THESIS

ON

FACTORS INFLUENCING CRASHES AT SIGNALIZED

INTERSECTION OF DELHI

i
 ABSTRACT

Many studies have shown that intersections are among the most dangerous locations of a
roadway network with maximum number of conflicts. Intersections are planned point of conflict
in any roadway system. Road intersections that have accident potential or have high numbers of
accidents called hazardous intersections thus safety evaluation of a road intersection is a
determinant problem. Lack of road safety can have a negative impact on the economy of a
country. Among different types of intersections, signalized intersections are expected to provide
efficient traffic movement and to improve traffic safety. However, severe crashes still occur at
signalized intersections. This study identifies the factors affecting safety at signalized
intersection. Some factors that govern the safety at Signalized intersections are, Geometrical
Factors, Traffic volume, Operational control of signals, Environmental Factors etc. It is expected
that this study will be useful in enhancing safety at signalized intersection in India.

Keywords: Factors affecting safety, Road safety, Signalized intersection

ii
 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 01-20

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Advantages of traffic signals

1.3 Disadvantages of traffic signals

1.4 Purpose of a traffic signal

1.5 Basic traffic signal operations

1.6 Applications

1.6 Objective And Scope Of The Study

1.7 Statement Of The Problem

1.8 Signalized Intersection

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 21-27

CHAPTER-3 TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS IN INDIA 28-45

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 3.1 Traffic accidents in India

3.2 Extent of traffic accidents

3.3 Contributing factors

3.4 Measures to reduce traffic collisions

3.5 Road safety policies in India

3.6 List of major accidents

3.7 Overview of Road Accidents in India

3.8 Road Accidents In India Claim More Than 1.4 Lakh Lives In 2017

3.9 The way forward to a safer India

3.10 Road Crash Statistics 2016

CHAPTER 4: TRAFFIC COLLISION 46-73

4.1 Traffic Collision

4.2 India Tops Global List of Fatalities from Road Crashes

4.3 Alarming Trend in Tamil Nadu

4.4 Road Safety—A Public Health Issue

CHAPTER 5: RESULT AND DISCUSSION 74-85

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 5.1 Overview

5.2 Month- and time-wise distribution of road accidents

5.3 Causes of road accidents

5.4 Analysis of road accident scenario at state level

5.5 Analysis Of Road Accident Scenario At City Level

5.6 The way forward

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 86-90

REFERENCES 91-93

v
 LIST OF FUGURE

S No Table Name Page no.

1 Figure 1.1 .A typical signalized intersection 02

2 Figure 1.2.Different types of crashes at intersection 04

3 Figure 1.3.Urban road traffic crashes in the state of Delhi, 10

India
4 Figure 3.1 Total number of persons killed and injured due 28
to road accidents, from 2001 to 2010
5 Figure 3.2.Unsafe travel on motorcycles in Hyderabad. 31

6 Figure 3.3.Multiple vehicle collision occurred on a busy 32

road crossing at office time in Kolkata.
7 Figure 5.1. Number of Road Accidents by Month of 76
Occurrence in 2008 and 2018
8 Figure 5.2. Number of Road Accidents by Time of 77
Occurrence in 2008 and 2018
9 Figure 5.3. Causes of Road Accidents in 2018 78

10 Figure 5.4a. Road Accident Fatality Risk in Indian States 79

and Union Territories in 2018
11 Figure 5.4b. Road Accident Fatality Risk in Indian States 80
and Union Territories in 2008
12 Figure 5.5a. Road Accident Fatality Rate in Indian States 80
and Union Territories in 2018
13 Figure 5.5b. Road Accident Fatality Rate in Indian States 81
and Union Territories in 2008

vi
 LIST OF TABLE

S No Table Name Page no.

