
Strain rate effects diate strain rates of 0.001–100 s1. The tests were performed using a servo-hydraulic testing apparatus
Stress–strain curve
equipped with a strain rate increase mechanism. For performing the tests, a jig and a fixture are designed
Tensile properties
Dynamic loading
and manufactured. The performance of the test jig was evaluated and found to be adequate for testing of
composites. Dynamic tests results are compared with the results of static tensile tests carried out on
specimens with identical geometry. Experimental results show a significant increase of the tensile
strength by increasing the strain rate. The tensile modulus and strain to failure are also observed to
increase slightly by increasing the strain rate.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Composite materials can provide significant functional and eco-
nomic benefits, ranging from increased strength and durability fea-
tures to weight reduction. However, the mechanical responses of
fiber-reinforced polymeric composites are sensitive to the rate at
which they are loading. In many technological applications, under
dynamic loading conditions, the response of a structure designed
with static properties might be too conservative. The main reason
is that mechanical properties of composites vary significantly with
changing the strain rate. Unlike metals, which have been studied
extensively over a wide range of strain rates, only limited amount
of information is available on the effects of strain rate on the re-
sponse of fibrous composites.
The above argument results the need for dynamic characteriza-
tion of composite materials to understand the strain rate effects on
their mechanical properties. Davies and Magee [1,2] studied the ef-
fect of strain rates from 103 to 103 s1 on the ultimate tensile
strength of glass/polyester composites. They reported the glass/
polyester composites to be rate sensitive with the magnitude of
the ultimate tensile strength increasing by 55% over the strain rate
change. Rotem and Lifshitz [3] investigated the tensile behavior of
unidirectional glass fiber/epoxy composites over a wide range of
strain rates from 106 to 30 s1 and found that the dynamic
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Shokrieh@iust.ac.ir (M.M. Shokrieh).
strength is three times higher than the static strength and the dy-
namic modulus is 50% higher than the static modulus. However,
while investigating angle ply glass/epoxy laminates, Lifshitz [4]
found that the elastic modulus and failure strain were independent
on the strain rate and the dynamic failure stress was only 20–30%
higher than the static failure stress. The dependence of the trans-
verse tensile properties on strain rate of a high performance carbon
fiber/epoxy composite loaded in transverse tension was investi-
gated by Melin and Asp [5]. Dog-bone shape specimens were
tested under quasi-static and dynamic loading conditions (103–
103 s1). The average transverse modulus was observed to be inde-
pendent of strain rate while the initial transverse modulus was
found to decrease slightly with increased strain rate. The strain
and stress at failure were found to increase slightly with increased
strain rate. Thus, when loaded in the transverse direction it was
concluded that the carbon/epoxy composite exhibited a weak
dependence on strain rate.
Tensile tests were performed on a glass/epoxy laminate at differ-
ent rates (1.7  102–2000 mm/s) by Okoli and Smith [6,7] to
determine the effects of strain rate on Poisson’s ratio of the mate-
rial. Poisson’s ratio was found to be rate insensitive. It was sug-
gested that the rate insensitivity of Poisson’s ratio of the
laminates tested is due to the presence of fiber in the composites.
In other studies the effects of rate sensitive in the range of speeds
from 0.008 mm/s to 4 m/s on the tensile, shear, and flexural proper-
ties of glass/epoxy laminate were investigated by Okoli and Smith
[6,8]. The above observation was in agreement with the results of

