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Zhifeng Liu1, Yumo Wang1, Ligang Cai1, Yongsheng Zhao1, Qiang Cheng1
and Xiangmin Dong2
Abstract
Hydrostatic bearing is a key part that provides precision and long life to machine tools. It is one of the embodiments of
tribology, mechanics, optimization method, and structural design in engineering practice. Articles about hydrostatic bear-
ings since 1990 are collected in this review. Researching status is evaluated in two aspects: basic theory and typical appli-
cation. This article presents a review of research articles related to introducing developments in hydrostatic bearings.
Basic theory contains equations and analysis methods which include analytic, numerical, and experimental methods.
Typical applications are based on rectangular oil pad, circular oil pad, and journal bearings. Moreover, this article focuses
on the analysis of the relevant model, solution, and optimization and summarizes the hotspots and development
directions.
Keywords
Hydrostatic bearings, oil pads, the Reynolds equation, future development, carrying ability
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open-access-at-sage).
2 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
hydrostatic bearing to analyze its transient response which varies in the (0.2, 1) interval to describe non-
and presented a simplified pressure formula for circular Newtonian fluids.
oil pad3 Z Liu et al.8 carried out the carrying performance of
hydrostatic guideway, turntable, and journal bearing
dp 6hQ on machine tools. The Reynolds equation without visc-
= ð2Þ
dr rh3 osity variations is expressed in different coordinate sys-
tems for rectangular, circular, and journal bearings,
M El Khlifi et al.5 introduced a non-Newtonian fluid respectively
model into the Reynolds equation and combined fluid
energy equation to research heat problem for hydro-
∂ ∂p ∂ ∂p
static bearing. The modified fluid energy equation for Rectangular bearing : h3 + h3
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
thin oil film is then proposed
∂ ∂
= 6 (Ux h) + 6 (Uy h)
∂T ∂h ∂h ∂T ∂T ∂x ∂y
u + vu w +w
∂x ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂ 3 ∂p ∂ 3 ∂p
Circular bearing : rh + h
2 2 2 ! ð3Þ ∂r ∂r ∂q r∂q
kc ∂ T h ∂u ∂w
= 2
+ + ∂ ∂
rcp ∂y rcp ∂y ∂y = 6 (rUr h) + 6 (Uq h)
∂r ∂q
∂ 3 ∂p ∂ 3 ∂p
where T is the temperature, u is the flow velocity on x- Journal bearing : h + h
∂f ∂f ∂y ∂y
coordinate, v is the flow velocity on y–x-coordinate, w
is the flow velocity on z-coordinate, kc is the heat trans- ∂ ∂
= 6 (Uf h) + 6 (Uy h)
fer coefficient, r is the density, and cp is the specific heat ∂f ∂y
capacity. ð5Þ
J Li and H Chen6 gave an approximated expression
of the roughness of bearing surface by rectangular In the study of a conical journal bearing, PG Khakse
groove and derived the results by solving the Reynolds et al.9 provided another form of the Reynolds equation
equation. Both computational fluid dynamics (CFD) that can be applied in spherical coordinates. The equa-
software simulation and numerical resolution are con- tion is written as
ducted. The comparison showed that two methods 3
1 ∂ rh3 ∂p 1 ∂ h 1 ∂p vJ ∂h ∂h
share similar results when surface roughness is 1%– + 2 = +
10% of film thickness. E De la Guerra Ochoa et al.7 r ∂r 12h ∂r sin g ∂u 12h r2 ∂u 2 ∂u ∂t
introduced the Carreau model, a non-Newtonian fluid ð6Þ
model, into the Reynolds equation to analyze the visc-
X Bai et al.10 researched the supporting performance
osity variation affections. The Carreau model is given
of a spherical bearing and described the relationship
by equation (4)
between pressure distribution and flow rate
t 2 ð1(1=n)Þ=2
h = h0 1 + ð4Þ ð0 ð0
G pr dp prh3 dp
Q= u 3 2prdz = ½z + d(r)dz =
h dr 6h dr
where h0 is the low shear viscosity, t is the shear stress, h h
Solutions of hydrostatic bearings where u(u) and m(x) are the intermediate variables
associated with the model parameters, c(x) is calcu-
Analytical solutions. The analytical solution can directly
lated as 0 according to the boundary condition, and
show the relationship between different parameters of fi (u) is the normalized eigenfunction. The results of the
hydrostatic bearing. However, the equations describing
comparison are shown in Figure 5.