1 Table 1.1 pecentage of intersection crashes signalized 09

intersection

2 Table 1.2.Factors affecting safety at signalized intersection 12

3 Table 4.1 Number of fatal and nonfatal accidents reported 62

in Tamil Nadu
4 Table 4.2 Fault Of Road Accidents 62

vii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

S No Abbreviated Name Full Name

1 ITS Traffic Management System

2 MVC motor vehicle collision

3 MVA motor vehicle accidents

4 PIC personal injury collision

5 RTA road traffic accident

6 RTC road traffic collision

5 RTI road traffic incident

8 NSW New South Wales

9 IRF International Road Federation

WRI World Resources Institute

GRSI Global Road Safety Initiatives

PWD Public Works Department

viii
 CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Scenario of road accidents in India and around the world from which we observe that road
accidents are undoubtedly the most frequent and overall the cause of the most damage. The
reason behind this scenario is extremely dense road traffic, lack of proper geometric design,
environmental conditions and relatively great freedom of movement given to road user. The
increasing numbers of road vehicles as well as road accidents had raised the need to improve
design and practical approach of various road parameters.

The prevention of road accidents is also extremely important especially at the intersections
where there are major conflict points. India is a signatory to Brasilia Declaration and is
committed to reduce the number of road accidents and fatalities by 50 per cent by 2020. Hence it
is necessary to identify all the major and minor factors which are affecting the road safety.
Intersections are among the most dangerous locations of a roadway network. Among deferent
types of intersections, signalized intersections are expected to provide efficient traffic movement
and to improve traffic safety.

Signalized intersection is the common space of all the crossing roads at an any location which is
controlled by providing the electrically operated traffic control devices. The primary purpose of
providing signals is to enhance the traffic movement at the junction and to ensure the traffic
safety at conflict points over common space by enabling right of way and shared use of road
space to all the road users (e.g. Pedestrians, Bicyclists, Motorists and transit users). If this space
is left uncontrolled than there is a major chances of conflicting the different traffic streams .
Signalization is one of the way to control this space. Figure 1 shows a typical signalized
intersection having four legs.

1
 Figure 1.1 .A typical signalized intersection

Signalized intersections are supposed to provide efficient movement of different traffic streams
and other road users at the junction by providing right of way and shared use of road space.
However many studies have shown that there are many problems related to safety at these
locations.
Special types of crashes are one of the problems at these locations as for as the safety concern.
Figure 1.2 shows some of special crashes that occur at signalized intersections such as Rare end
collision, Right angle collision, right turn collision (in Indian scenario), sideswipe.

2
Rare end collision

Right angled collision

3
Sideswipe collision

Right turn collision

Figure 1.2.Different types of crashes at intersection

4
In this study focus is given to identifying various factors that affects the safety at signalized
intersection. Some of the major factors are as follows:
• Geometrical Factors
• Traffic volume
• Operational control of signals
• Environmental Factors
• Other miscellaneous factors

Rapid increase in number of vehicles is the primary cause of different traffic movement
problems like accidents, congestion, delay etc. In now a days almost every city faces traffic
congestion at some locations on their road network. These locations are mostly the intersections.
In India 37% of total crashes occurred at the intersections in 2016 (MORTH: A Report on Road
Accidents in India-2016).8 This signifies that there is still lots of requirement to improve the
safety at an intersection. To fulfill this purpose it is mandatory to identify the factors that affects
the safety at these locations. This study identifies the factors that affects the safety at signalized
intersection. China has first ranked in the world in the number of road accidents and fatalities, in
which approximately 30% of accidents occurred at urban intersections. Therefore, measuring
intersection safety factors is essential to achieve effective correction countermeasures. It was
observed that intersection collision figure in Japan are even more devastating, with more than 58
percent of all traffic crashes reported at intersection. Intersection related fatalities in Japan are
approximately 30 percent of all Japanese traffic accidents.

1.2 Advantages of traffic signals

Traffic signals control vehicle and pedestrian traffic by assigning priorities to various traffic
movements to influence traffic flow.
Properly designed, located and maintained traffic signals have one or more of these advantages:
• Provide for orderly movement of traffic;
• Increase traffic-handling capacity of an intersection;
• Reduce frequency and severity of certain types of crashes, especially right-angle collisions;
• Provide for continuous movement of traffic at a definite speed along a given route;

5
• Interrupt heavy traffic at intervals to permit other vehicles or pedestrians to cross.