0263-8223/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2008.06.012
596 M.M. Shokrieh, M.J. Omidi / Composite Structures 88 (2009) 595–601
the investigation conducted by Armenakas and Sciamarella [9] at
various rates of strain (0.0265–30,000 min1), that suggested a lin-
ear variation of the tensile modulus of elasticity of unidirectional
glass/epoxy composites with the log of strain rate. However, the
ultimate tensile strain and stress of the composite decreased with
the increase in strain rate. An increase in tensile, shear, and flexural
energy of 17%, 5.9%, and 8.5%, respectively, per decade of increase in
the log of strain rate was observed [8]. The study indicated that
there is a change in failure modes as strain rate is increased.
A systematic study of the strain rate effects on the mechanical
behavior of glass/epoxy angle ply laminates was done by Staab
and Gilat [10,11] using a direction tension split Hopkinson bar
apparatus for the high strain rate tests (approximately 103 s1)
and a servo hydraulic testing machine for the quasi-static tests
(approximately 105 s1). The tensile tests at higher strain rates
(in the order of 1000 s1) showed a marked increase in the maxi-
mum normal stress and strain when compared to the values ob-
tained in the quasi-static tests. Although both fibers and matrix
are strain rate sensitive, the fibers were thought to influence lam-
inate rate sensitivity more than the matrix. Harding and Welsh val-
idated a dynamic tensile technique by performing tests (over the
range 104 to 1000 s1) on carbon/epoxy, glass/epoxy, glass/poly-
ester, carbon/polyester, and Kevlar/polyester composites [12,13].
The modulus, failure stress, and failure mode of the carbon/epoxy
composite were found to be strain rate insensitive. The dynamic
modulus and strength for the glass/epoxy composite were about
twice the static value. Daniel et al. [14] investigated the dynamic
tension response of unidirectional carbon/epoxy composites at
high strain rates using an internal pressure pulse produced explo-
sively through a liquid medium. In the test method used for dy-
namic testing of thin laminates in tension, a carbon/epoxy
laminate was characterized under longitudinal, transverse, and
in-plane shear loading at strain rates up to 500 s1. In the longitu-
dinal direction the modulus increased moderately with strain rate
(up to 20% over the static value) but the strength and ultimate
strain did not vary significantly. The modulus and strength in-
creased sharply over static values in the transverse direction but
the ultimate strain only increased slightly. There was also a 30% in-
crease in the in-plane shear modulus and strength.
The tensile mechanical behavior of a short carbon fiber filled li-
quid crystalline polymer (LCP) composites (30% fiber weight),
Vectra A230, was examined under static loading (102 s1) and
dynamic loading (400 s1) by Shim et al. [15]. A pendulum-type
tensile split Hopkinson bar device was used to apply dynamic ten-
sion. The fracture strain and Young’s modulus of the composite
were found to be noticeably influenced by changes in the strain rate.
Experimental studies on the effects of strain rate from 3  105 to
8  103 s1 on the tensile properties of glass bead/HDPE (high den-
sity polyethylene) composites were conducted by Bai et al. [16].
Both Young’s modulus and the tensile strength of the glass bead/
HDPE composite were found to increase with strain rate.
Hayes and Adams [17] constructed a specialized pendulum
impactor to investigate the strain rate effects on the tensile proper-
ties of unidirectional glass/epoxy and carbon/epoxy composites.
The modulus and strength of the glass/epoxy composites were con-
cluded to be rate insensitive at impact speeds in the range of 2.7–
4.9 m/s. However, the modulus and strength of the graphite/epoxy
composites decreased with increasing impact speeds. Daniel and
Liber [18,19] attempted to characterize the effect of strain rate on
the mechanical properties of unidirectional boron/epoxy, S-glass/
epoxy, carbon/epoxy, and Kevlar/epoxy composites. While the
Kevlar/epoxy composite showed a 20% increase in tensile modulus
and failure strength in the fiber direction with increasing tensile
strain rate from 104 to 27 s1, the tensile modulus and failure
strength of the boron/epoxy, S-glass/epoxy, and carbon/epoxy com-
posites were found be rate insensitive. The increase in modulus and
failure strength of the Kevlar/epoxy composite was 40% and 60%,
respectively, during transverse and shear (off-axis) loadings.
Daniel et al. [20] and Chamis and Smith [21] studied the
mechanical behavior of unidirectional carbon/epoxy laminates at
strain rates up to 500 s1. The tensile strength in the fiber direction
