Short Notes

(1.) Vertical motion of air and atmospheric stability

Vertical motion of air governs many atmospheric processes, such as the formation of
clouds and precipitation and the dispersal of air pollutants. If the atmosphere is stable,
vertical motion is restricted and air pollutants tend to be accumulated around the
emission site rather than dispersed and diluted. Meanwhile, in an unstable atmosphere,
vertical motion of air encourages the vertical dispersal of air pollutants. Therefore, the
pollutants’ concentrations depend not only on the strength of emission sources but also
on the stability of the atmosphere.
We shall determine the atmospheric stability by using the concept of air parcel in
meteorology and compare the temperature of the air parcel rising or sinking
adiabatically in the atmosphere to that of the surrounding air. We will see that in many
cases an air parcel containing air pollutants and rising from the ground will come to rest
at a certain altitude, called a mixing height. The greater the mixing height, the lower the
air pollutant concentration. We will evaluate the mixing height and the concentration of
carbon monoxide emitted by motorbikes in the Hanoi metropolitan area for a morning
rush hour scenario, in which the vertical mixing is restricted due to a temperature
inversion (air temperature increases with altitude) at elevations above 119 m.
Quasi equilibrium adiabatic transformation obey the equation pV r = const,
𝑐𝑝
where, y = is the ratio between isobaric and isochoric heat capacities of the gas.
𝑐𝑣
Change of the temperature of an air parcel in vertical motion
Consider an air parcel moving upward and downward in the atmosphere. An air
parcel is a body of air of sufficient dimension, several meters across, to be treated as an
independent thermodynamically entity, yet small enough for its temperature to be
considered uniform. The vertical motion of an air parcel can be treated as a quasi
adiabatic process, i.e. the exchange of heat with the surrounding air is negligible. If the
air parcel rises in the atmosphere, it expands and cools. Conversely, if it moves
downward, the increasing outside pressure will compress the air inside the parcel and its
temperature will increase.
(2.) Milestones in Mobile Source Air Pollution Control and Regulations
Mobile Sources include a variety of motor vehicles and mobile equipment that
generate air emissions, and that autonomously move or can be moved from place to
place. There are two categories of mobile sources: on-road vehicles and non-road
vehicles.
At the time, typical new cars were emitting nearly 13 grams per mile
hydrocarbons (HC), 3.6 grams per mile nitrogen oxides (NOx), and 87grams per mile
carbon monoxide (CO). Since then, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has set
standards to bring down levels of these pollutants, and the auto industry has responded
by developing new emission control technologies.
Over time, Congress authorized EPA to regulate emissions from other mobile
sources of air pollution, such as heavy-duty trucks, agricultural and construction
equipment, locomotives, lawn and garden equipment, and marine engines. These
milestones in controlling emissions from mobile sources involve a variety of approaches
including technological advances in engine design to higher quality fuels. This integrated
approach to mobile source emission control also depends on extensive collaboration
between EPA; vehicle, engine, and fuel manufacturers; state and local governments;
transportation planners; and individual citizens.
EPA and the Department of Transportation’s National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (NHSTA) finalize a joint rule to establish a national program consisting of
new standards for model year 2012 through 2016 light-duty vehicles to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and improve fuel economy. These are EPA’s first national
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions standards under the Clean Air Act. Over the lifetime of
the vehicles sold during 2012-2016, this national program is projected to reduce U.S.
GHG emissions by 960 million metric tons and save 1.8 billion barrels of oil.
(3.) Aerosols
Take a deep breath. Even if the air looks clear, it’s nearly certain that you’ll inhale
tens of millions of solid particles and liquid droplets. These ubiquitous specks of matter
are known as aerosols, and they can be found in the air over oceans, deserts, mountains,
forests, ice, and every ecosystem in between. They drift in Earth’s atmosphere from the
stratosphere to the surface and range in size from a few nanometers—less than the
width of the smallest viruses—to several several tens of micrometers—about the
diameter of human hair. Despite their small size, they have major impacts on our climate
and our health.
Different specialists describe the particles based on shape, size, and chemical
composition. Toxicologists refer to aerosols as ultrafine, fine, or coarse matter.
Regulatory agencies, as well as meteorologists, typically call them particulate matter—
PM2.5 or PM10, depending on their size. In some fields of engineering, they’re called
nanoparticles. The media often uses everyday terms that hint at aerosol sources, such as
smoke, ash, and soot.
Climatologists typically use another set of labels that speak to the chemical
composition. Key aerosol groups include sulfates, organic carbon, black carbon, nitrates,
mineral dust, and sea salt. In practice, many of these terms are imperfect, as aerosols
often clump together to form complex mixtures. It’s common, for example, for particles
of black carbon from soot or smoke to mix with nitrates and sulfates, or to coat the
surfaces of dust, creating hybrid particles.