1.3 Disadvantages of traffic signals

Traffic signals are not a solution for all traffic problems at intersections, and unwarranted signals
can adversely affect the safety and efficiency of traffic by causing one or more of the following:
• Excessive delay;
• Increased traffic congestion, air pollution and gasoline consumption;
• Disobedience of signals;
• Increased use of less-adequate streets to avoid traffic signals;
• Increased frequency of crashes, especially rear-end collisions.

1.4 Purpose of a traffic signal

Traffic signals are designed to ensure an orderly flow of traffic, provide an opportunity for
pedestrians or vehicles to cross an intersection and help reduce the number of conflicts between
vehicles entering intersections from different directions.

Certain types of crashes can be reduced in number or severity by installing a signal, while other
types of crashes will increase. Where signals are used unnecessarily, the most common result is
an increase in total crashes, especially rear-end collisions.
6
How do traffic signals work?
Fixed-time signals follow a predetermined sequence of signal operation, always providing the
same amount of time to each traffic movement, whether traffic is present or not. Actuated signals
change the lights according to the amount of traffic in each direction. They use various types of
sensors to detect vehicles, and adjust the length of the green time to allow as many vehicles as
possible through the intersection before responding to the presence of vehicles on another
approach.

When should signals be considered?

Traffic signals should be considered when they will alleviate more problems than they create. A
warranted signal properly operated may provide for more orderly movement of traffic, and
reduce the occurrence of certain types of collisions. However, traffic signals function by
stopping traffic, and whenever a vehicle is stopped on the road, the potential for a crash is
created. As a result, unwarranted signals can result in increased crashes, delays and congestion.

1.5 Basic traffic signal operations

Steady red arrow

• No left turns are allowed during red. STOP and wait for flashing yellow arrow or green arrow.
Steady yellow arrow
• Signal is about to turn red. Be prepared to STOP.
Flashing yellow arrow
• Left turns are permitted but not protected. Proceed with caution after YIELDING to oncoming
traffic.
Steady green arrow
• Left turns are protected from oncoming traffic. The green arrow can come at the beginning or
end of the signal sequence.

Through Lane
Solid Red

7
• A red signal means “STOP.” You can make a right turn after you stop and yield to all other
traffic. Do not turn if a “NO TURN ON RED” sign is posted.
Solid Yellow
• A yellow signal light means “CAUTION,” the red signal is about to appear.
Solid Green
• A green light means “GO,” after first yielding to vehicles and pedestrians already lawfully in
the intersection.

1.6 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

 Selection of study area and the road intersection at which POLS is to be identified.
 Selection and study of the intersection pedestrian delay affect the pedestrian LOS.
 Data collection using video camera kept on road intersection.
 Analysis of data and evaluation of relation between various factor and pedestrian LOS by
correlation.
 Summary, conclusion and utilization of data in the future.

1.7 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The purpose of this study on pedestrian need is to provide better facilities to pedestrian in India.
Pedestrian level of service is one of the indicative which represents quality of given intersection
in terms of perceived safety, convenience and comfort in terms of pedestrian perspective. In
India the number of person prone to accidents and deaths are mainly pedestrian. Pedestrian are
one of the major commuters on Indian urban streets. In India mostly pedestrian are neglected in
transportation planning and management. So as the pedestrian increasing day by day so better
facilities need to be provided.

1.8 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION

In their most common form, signalized intersection have indication for users on each intersection
approach show a basic signalized intersection with four vehicle approaches and two pedestrian
approaches. It may be necessary to consider the uses of pedestrian signal at location along a

8
corridor with a high correlation of pedestrian. This type of traffic control can be used at
signalized interaction with the addition of pedestrian push – bottom and signal heads. Or non-
signalized location that has high volume of pedestrian crossing. There of chance of accidents and
conflict more as vehicle and pedestrian using the same space at the same time. Till now in India
correlation of design of roadway elements mostly on vehicle only as they are the main users of
road. Urban area at intersection considered amount of pedestrian using road.
Table 1.1 presents urban road traffic crashes in the state of Delhi. About 20% of urban road
crashes occur at intersections. In recent years, the number of crashes at traffic signals has
increased considerably. According to statistics, approximately 24% of intersection traffic crashes
occurred at signalized intersection.
Table 1.1 pecentage of intersection crashes signalized intersection

The data tabled above is represented as Fig. 1.3 shown below indicates that a 24 pecentage of
intersection crashes occures at signalized intersection, of which 40 percent causes serious
injuries and fatalities.