was the same in static and dynamic cases, confirming previous re-
sults of Daniel and Liber [18,19]. The results also showed an in-
crease in the transverse tensile properties and shear properties
with increasing loading rate.
Kawata et al. [22,23] studied a large range of composite materi-
als under tension from 103 to 2000 s1. The materials included
glass/polyester, glass/epoxy, graphite/epoxy, and graphite short fi-
ber-reinforced nylon 6,6. For the glass/epoxy and glass/polyester
composites the strength clearly increased with the strain rate
which was not the case for the graphite/epoxy and graphite/nylon
6,6 and the injection-molded specimens. This study led to the con-
clusion that glass fiber-reinforced plastic has a higher impact
absorption capacity than carbon fiber-reinforced plastics. Chiem
and Liu [24] investigated the dynamic behavior of woven carbon/
epoxy composites under tensile and shear impact loadings in the
orthogonal direction using the tensile and torsional split Hopkin-
son bars at various strain rates, ranging from 500 to 3000 s1.
The experimental results indicated an increase in both the tensile
and the shear strengths with increasing strain rate.
The influence of strain rate from 0.1 to 10 s1 on the tensile
properties of glass/phenolic resin and glass/polyester resin com-
posites was studied by Barre et al. [25]. The elastic modulus and
strength were found to increase with strain rate. Peterson et al.
[26] studied the tensile response of chopped glass fiber-reinforced
styrene/maleic anhydride (S/MA) materials in the range of 103 to
10 s1 and observed a 50–70% increase in the elastic modulus and
strength with increase in strain rate.
The tensile behavior of carbon/epoxy composites was investi-
gated by Gilat et al. [27], using a hydraulic testing machine for the
quasi-static and intermediate tests and a tension split Hopkinson
bar apparatus for the high strain rate tests. Tensile tests were per-
formed at strain rates ranging from 105 to 650 s1 for fiber orienta-
tions of 90°, 10°, 45° and [±45°]s. In all of the configurations tested, a
significant increase in the stiffness was observed with increased
strain rate. A slightly increase in the maximum stress with increased
strain rate was observed in the tests with layups of 90° and 10° while
a more significant effect of the strain rate on the maximum stress
was found in the tests with layups of 45° and [±45°]s. Also, the max-
imum strain at all strain rates in the tests with the [±45°]s layups is
much larger than in all the other types of configurations.
The aim of this research is to investigate the behavior of unidi-
rectional glass/epoxy composite materials at quasi-static and dy-
namic strain rates. Dynamic properties of lamina are extracted
from the results of tensile tests on tabbed rectangular section spec-
imens under low and high-speed loadings. A servo-hydraulic test-
ing apparatus is used to develop the quasi-static strain rate of
approximately 0.001 s1 and intermediate strain rates ranging
from 1 to 100 s1. Specimens with identical geometry are used in
all the tests. The results of the dynamic tests were subsequently
compared with quasi-static tests. Effects of the strain rates on the
magnitudes of tensile strength have been observed. Also, the exper-
imental results show that the tensile modulus and strain to failure
of the composites slightly increase with increase of strain rate.
2. Materials, equipment and experimental procedure
2.1. Materials and preparation of test specimens
Unidirectional glass fiber-reinforced epoxy was studied in this
paper. For this reason, thin laminate composed of five plies of
reinforcement with epoxy resin ML-506 were fabricated, giving a
 M.M. Shokrieh, M.J. Omidi / Composite Structures 88 (2009) 595–601
Fiber in tension specimens
90°
0°
Tabs: x
Fig. 1. Geometry and dimensions of composite specimens under tensile loading.
laminate approximately 1 mm in thickness. Unidirectional tensile
specimens were cut in the fiber direction from laminates. Woven
glass/epoxy tabs 2.5 mm thick and 35 mm long with tapered ends
were locally bonded on each side of the specimens. These tabs al-
low a smooth load transfer from the grip to the specimen. Tabs can
reduce stress concentration and thus the shock wave stress effects.
All specimens had a constant cross section with tabs bonded to the
ends. The geometry of the specimen is shown in Fig. 1. The gauge
lengths of the composite specimens were 12.7 mm. The fiber vol-
ume fraction of the composites was 50%. Fig. 2 illustrates the pre-
pared typical test sample for the tensile tests.
2.2. Testing machine
Various test methods have different advantages and limitations