hydrostatic bearings are always in form of differential
equations that need to be simplified to determine the
analytical solutions. Numerical simulations. Fluid simulation software solves
YK Younes11 presented an optimization of the pump Navier–Stokes (N–S) equation using finite element
power for hydrostatic thrust bearing. An analytical reso- method (FEM) to determine the velocity, pressure, and
lution of pressure distribution and flow rate is proposed; temperature distribution of flow. Many researches are
the variable 0 \ b \ 1 is introduced to approximately carried out according to the results of fluid simulation
describe the pressure loss at oil sealing edge
software.
M Helene et al.15 established a two-dimensional
ln (r=R) bpr ph3
p = bpr , Q= ð8Þ non-uniform grid base on the model of hydrostatic
ln (Rr =R) 6h ln (Rr =R) journal bearing to simulate its inner flow field and car-
where pr is the oil pressure in oil recess, R is the radius ried out a comparison of the results between the effects
of oil pad, and Rr is the radius of recess. of laminar and turbulent flow on supporting capacity.
T Kazama and A Yamaguchi12 put forward an ana- The mesh and corresponding results are shown in
lytical calculation method to determine the load- Figure 6.
carrying capacity and moment of circular oil pad. JS FE Horvat and MJ Braun16 designed an experimen-
Yadav and VK Kapur13 presented an energy integral tal device with adjustable oil recess to observe the
approach to obtain the radial pressure gradient in non- inflow field of the oil pad. The experimental results of
Newtonian squeeze film. The energy integral approach different recess depths and speed are compared with
is written as CFD simulations and they are shown in Figure 7.
2 !2 3
n1
∂p 2n + 1 n h_ h_ €h 2n + 1 h_ 2n + 1 (4n + 3)(3n + 5) n(n + 1) 5
= 2m rn + r4 + r ð9Þ
∂r n h 2n + 1
h_ 3n + 2 h 2(n + 1)2 (3n + 2) 4 4n + 3
X
‘
p(x, u) = u(u) + si f i (u)mi (x) ,
i=1
Lb Lb
u 2 ½0, p, x 2 , ð11Þ
2 2
ðp
si = u(u)r(u)f i (u) du, i = 1, 2, . . .
0 Figure 5. Analytical solution for finite journal bearing.14
Liu et al. 5
Figure 6. Mesh and results of 2D pressure distribution in hydrostatic journal bearing:15 (a) mesh and (b) pressure distribution.
Analytical Accurate and intuitive but not available for all conditions, needs complicated
mathematical deduction
Numerical simulation Easy to apply and effective, not suitable for customized conditions
Numerical solution FEM Widely used in solving partial difference equation, adjustable mesh shape, but needs
massive computing
FDM Easy to implement, but demands structured mesh shape
Integral method Effective but can only be used in specific applications
EM: experimental method; FEM: finite element method; FDM: finite difference method.
The Reynolds equation is a second-order partial differ- hydrostatic journal bearing. The dispersed Reynolds
ential equation difficult to solve directly. An analytic solu- equation is written as equation (12)
tion can express the effects of each parameter intuitively
but requires a complicated mathematical deduction. ½Fnf 3 nf fpgnf 3 1 = fQgnf 3 1 + OfRH gnf 3 1
ð12Þ
Simulation software is practical in engineering analysis but + Xj fRxj gnf 3 1 + Zj fRzj gnf 3 1
hard to introduce new models. Numerical resolution is the
most widely used method in theoretical research (Table 2). where [F] is the fluidity matrix; {p} is the pressure at
SC Sharma et al.17 dispersed the Reynolds equation each node; {Q} is the flow rate at each node; {RH},
into a matrix of nf order using the Galerkin’s technique {Rxj}, and {Rzj} are the parameter vectors associated
and calculated the supporting capability of the with speed condition.
