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Mohd Hazreek Zainal Abidin1,*, Rosli Saad2, Fauziah Ahmad3, Devapriya Chitral Wijeyesekera4,
Mohamad Faizal Tajul Baharuddin5
1, 4, 5
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UTHM
1, 2, 5
Geophysics section, School of Physics, USM
3
School of Civil Engineering, USM
5
Faculty of Engineering, UM
Abstract
Geophysical methods originally championed by geophysicists are becoming popular in the civil engineering field.
In the past, most engineers applied their conventional method with rare to any other alternative method. This
study describes some of the civil engineering applications discourse where the geophysical method is especially
suitable in the preliminary stage of site assessment. Some of the geophysical method which can assist the civil
engineering works is still rarely understood for several reasons. Hence, this study presents a resistivity and
seismic refraction method applied in several civil engineering problems in Malaysia such as in geotechnical
engineering, rock mechanics and engineering geology, water and environmental engineering and pavement
engineering. The utilization of geophysical method can increase the effectiveness of civil engineering works
since it can provide the information which the conventional civil engineering method was hard to determine due
to the concern of money, time and quality. For example, the method helps to reduce the number of conventional
drilling method and possibly decides a critical spot of interest which directly decreases the cost of the project.
Some of the common earth materials and related parameter in civil engineering application that can be utilized by
the geophysical method are minerals, soils, rocks, water, subsurface layers, thickness and depth. The results
produced by the geophysical survey increase the awareness of civil engineers of their wide area of applications.
The utilization of this method have been successfully used in the civil engineering field and has the potential to
be integrated with a conventional method to produce reliable information thus enhance the project effectiveness
especially during the design and construction stages.
techniques also can be of help in locating cavities, Figure 1 shows a possible sequence of measurements
backfilled mineshafts and dissolution features in for the Wenner electrode array in a system with 20
carbonate rocks and can be extremely useful in electrodes.
determining the stiffness properties of the ground [1]. 1.2 Seismic Refraction Theory
Geophysical methods are generally less expensive, less
The basis of seismic refraction investigation is the
invasive and less time consuming. They provide a
measurement of the time taken for a wave to travel
large-scale characterisation of the physical properties
from one location to another location. The time travel
under undisturbed conditions [2].
is a function of elastic modulus of the material through
Since such potential of geophysics in engineering
which the wave travels. This method applies the
are yet to be realized, the application of these
Snell’s law towards the seismic waves and was used to
techniques are still not being fully utilized. Problems
study the layers below the earth surface.
may arise during the applications when the
Waves travelling in a medium, i.e. soils or rocks will
geophysical methods are not being fully explored by
follow the elastic characteristics in all directions and
the civil engineers due to their lack of exposure and
produce reflection and refraction. The motion of the
expertise in this field. According to [1], some of the
wave particle is recorded as a function of time along
reasons are due to poor planning of geophysical survey
the travel path. Then, the type of layers and structures
by engineers whom are ignorant of the techniques, and
in the subsurface are determined. Figure 2 shows the
over optimistic geophysicist leading to poor reputation
distribution of ray path.
of the available techniques. Hence, this paper presents
several case studies regarding the studies of resistivity
and seismic method, which can be adopted and applied Offset, x Geophones
in civil engineering works. Source
process of a new construction site to determine the error of 30.05% in surface course, 18.21% in base
ground stability of the proposed structure. course, and 1.2% in subbase and subgrade courses.
Based on Fig. 12 and Table 7, both pavement thickness
3.2 Groundwater and Environmental Engineering
obtained by each method were almost similar and this
Groundwater is defined as water below the water proved the geophysical method is applied successfully.
table in the geologic strata where the pore space is 100 Hence, this alternative geophysical method has the
percent occupied by water [16]. This alternative source potential of being used to supplement the information
of water is important in our life. The problem always related to pavement depth and thickness layer
encountered by a groundwater and environmental especially for a long continuous pavement assessment,
engineer is to determine the accurate location of the thus reducing the number of coring tests that can cause
fresh groundwater zone. Zones located near the coastal damage to the pavement structure.
area normally are affected by groundwater
contamination of saltwater intrusion. The best 4. CONCLUSION
geophysical method, particularly in salinity mapping,
Geophysical method, the 2-D resistivity imaging
is geoelectrical method [17].
method and seismic refraction method was a good
Figure 10 shows a case study of a relationship
alternative tool for civil engineering application such
between resistivity and groundwater exploration for a
as in geotechnical and engineering geology, water and
proposed mineral water source site in Negeri
environmental and highway. The resistivity can be
Sembilan. The application of 2-D resistivity is very
used in geotechnical engineering, groundwater
practical in this study since it can provide information
exploration, contamination studies and highway
to fulfill the requirement of the authority which require
pavement study. Seismic method was suitable in
that the groundwater sources to be at least 100 m deep
geotechnical and engineering geology studies since it
for approval and commercialization purposes. The 2-D
can determine the depth of bedrocks, types of materials
resistivity provide cross section in two dimensional as
and thickness of materials. All the case study presented
compared to the conventional drilling method which
show that the integration of the geophysical methods
could only provide information at the location of
plus the information from borehole data can
drilling. Therefore, the resistivity method saves time
successfully mapped some of the civil engineering
and cost. The suitable location proposed by Fig. 10
interests and objectives, particularly during the
was located at 40 m from the center of measurement to
preliminary stages.