9
 Figure 1.3.Urban road traffic crashes in the state of Delhi, India

Therefore there is an urgent need to develop some strategies to enhance safety at signalized
intersection. This study consists of three sections, first section introduce the study, second
section identifies the factors affecting safety at signalized intersection and third section
concluded the study.
Factors Affecting the Safety at Signalized Intersection
the safety at signalized intersection. Geometric features are the major factors affecting the safety
at signalized intersection in country like India. There are various issues we will discuss below.
These issues must be identified and it should provide suitable countermeasure. Geometric
characteristics are reasonably expected to influence the crash frequency at signalized
intersections. The geometric attributes that are considered include Intersection type, the number
of approach lanes, Presence of turning lane and turning radius, Presence of median or median
width, Number of approach lanes, The number of approach lanes is the sum of the number of
lanes at every approach to an intersection. The turning radius refers to the centreline of vehicle
manoeuvre. Signalized intersection with wide major roads are associated with more number of
crashes. In India with increasing population, number of vehicle user is also increasing. Hence
intersection should be designed according to the traffic volume study and appropriate type of
intersection should be selected. Increased Total volume, Volume of entering traffic and Right

10
turn volume creates the traffic congestion which turns into more number of conflicts at the
signalized intersection.
Traffic signal control is a common control measure at junctions, especially in highly developed
and crowed urban road network that requires less land intake .Signalized junction outperform
other junction type because efficient signal phasing achieves the equalization of traffic delays at
different approaches, resolves conflicts between different traffic streams, is flexible to variation
in traffic demand, and allows crossing streams for pedestrians. Safety issues arise when signal
design violates design standards, or does not adapt to daily, seasonal, or yearly traffic variations.
It was known by the mid-1930s that traffic lights increased accident frequency. They compress
an hour’s traffic into half an hour of green time and thereby halve all headways. They then make
drivers go fast and keep close to the vehicle in front for fear of missing the green light, with their
eyes up in the air rather than on the road. The combination of
high speed, tailgating, diverted attention and sudden stops causes front-to-rear crashes. In
addition inadequate phasing of traffic signals creates the dilemma which turns into the more
chances of conflicts between different traffic streams. During the rainy season, visibility at road
intersection is very less. Fog also affects the visibility of road intersection. Other than that, in
rainy season slippery pavements are also a threat to the safety at road intersection. Due to Stop
and Go pattern at signalized intersection most intensive exposure to air pollution happens at
these locations. It severely affects the health of the people. It may also lead to major respiratory
problems. One other major issue is Noise pollution. It, can cause stress, headaches, impair
hearing, and disturb everyday life. These days, mental stress on human beings is increasing in
many ways. Traffic Jam is one of the root causes for increased stress levels in humans. Such
problems exist predominantly in many cities like Mumbai, Bangalore and Delhi. During peak
hours, it takes a couple of hours to drive a stretch of 10 to 20km. Traffic jams appear at almost
every kilometre in major cities. Most people increase stress levels while waiting at traffic jams
on their way to work, meetings, trainings or interviews. The increased interaction between
motorized and non-motorized traffic poses high risk at signalized intersection. In Indian scenario
it is difficult to achieve a beneficial Land-use of the signalized intersection location due to the
mix traffic conditions as shown in the Fig. 1.4

11
 Figure 1.4.Mixed traffic at Indian signalized intersection
Another factor that affects the safety at signalized intersection is presence of bus stop near the
junction location. It increases the chances of conflict between pedestrians and motorised
vehicles.
Based on the above discussion this study has identified different factors affecting the safety at
signalized intersection. The major factors are categorised below as presented in Table 2.

Table 1.2.Factors affecting safety at signalized intersection

Signalized intersections are the nodal points in any transportation network. The performance of
the entire network is influenced by the efficiency of the signalized intersections.