6 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
where k is the total count of iterations, vb is the relaxa- Figure 8. Flow chart of feedback iteration.21
tion factor, a is 3.05 for slider bearings and 5.35 for
journal bearings, and Dx is the distance between neigh-
boring points on x-coordinate. where b is the ratio of orifice, d is the convergence rate
R Nicoletti19 put forward a meshless radial basis factor which varies within [0.01, 0.2], and Ei(k)0 , j0 is the
function method (MMRB) to solve the Reynolds equa- relative error in the kth iteration loop.
tion and compared it with finite difference method
(FDM). According to the contrasting result, FDM is
Experimental researches. Studies on hydrostatic bearings
more suitable for the calculation of uniform mesh
are often associated with experimental methods to mea-
model, while MMRB is more appropriate for the com-
sure the load-carrying capacity or assess the theory.
putation of irregular area. The FDM-dispersed
J Hesselbach and C Abel-Keilhack22 compared the ana-
Reynolds equation is written as equation (14)
lytic and experimental results to research the magnetor-
Aij pi, j + Bij pi + 1, j + Cij pi1, j + Dij pi, j + 1 + Eij pi, j1 = Fij heological lubricant in hydrostatic thrust bearing. The
film thickness is changed with the variation in magne-
ð14Þ
torheological lubricant properties by controlling the
where Aij, Bij, Cij, Dij, Eij, and Fij are the coefficients of electric current. Y Henry et al.23 designed a device (see
pressure matrix. Figure 9) and applied it to measure the minimum film
The MMRB is thickness of the thrust bearing.
YQ Zhang et al.24 carried out an experimental
8 research to analyze the effect of rotating speed on pres-
> P
N
< pi = lj uij , i = 1, 2, . . . , Nd sure distribution. The experimental result is compared
j=1
q ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð15Þ with that of finite volume method (FVM) simulation. E
>
:
uij = (xi xj )2 + (yi yj )2 + (3d)2 Koc and CJ Hooke25 proposed the design and an
experimental method for slipper bearings introducing
where Nd is the number of points in the calculating area slightly convex surface into the model. JK Martin26
and d is the distance between points. measured the ability of hydrostatic journal bearing to
P Liang et al.20 solved the carrying ability of hydro- support loads and calculated the stiffness using four
static journal bearing by Gauss–Legendre integral displacement coefficients. D Kim and S Park27 studied
method. The computing progress of Gauss–Legendre the hydrostatic air foil bearings through the measure of
method is so efficient that it only needs 1/603 time com- the drag torque during start/stop. Figure 10 shows the
pared with FDM. Gauss–Legendre integral method is measurement device.
written as
Circular oil pad fits the Reynolds equation in cylind- analytically. Moreover, some researchers tried to intro-
rical coordinates, and many scholars calculated the duce different types of surface textures to improve its
pressure distribution and load-carrying capacity of it supporting performance because a flat bearing surface
8 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
Figure 17. Model of closed-type hydrostatic thrust bearing:39 (a) capillary restrictors and (b) constant flow pumps.
performance. YP Wang and D Kim42 put forward a of pump and friction power and proposed an optimal
method for measuring the stiffness and damping on working film thickness. SC Sharma et al.45 researched
hybrid air foil bearings. NB Naduvinamani et al.43 the influence of different shapes of oil pocket on the
established a squeeze film model of ring thrust bearing supporting capability of hydrostatic thrust bearings.
to analyze the effect of pad structure on squeeze Circular, rectangular, ellipse, and ring shape oil recesses
response time. Some parameter values from their are compared in the research; Figure 18 shows their
research are shown in Table 4. main features.