a minimum depth of 100 m. The presence of
The theory and application of geophysical method
weathered granite to fresh granite in this zone was a
need to be explored in depth by an engineer since it
strong indication that the proposed spot is of fresh
contributes in most of the civil engineering project by
groundwater. Water can be stored in the fractured
saving cost, time and it is environmentally friendly.
granite which is located at between the weathered to
Other relevant civil engineering subfield that has a
fresh granite zones, as seen in the resistivity image.
good prospect by applying this geophysical method is
Figure 11 shows a case study of a relationship
earthquake engineering, mining engineering, geodesy
between resistivity and saltwater intrusion in Selangor.
and forensic engineering.
It was found that there are three water zones in this
area which are the saline water, brackish water and
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
fresh water. The transition zone (brackish water zone)
was approximately 5 m thick and this information is I would like to thank all my supervisors and research
important in determination of a suitable location as an members for their tremendous work and cooperation
alternative source of water for human consumption. from the beginning until the end of this research. Many
thanks go to Research and Innovation Center,
3.3 Pavement Engineering Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia for the sponsor
According to [20], the evaluation of existing road and financial support throughout my research
structures has a major potential for the application of activities. Finally, I would like to extend my profound
electrical resistivity method since there is increasing appreciation and love to my family and all people
interests on maintaining and improving the service involved and whose has supported this research.
standard of current road network. Figure 12 shows a
case study of a relationship between resistivity and REFERENCES
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Malaysian Technical Universities International Conference on Engineering & Technology (MUiCET 2011)
Appendix
Table 1: Resistivity and velocity of some common rocks and minerals [5]
Material Seismic (m/s) Resistivity (ohm-m)
Igneous / Metamorphic
Granite 4580 - 5800 5 103 108
Weathered granite 305 - 610 1 102
Basalt 5400 - 6400 103 106
Quartz 103 2 106
Marble 102 2.5 108
Schist 20 104
Sediments
Sandstone 1830 - 3970 8 4 103
Conglomerate 2 x103 104
Shale 2750 - 4270 20 2 103
Limestone 2140 - 6100 50 4 102
Unconsolidated sediment
Clay 915 - 2750 1 100
Alluvium 500 - 2000 10 800
Marl 1 70
Clay (wet) 20
Groundwater
Fresh water 1430 - 1680 10 100
Salt water 1460 - 1530 0.2
Table 2: Typical p-wave velocities of weathered and fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks [6]
Material Grade Vp (m/sec)
Fresh, sound rock F 5000 +
Slightly weathered or widely spaced fractures WS 5000 – 4000
Moderately weathered or moderately close fractures WM 4000 – 3000
Strongly weathered or close fractures WH 3000 – 2000
Very strongly weathered (saprolite) or crushed WC 2000 – 1200a
Residual soil (unstructured saprolite), strong RS 1200 – 600a
Residual soil, weak, dry RS 600 – 300a
Vp (water) ≈ 1500 m/sec
Malaysian Technical Universities International Conference on Engineering & Technology (MUiCET 2011)
Resistivity
cable
Jumper
cable
Steel
electrode
Terrameter
Electrode SAS 4000
selector
Striker
plate
Geophone
Seismic
cable
Measuring
Walkie Seismograph
tape
Talkie
BH1 A
W.L=22 m
W.L=23
W.L=30
m
A’
Table 6: Summary of results from seismic refraction method at cross Section A-A’ (Borehole 1) [12]
Depth from land Thickness of Velocity Vp
Colour Materials
surface (m) layer (m) (m/s)
Residual soil weak,
0 14 500 (unsaturated) dry (300-
600)
Very strongly
22 3 1850 weathered
(1200-2000)
Strongly weathered
25 2 2950 (2000-3000)
Moderately weathered
27 2 3800 (3500-4000)
Fresh metamorphic
29 3 4450 rock
(3500-7000)
Malaysian Technical Universities International Conference on Engineering & Technology (MUiCET 2011)
4452.92 m/s
3006.53 m/s
Possible
1852.67 m/s
fault
828.82 m/s
227.52 m/s
Groundwater Flow
Groundwater Flow
40m
Mid Point Propose well
River
Fresh groundwater
Fresh groundwater
Granite rock
Granitic bedrock
Fig. 10 Subsurface image results by resistivity method in Negeri Sembilan for groundwater exploration [18]
Malaysian Technical Universities International Conference on Engineering & Technology (MUiCET 2011)
CL
C1 C2 C3
Table 7: Comparison of cumulative thickness layer between resistivity results with dynamic cone penetration test result
[20]
1 2 3 1 2 3
Surface 257.5 257.5 257.5 198.0 203.0 193.0
Base 515.0 515.0 515.0 456.0 438.0 413.0
Subbase 777.5 777.5 777.5 728.0 710.0 689.0
Subgrade >777.5 >777.5 >777.5 >728.0 >710.0 >689.0