and must be chosen appropriately to produce good and compara-
ble results. Generally, the split Hopkinson bar apparatus, first
introduced by Kolsky [28], was widely used to investigate the dy-
namic behavior of materials in the strain rate range between 200
and 104 s1 depending on the gauge length of specimens. There-
fore, the results of the split Hopkinson bar test have a limited
applicability for the material characterization during intermediate
dynamic loading.
In the present study, the effects of strain rate on properties of
unidirectional glass fiber epoxy composites in the range of
0.001–100 s1 were investigated using a servo-hydraulic testing
apparatus. By this machine, test speed can be reached in a cross-
head speed ranging from 0.001 to 2000 mm/s. This range of veloc-
ity corresponded approximately to a range of nominal strain rate
from 8  105 to 160 s1 based on the gauge length of specimens
in this research. Loads were measured by means of a load cell that
mounted on the servo-hydraulic testing apparatus. The corre-
sponding true strains and strain rates were measured by means
of strain gauges directly bonded on the central zone of specimens
(Fig. 3). Also, strain rates are measured based on the responses ob-
tained from strain gauges. Also, the machine was equipped with
necessary hardware and software for controlling and data acquisi-
tion by means of a computer. All specimens were loaded in an elec-
tro hydraulic loading system. At least five samples per cross-head
velocity were tested for each range of loading rate.
For performing the tensile tests, a jig and a fixture are designed
and manufactured, which could insure alignment of axial loads on
the specimens. The assembled and disassembled jig are shown in
Fig. 4. This jig is designed, so that it is capable of applying static
and dynamic loads. The columns of the jig were properly lubricated
with grease and the frictional loads were calibrated. Mounting and
dismounting of the specimens are very simple. For connection be-
Fig. 2. Typical tensile test specimen.
597
Dimensions (mm):
U-D Woven L1 =12.7
Glass/Epoxy Glass/Epoxy Tab L2 =12
T L3 =23
t
W =12.7
W t =1.0
L1 L2 L3 T =6
Fig. 3. Untested specimen.
tween jig and servo-hydraulic jack an accurate adapter is designed
and manufactured. In Fig. 5, experimental devices used for tensile
tests by a servo-hydraulic apparatus is shown.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Stress–strain relation
Tensile test were conducted on five cross-head stroke rates of
0.0216, 12.7, 127, 635 and 1270 mm/s on glass/epoxy composite
specimens. These stroke rates applied nominal strain rates of
0.0017, 1, 10, 50 and 100 s1 on the specimens. The nominal strain
rates are calculated by dividing of the stroke rate of the cross-head
of the machine by the gauge length of the specimen. The corre-
sponding true strain rates are measured by using strain gauges di-
rectly mounted on the specimens. It is obvious that the true strain
is different from the nominal strain. This difference could be attrib-
uted to the inertial effects of the gripping device shown in Fig. 5.
Therefore, the true strain data is selected for the calculation of
the strain rates. Fig. 6 shows the typical result of strain versus time
in the central zone of the specimen under the stroke rate of
635 mm/s (46 s1).
The stress–strain curves of the tested composites under differ-
ent strain rates are presented in Fig. 7. As shown, the material
shows a load rate dependency. On the other hand, for tensile tests
performed at highest strain rates, it has been observed that dam-
age later in terms of strain level. Nonlinearities are also observed
for the stress–strain curves with increased strain rate.
3.2. Tensile mechanical properties
The extracted data for both quasi-static and dynamic tests are
summarized in Table 1, which gives tensile strength, modulus,
strain to failure, absorbed fracture energy, and the average magni-
tudes. To determine the stiffness (slop of stress–strain curve), lin-
ear portion of the curve was fitted with a linear curve. Also, the
absorbed energy was directly calculated by integrating the
stress–strain curves numerically up to fracture point. So, the
amount of absorbed energy that is identical to the area under the
curve was extracted by using a midpoint Riemann Summation
method [29]. Fig. 8 typically illustrates the absorbed energy at
strain rate of 46 s1.
Tensile properties given in Table 1 are plotted versus logarithms
of true strain rate in Figs. 9–12. Strain rate effects on these proper-
ties can be assessed using a regression function defined by:
598 M.M. Shokrieh, M.J. Omidi / Composite Structures 88 (2009) 595–601