E Solmaz et al.44 calculated the minimum power OJ Bakker and RAJ Van Ostayen46 analyzed the
consumption of oil pad based on the analytical formula influence of the depth of oil pocket on the bearing
Liu et al. 11
Figure 19. Model of oil pads with different recess shapes: (a) elliptical pocket, (b) square pocket, (c) annular pocket, and (d) sector
pocket.47
capacity and concluded an optimal solution based on into the film thickness formula to simulate the effect of
the analytical solution of load-carrying capacity of cir- surface roughness on the carrying capability of thrust
cular and ring thrust bearings. After carrying out a bearing. CW Wong et al.52 studied an aerostatic thrust
numerical simulation on the model of oil pad (see bearing with spiral grooves; the model is shown in
Figure 19), according to the results, F Shen et al.47 Figure 21.
revealed that circular oil recess provides higher pres- AW Yacout et al.53 researched the thrust bearing
sure, while circular oil recess shows better stiffness. analytically considering centripetal inertia and the sur-
SK Yadav and SC Sharma48 evaluated the carrying face roughness, and D Lee and D Kim54 optimized the
capacity of the circular, annular, and sectorial oil pock- thrust air foil bearing by introducing surface texture to
ets on hydrostatic thrust bearings and introduced non- improve the dynamic supporting performance. DV De
Newtonian lubricant. H Sawano et al.49 proposed a Pellegrin and DJ Hargreaves55 conducted an isothermal
new type of oil recess with thin metal plate shown in and isoviscous analysis of hydrostatic thrust bearing
Figure 20 to obtain a better dynamic stiffness. with grooves to determine the optimal grove shape.
YK Younes50 put forward a hydrostatic thrust bear- X-Q Zhang et al.56 studied the spiral-grooved aerostatic
ing with shell shape waviness and carried out a numeri- bearing mounted on a microengine. The grooves in
cal analysis. JR Lin51 introduced a random function spiral shape make the bearing more stable under the
12 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
Journal bearing
Oil recesses of hydrostatic journal bearing are circum-
ferentially distributed around the central axis and they
are usually used to lubricate the spindle of machine
tools. Typical hydrostatic journal bearing has several
oil pockets; Figure 33 shows where the pockets are
located in each pad.
Among the 39 articles studying hydrostatic journal
bearings, most of them deal with bearing modeling
(61%); 13% is about dynamic characteristics, 18% is
about optimal design, and 8% combine thrust bearing
to establish a new model (Figure 34).
Figure 28. Model of elastic supporting.72 LA San Andres87 studied the supporting perfor-
mance of journal bearing lubricated by compressible
fluid. Dynamic characteristics were calculated when the
minimize the friction coefficient by evaluating a two- bearing is supplied by capillary restrictor and orifice
dimensional plate lubrication model, while SH Chang restrictor, respectively. WB Rowe et al.88 designed com-
and YR Jeng85 obtained an optimal working condition puting software according to the analytical solution of
for stiffness maximization by modified particle swarm hydrostatic journal bearings. SC Jain et al.89 used the
optimization (MPSO). Figure 32 shows the trend of the analytical method to compare the influences of differ-
stiffness versus bearing load and the calculated bear- ent restrictors on the carrying performance. R Sinhasan
ing’s stiffness peak. and PL Sah90 introduced non-Newtonian fluid into a
L Cai et al.86 compared different contributions of journal compensated by orifice restrictor and analyzed
each oil pad in the study of overturning problem for its non-linear dynamic characteristics. According to
hydrostatic guideway. The authors proposed an opti- FEM analysis, SC Jain et al.91 researched on the eccen-
mal pad size allocation to improve the stiffness of tricity effect on supporting ability of journal bearing.
guideway under inertia force impact. Based on Galerkin’s method, SC Sharma et al.92 estab-
Compared with circular oil pad, there are fewer lished a non-Newtonian fluid-lubricated journal bear-
researches studying about rectangular oil pad. The ing model compensated by orifice restrictor. JCT Su
Reynolds equation in rectangular coordinates is hard and KN Lie93 compared the rotational effect on
to be simplified to determine an analytic solution. Flat the load-carrying performance of hydrostatic and
16 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
Figure 31. The geometrical model and pressure distribution of parabolic grooves.82
Figure 32. Peak point of bearing stiffness.85 Figure 33. Model of hydrostatic journal bearing.