12
The Level of Service (LOS) indicates the operational efficiency of any road facility. The
Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) defines LOS as “a qualitative measure describing operational
conditions within a traffic stream and their perception by motorists and/or passengers”. While
planning any facility, the users’ satisfaction should be the paramount consideration. Hence,
incorporating the users’ perception into the LOS analysis increases the user acceptance of the
facility. As per the current practice, the LOS solely depends on delay and the volume-to-capacity
ratio [1]. Even though the definition of LOS says that it should be based on the users’ perception,
no efforts have been made to incorporate the same. Also, the intersections having the same value
of delay would rank equal. But this may not be the case if other influencing parameters are
incorporated [2–4]. Considering delay as the sole quality of service measure leads to the
ignorance of other qualitative aspects which influence the level of service.

Unlike developed countries, the traffic in developing countries like India is characterized by
mixed traffic condition and presence of weak/loose lane discipline [5].
Furthermore, in India, the people are from different economic backgrounds and have different
living standards and all together make the scenario complex. The traffic mix includes the vehicle
classes ranging from motorized two wheelers to the hand/animal driven carts. The behavior of
users’ will change with respect to the different vehicle type and this change in behaviour reflects
in the way they perceive the level of service. For e.g. the factors influencing the perception of
LOS of motorized two-wheeler users will be different from that of car users. Similar is the case
with other vehicle type users. Delay may not be the only factor that influences their perception.
For e.g. after the rainy season, most of the roads in India are filled with potholes and the
pavement surface quality will be poor. In such cases, users’ may give higher priority to road
surface quality than waiting time. Similar is the case with the presence of exclusive right turn
lanes. As there is no lane discipline, the through moving vehicles occupy the rightmost side of
the carriageway making the right turning vehicle to queue up. For better behavioral investigation
and justification, the concept of user perception must be integrated with the assessment of the
LOS. Hence, there is a need to identify the factors influencing the users’ perception of LOS at
signalized intersection and to incorporate them into the LOS analysis. The objective of this paper
is to identify the domain of factors that influence users’ perception of LOS of signalized
intersection under mixed traffic condition.

13
The scope of the study is limited to investigate the effect of socio-demographic and travel
characteristics of the different vehicle type users on the rating of the influencing factors.
Motorized two-wheelers, motorized three-wheelers, cars, and buses are the vehicle types
considered for the present study.
STATISTICS OF ROAD ACCIDENTS IN DELHI

Data shows number of accidents in Delhi has come down even as vehicular population has
gone up

Chennai's traffic statistics may show a higher number of road accidents but the streets of the
Capital are more bloody. While the Capital of Tamil Nadu recorded the highest number of road
accidents in 2016, Delhi has overtaken the former in terms of most number of deaths due to road
mishaps.

According to experts, a host of factors ranging from bad road design to lax enforcement of traffic
rules led to the Capital claiming the top spot.

14
Statistics compiled by the Research Wing of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways in its
report titled ‘Road Accidents in India 2016’, showed that Chennai had the highest number of
road accidents at 7,486 while Delhi had the highest number of deaths — 1,591 — due to road
accidents.

Peak in 2014

The report recorded road accidents in Delhi having peaked at 8,623 in the year 2014 before
steadily coming down to 8,085 in 2015 followed by 7,375 in 2016 claiming 1,671, 1,622 and
1,591 lives respectively. Experts attributed the lowering numbers to a proportional increase in
vehicular congestion in the Capital.

“Since 2011, Delhi has shown good record in terms of accident statistics gradually coming down.
But this is not happening because of engineering faults being corrected but due to an increase in
vehicular population. There is congestion on Delhi's streets for as many as 14 hours on an
average day,” said Dr. S. Velmurugan, head of the Traffic Engineering and Safety Division,
CSIR-CRRI.

The Capital’s vehicular population has officially breached the 1.05-crore mark, with over 94% of
it being constituted by private vehicles.

This, even when there has been no proportional increase in road space in a city that houses over
2.7 crore residents.

According to the latest figures compiled by the Delhi Transport Department, the city’s
population of privately-owned vehicles is just shy of 1 crore, an estimated 99,38,656 till May 25
if one combines the total number of privately-registered cars and two-wheelers across categories.