Fig. 4. The assembled and disassembled fixture for tensile tests.

1250

85 s-1
1125

1000 46 s-1
Servo-hydraulic
jack 875
Adapter
5.6 s-1
Load cell 750
Fixture
Stress, MPa
625 0.55 s-1
Stand
500

375 0.0017 s-1

250
Fig. 5. Experimental set-up used for high-speed tensile tests.

125
0.025
0
0.02 0 0.006 0.012 0.018 0.024 0.03 0.036
Strain, mm/mm

Strain, mm/mm
0.015
Fig. 7. Typical stress–strain tensile behavior of glass/epoxy composites under
0.01 various strain rates.

0.005
(up to 10%). Finally, strain rate dependence of the absorbed frac-
0 ture energy is shown in Fig. 12. It is apparent that the absorbed en-
0.E+00 1.E-04 2.E-04 3.E-04 4.E-04 5.E-04 6.E-04 ergy increases significantly by increasing the strain rate. This
Time, sec
increase in energy absorption is beneficial for structures under
Fig. 6. Strain versus time obtained for the specimen at the strain rate of 46 s1. high-speed loadings.

3.3. Tensile fracture behavior

Mð_eÞ ¼ a þ b_ec ;
where, M and e_ are the mechanical property and strain rate, respec-
tively. Also, a, b and c are the material constants. The values for a, b,
c and R (the correlation coefficient) are given in Table 2. The ob-
tained regression lines are also plotted in the figures.
The effect of strain rate on the tensile strength of composites is
shown in Fig. 9. The extracted longitudinal lamina strength re-
sponse tends to significant increase with increasing the strain rate.
The increase was 52% at the highest rate (85 s1). Also, the effect of
strain rate on the tensile modulus is shown in Fig. 10. The stiffness
of glass/epoxy tends to slightly increase as strain rate increased (up
to 12%). Moreover, the effect of strain rate on the strain to failure is
shown in Fig. 11. Like the tensile modulus, the strain to failure
shows a tendency to slightly increase with increased strain rate
Failure regions of the composite specimens at different cross-
head stroke rates are shown in Fig. 13. From the visual inspection
a marked change could be observed in the fracture surface at the
lowest and highest cross-head rates. At quasi-static rate, Fig. 13a,
damage was limited to the small regions of the fracture surface
with fiber pull-out while at increasing rates, Fig. 13b–e, the damage
was found to extend further from the fracture surface, passing
through the strain gauges in the central region of the specimen,
with more fiber pull-out. On the other hand, with increasing strain
rate, fracture path covered the entire gauge region.
An extensive debonding of fibers from the matrix over a consid-
erable distance to either side of the fracture surface with increasing
strain rate in comparison with quasi-static strain rate was
observed.
 M.M. Shokrieh, M.J. Omidi / Composite Structures 88 (2009) 595–601 599

Table 1
Quasi-static and dynamic properties of composites under various strain rates