Liu et al. 17
Figure 35. Model of hydrostatic and hydrodynamic journal bearing:93 (a) hole-entry hydrostatic journal bearing and (b) porous
hydrodynamic journal bearing.
slot-compensated hydrostatic conical bearing, while variable slot and fixed slot. The results showed that
PG Khakse et al.9 proposed a model of conical journal variable slot ensures a better radial carrying capacity.
bearing without oil pockets and compensated with S Yuan and D Zhou130 calculated the carrying abil-
caterpillar restrictor which has thinner film thickness ity of a spherical bearing by evaluating its equivalent
and higher precision. Figure 43 shows the model. area. C Xu and S Jiang131,132 established a self-
H Guo et al.128 calculated the dynamic characteristics compensated spherical bearing and analyzed its static
of a capillary compensated deep–shallow pocket hybrid and dynamic characteristics. X Bai et al.10 researched
conical bearing. X Zuo et al.129 carried out a compara- the carrying ability of a spherical bearing with inner oil
tive research of conical bearings compensated with supply with the model in Figure 44.
20 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
Figure 39. Models of different shape recesses:116 (a) square and circular and (b) elliptical and triangular.
Future developments
Articles about hydrostatic bearings reviewed in this
work contain basic theory and typical applications.
Most researches in this review are conducted by the
Reynolds equation which has been used for a century.
The Reynolds equation shows its efficiency and accu-
racy in analyzing different types of hydrostatic bear-
ings. However, the flow field in oil recess cannot be
evaluated by the Reynolds equation which limits fur-
ther study of oil pads. According to the study focus
and research trend, future development is estimated as
follows:
Figure 40. Model of two-lobe bore-bearing contour.119
1. Many studies presented in this review started by
calculating the carrying ability of a bearing.
Bearing surface of conical journal bearing is hard to Basic theories were applied to solve the fluid
be processed. The conical structure is also difficult to properties in the oil pad, like the pressure distri-
separate influence factors. And spherical bearing shares bution. Different types of oil pad fit different
the same problem. New type bearings like conical jour- forms of the Reynolds equation. Rectangular oil
nal bearing and spherical bearing reflect a wide range pads fit Cartesian coordinates, while circular oil
of application of hydrostatic systems. pads fit cylindrical coordinates. The Reynolds
equation is a general formula that is also suit-
able for a new type of oil pads or their combina-
Oil supply and compensation of hydrostatic bearing tions. However, the introduction of non-
Besides oil pad type, the oil supply method can influ- Newtonian fluid challenged the classical equa-
ence the supporting performance. There are four com- tion because of the change in shear flow hypoth-
mon types of oil supply method: constant oil pump, esis in the derivation of the Reynolds equation.
Liu et al. 21
may exist. The improvement of computing 3. Except for the pressure distribution in the oil
speed helps the numerical solution being widely pad, the oil supply is an important part of the
used, making the solution of Reynolds equation analysis of the bearing carrying capacity.
flexible and efficient. The emerging numerical Caterpillar, orifice, and membrane restrictors
solutions can be conveniently applied to the are the commonly used compensation tech-
analysis of several types of oil pad bearing. New niques. The servo oil pump with constant sup-
computational methods are usually applied to ply rate can ensure the pressure for the oil pad
enhance the calculation accuracy and comput- without restrictors and provide a practical
ing efficiency or improve the computational method to adjust and control the carrying abil-
model. ity of hydrostatic systems. The application of
Liu et al. 23
magnetorheological fluid also is a new way to machine tools in larger, heavier, and faster
govern the load-carrying capacity of the hydro- applications.
static bearings.
4. Many researches focus on the optimization of oil Declaration of conflicting interests
pads. Some of them introduced surface textures
into the bearing plate and studied them both the- The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
oretically and experimentally by evaluating vari-
article.
ous affecting carrying abilities. Because of the
difficulty in machining curve supporting sur-
faces, researches on structural optimization for Funding
journal bearing are less than that dealing with The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
circular or rectangular bearings. Some studies port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
proposed optimized oil pad arrangement at dif- article: The authors would like to thank the National Natural
ferent positions of a machine tool, which means Science Fund (51575009), Beijing Natural Science Fund
oil pads are redesigned to fit the load-carrying (3162003), and Jing-Hua Talents Project of Beijing University
requirement at its position to enhance the overall of Technology for supporting the research.
performance. With the development of new opti-
mization algorithms, the optimal design method References
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