T-junctions unsafe

Of the total 7,375 accidents recorded in 2016, the maximum, at 5,088, resulted in minor injuries
followed by 1,548 which were categorised as fatal and 583 which led to grievous injuries. As
many as 156 accident victims had lucky breaks, escaping with no injuries.

15
According to the report, T-junctions have emerged as the most unsafe spots on the Capital's
streets having seen as many as 1,008 accidents in 2016 followed by 837 at Y-junctions, arm
junctions, at 742 and as many as 270 accidents at roundabouts which, experts said, were
evidence of both engineering faults and laxity in enforcement.

“Speed is the main killer on Delhi's roads,” asserted road and design expert Professor Dr. P. K.
Sarkar of the School of Planning and Architecture (SPA).

“Studies have shown that if you decrease the average speed limit by 5 kilometres, then there is a
decrease in fatal accidents. On our roads, however, the engineering is not even conducive for
traffic plying at 40 kmph,” he said.

Safety and speed

According to Professor Sarkar, issues related to the safety of road users in Delhi, which already
suffer from engineering faults, are compounded by speed and the behaviour of “unruly drivers.”

“All of this can be managed through speed cameras and night cameras; the need of the hour is an
Intelligent Traffic Management System (ITS) which has been conceived but is yet to see the light
of day in Delhi,” he added.

16
Road accidents in India, 2016: 17 deaths on roads every hour, Chennai and Delhi most
dangerous

A Report on Road Accidents in India 2016, published by Transport Research wing under
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Government of India, has revealed that more people
died on roads accidents in India last year, as compared to the number of deaths in 2015. The data

17
has further revealed that the states of Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have accounted for
maximum number of deaths this year.

As per the data cited in the report, the country recorded at least 4,80,652 accidents in 2016,
leading to 1,50,785 deaths. The number suggests that at least 413 people died everyday in 1,317
road accidents. Further breaking down the statistics, the data reveals that at least 17 deaths
occurred in road accidents in 55 accidents every hour in the given time period. Comparing the
new recordings with data from previous year shows that in spite of recording fewer accidents in
2016, more deaths have occurred this year as in 2015. In 2015, 1,46,133 people had died in
5,01,423 accidents. The accident severity, which is measured as the number of persons killed per
100 accidents, was recorded at 29.1 in 2015 which is lower than 31.4 in 2016.

18
The report further revealed that Highways are not the “biggest killers”. As per the report, 34.5
per cent accident deaths occurred on National Highways, while 27.9 per cent accident deaths
took place on State Highways, while maximum percentage of deaths occurred on other roads
(37.6). Giving insight into the cause of accidents, it further added, that speeding appears to the be
the biggest cause of concern, other than usage of mobile phones while driving vehicles. While

19
speeding led to 66.5 per cent of all road accidents and 61 per cent of deaths, usage of cellular
phones caused just below 5000 accidents and over 2000 deaths.

The study went on to list Chennai as the city with most dangerous roads, as it recorded 7,486
accidents in 2016, followed by Delhi which recorded 7,375 accidents. Bengaluru, Indore and
Kolkata, rounded up the top five positions in the list, respectively. With 12.8 per cent of total
road accidents, the state of Uttar Pradesh saw the highest road accidents, followed by Tamil
Nadu (11.4), Maharashtra (8.6) and Karnataka (7.4).

An interesting discovery of the report was the fact that cities with a large population saw
majority of accidents. The report said that 50 cities with million-plus populations accounted for
18.7 per cent of all road accidents and 11.8 per cent of all accidents deaths. The report also found
that newest vehicles featured in most of the accidents. Vehicles with usage age of 0-5 years
featured in 40.3 per cent of the accidents, while those of 5-10 usage years featured in 32.7 per
cent of accidents.

In terms of deaths caused by speed bumps and potholes, the report said that just below 10,000
road accidents were caused by speed breakers, which led to death of 3,396 people. The potholes
were held responsible for at least 6,424 road accidents out of which 2,324 proved to be fatal, the
report said.