Average strain rate Tensile strength, MPa Elastic modulus, GPa

1 1 1 1 1
0.0017 s 0.55 s 5.6 s 46 s 85 s 0.0017 s1 0.55 s1 5.6 s1 46 s1 85 s1
Sample1 784.5 788.3 849.0 1014.6 1194.9 37.40 38.43 39.48 40.08 41.78
Sample2 780.7 791.7 842.4 994.8 1184.4 37.08 38.45 39.17 39.51 41.57
Sample3 785.7 785.8 833.5 1015.7 1180.0 37.28 38.72 38.71 39.89 41.68
Sample4 784.2 798.5 830.1 1043.4 1176.8 37.41 38.61 39.32 39.70 41.70
Sample5 781.1 780.7 828.7 973.3 1198.1 37.11 38.45 38.93 39.60 41.59
Average 783.24 789.0 836.74 1008.36 1186.84 37.256 38.532 39.122 39.756 41.664
Strain to failure, mm/mm Absorbed energy, MJ/m3
Sample1 0.0217 0.0220 0.0223 0.0226 0.0239 8.88 8.98 9.71 11.12 13.31
Sample2 0.0213 0.0221 0.0222 0.0224 0.0233 8.26 9.00 9.65 11.01 12.87
Sample3 0.0215 0.0220 0.0218 0.0226 0.0236 8.42 8.83 9.34 11.09 12.96
Sample4 0.0215 0.0219 0.0219 0.0224 0.0233 8.64 8.87 9.27 11.13 13.08
Sample5 0.0214 0.0220 0.0223 0.0227 0.0239 8.40 9.01 9.60 10.89 13.01
Average 0.02148 0.0220 0.0221 0.02254 0.0236 8.520 8.938 9.514 11.048 13.046

An Approximation of the integral of under the stress-strain

curve using a Midpoint Riemann Sum 0.026

1200 Approximate Value: 11.00625582, MJ/m 3

Failure Strain, mm/mm

0.024
1000
Stress, MPa

800 0.022
600
400 0.02
200
0 0.018
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Strain, mm/mm 0.016
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Fig. 8. A typical absorbed energy by integrating the area under the stress–strain Strain Rate, s-1
curve at 46 s1.
Fig. 11. Effect of strain rate on the strain to failure of GFRP.
1400

16
Tensile Strength, MPa

1200
Absorbed Energy, MJ/m3

13
1000

10
800

7
600
4
400
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1
Strain Rate, s-1 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Fig. 9. Effect of strain rate on the tensile strength of GFRP. Strain Rate, s-1

Fig. 12. Effect of strain rate on the absorbed failure energy of GFRP.
45

Table 2
Tensile Strength, MPa

42
Material constants and correlation coefficients, 0:001 6 e_ 6 100 ðs1 Þ

39 Tensile constants a b c R
Tensile strength 788.122 7.721 0.886 0.9986
36 Tensile modulus 37.243 1.139 0.276 0.9836
Strain to failure 0.0218 3.940E-6 1.368 0.9489
Failure energy 8.769 0.115 0.807 0.9975
33

30
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 4. Conclusions
Strain Rate, s-1
Tensile failure properties unidirectional glass/epoxy composites
Fig. 10. Effect of strain rate on the tensile modulus of GFRP. were studied at various strain rates from 0.001 to 100 s1 using a
600 M.M. Shokrieh, M.J. Omidi / Composite Structures 88 (2009) 595–601
Fig. 13. Failed samples: (a) 0.0017 s1, (b) 0.55 s1, (c) 5.6 s1, (d) 46 s1, (e) 85 s1.
high-speed servo-hydraulic testing apparatus. In this study, it was
shown that this testing machine can be suitable to describe the
overall composites dynamic behavior under intermediate strain
rates up to 160 s1. The evaluation of the test jig performance
was also shown that it was suitable for dynamic testing for the
polymer composites.
The extracted longitudinal lamina properties showed a ten-
dency to increase with increase of strain rate. On the other hand,
the experimental results show increase in tensile strength, modu-
lus, strain to failure and absorbed failure energy of 52%, 12%, 10%
and 53%, respectively. For an increase in stroke rate from static
loading condition (0.0216 mm/s) up to a dynamic loading
(1270 mm/s), the dynamic strength of composites increases 1.5
times with respect to the static strength.
The visual inspection of the failed specimens shows significant
changes in the fracture surface with increased strain rate. The
change in the mechanical response with increasing strain rate is
associated with a change in the failure modes. At low strain rates,
damage regions cover a small portion of the fracture surface while
with increasing strain rate the damage path covers the entire
gauge section where extensive debonding between the fibers and
the matrix was also observed. These changes in failure modes from
quasi-static to high dynamic loading condition caused an increase
in energy absorption.
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