20
 CHAPTER -2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Klobucar & Fricker (2007) assumed in his study that bicyclists make decisions on the basis of
perceived safety and travel distance. They presented two tools as most commonly used to
quantify the perceived safety of a bicycle facility are the bicycle compatibility index (BCI) and
the bicycle level of service (BLOS). Each evaluation tool was developed by using stated
perceptions of the conditions faced by a bicyclist on various facilities and by using the properties
of the facility and its environment to fit a linear regression to predict these perceptions. Based on
this safe length have been calculated. It has been concluded that improvement in the total
network path safe length indicates an improvement in the perceived safety of the bicyclists.

Parkin, Wardman, & Page (2007) developed two models of perceived risk; based on non-
linear least squares, and a model of acceptability, based on the logit model, have been estimated
for whole journeys based on responses from a sample of 144 commuters (2002) to video clips of
routes and junctions. The risk models quantify the effect of motor traffic volumes, demonstrate
that roundabouts add more to perceived risk than traffic signal controlled junctions and show that
right turn manoeuvres increase perceived risk. The acceptability model confirms the effect of
reduced perceived risk in traffic free conditions and the effects of signal controlled junctions and
right turns.

Cho, Rodriguez, & Khattak (2009) examined how perceived and actual crash risks are related
with each other and with respect to built environmental characteristics. Perceived risks for
pedestrians and bicyclists were measured with a questionnaire including perceived neighborhood
safety developed by the Neighborhood Quality of Life Study. Actual pedestrian and bicycle
crash data were provided by the National Study Center for Trauma and EMS at the University of
Maryland reported by police between January 2000 and December 2002. The secondary GIS
data and primary data were collected through a street audit to characterize the built environment.
The analytical approach was first to conduct an exploratory factor analysis of built environment
variables to reduce them to a lower number of variables representing their underlying

21
dimensions. Then, the predicted factor scores were included in a non-recursive path analysis
mode. The results showed that residents who live in low density-single residential neighborhoods
are more likely to perceive their neighborhood as dangerous relative to residents of compact,
mixed-use neighborhoods even though the latter exhibited higher actual crash rates. The results
of path analyses confirmed that a simultaneous but opposite relationship exists between
perceived and actual crash risks. The results indicate that higher actual crash risk increases
perceived crash risk, while higher perceived crash risk is negatively associated to actual crash
rates. Consequently, low density and non-mixed land uses increase individuals perception of
crash risk, and increased perception of risk and unfriendly environment for pedestrian and bikers
reduces actual crash rates as a result of behavioral changes.

Elvik and Bjornskau (2005) probed the extent to which the public accurately perceived
differences in transport risks. Comparisons have been made between estimates of the fatality rate
per billion kilometres of travel and four different summary measures of perceived risk. All these
comparisons show high correlations between statistically estimated risk and perceived risk.
DeJoy (1992) presented results that provide some insight into the hypothesized relationship of
optimism to the excess involvement of young males in traffic crashes. A particularly volatile
combination appears to exist, in that, young males, relative to their female counterparts, possess
an exaggerated sense of their own driving competency and they perceive less risk in a variety of
dangerous driving behaviors. While the males in this study tended to be generally more
optimistic than the females, the most pronounced differences occurred in the ratings of relative
driving skill.
Finn and Bragg (1986) mentioned in their study that young drivers are significantly
overrepresented among all drivers involved in traffic accidents and fatalities. Excessive risk
taking by young drivers appears to be largely responsible for this disproportionate involvement.
This excessive risk taking could be due to (1) being more willing to take risks than older drivers
are, (2) failing to perceive hazardous situations as being as dangerous as older drivers do or (3)
both causes. It was also concluded that young male drivers are overrepresented in traffic
accidents at least in part because they fail to perceive specific driving situations as being as risky
as older drivers perceive them.

22
There are relatively fewer studies in the area of users’ perception of LOS at signalized
intersection. The pioneering study in this area was by Sutaria and Haynes [6]. A questionnaire
survey was carried out and the users were requested to rate the factors before and after viewing
the video films. They found that delay was the most influencing factor and the other factors
changed ranking before and after viewing the videos. Pecheux et al. [2] studied the factors
affecting the LOS. Controlled laboratory studies were carried out for data collection at the
Pennsylvania Transportation
Institute (PTI). Video data from 24 approaches and responses from 100 subjects were used. They
came up with fifteen potential factors that may influence the users LOS perception. Traffic signal
waiting time, the length of gaps in traffic on the cross-street, traffic signal operations, traffic
signal visibility, information guidance systems, physical features of the intersection etc. were the
factors considered by Lee [7] for assessing user perception of signalized intersection. For
evaluating the user perceived turning movement LOS, Chen et al. [8, 9] considered factors like
waiting time, the volume of pedestrians, the volume of bicycles etc. Zhang and Prevedouros [10]
found out that delay, left turn treatment (right turn in India) and pavement markings are the most
important factors that influence the users’ perception of LOS at signalized intersection. A study
on drivers’ perception of LOS at signalized intersections was carried out by Jou et al. [11]
especially for motorcycle riders and car drivers in Taiwan. Pre-recorded videos of different LOSs
were presented to the respondent in the survey. In their study, the factors influencing user
perceived LOS were divided into seven categories namely- traffic flow, pavement condition,
geometric highway design, traffic control, distribution of vehicle types, hardware facility, and
weather.
Even though some effort has been made into incorporate users’ perception into LOS, most of
them are in developed countries. The traffic characteristics of developing countries like India are
highly different from that of developed countries. Recently few studies have been carried out in
developing countries like India incorporating the users’ perception. Das and Pandit [12]
reviewed the importance of user perception in the assessment of LOS for bus transit.
Using the law of interval scaling, Das and Pandit [13] developed the LOS thresholds for bus
transit services. Jena et al. [14] carried out a user perception survey and developed a model to
assess the LOS of urban street segments in India. No studies have been conducted to identify the

23
factors influencing the LOS based on different vehicle type users’ perception. Hence there is a
need for identifying the most important factors that influence the perceived LOS by different
vehicle type users. The various factors affecting the user perception of the level of service have
been identified from the literature and is grouped into operational, geometrical and other factors.
Table 1 gives the factors
Kadali and Vedagiri (2016) conducted a study to analyze issues related to PLOS of crosswalks
namely, signalized, unsignalized, and midblock locations. It was asserted that the focus for
evaluation of PLOS has shifted from quantitative approach to qualitative methods and factors
considered for the assessment of these facilities have been changing. Usually, a measure of
effectiveness is used for evaluation of pedestrian facilities and the measure of effectiveness
varies for each type of facility. For signalized intersections, pedestrian delay and space at the
corner are considered as measures of effectiveness. However, at unprotected midblock
crosswalks, the measures of effectiveness might depend on pedestrian delay, available vehicle
gaps (crossing difficulty), safety and behavior of vehicle drivers as well as that of pedestrians
[6].
Nagraj and Vedagiri (2013) undertook a study to identify the factors which affect PLOS of
signalized intersection crosswalks under heterogeneous traffic conditions and to propose a
method for estimating pedestrian LOS. The study attempted to develop a PLOS model for
crosswalks of signalized intersection in Mumbai, India, by using pedestrians’ perceptions of
various influencing factors. The important factors considered to develop the model were number
of pedestrians, turning traffic, through traffic and pedestrian delay. On the basis of previous
research, the main factors affecting PLOS at a signalized intersection are crossing facilities
(including crossing distance, space at the corner of an intersection, the type of crossing markings,
etc.), traffic conflicts (through traffic, turning traffic, and number of pedestrians), and delay. The
study concludes that turning vehicles, through vehicles, and pedestrian delay are the main factors
affecting LOS of crosswalks at signalized intersection [7].
Ling et al. (2014) proposed a method to estimate PLOS based on traffic environments and
pedestrians’ perceptions in Shanghai, China. The researchers found that of the factors which
influence PLOS; turning traffic, mixed two-wheeler volume, and pedestrian delay have negative
impact to PLOS. On the other hand, factors such as pedestrian volume and the presence of a
refuge island which enables a two-step crossing improve the PLOS of signalized crosswalks. The

24
identified relevant factors were: leaving left-turning non-motorized vehicles, entering right-
turning motorized vehicles, mixed cyclists volume, pedestrian volume at the beginning of green
time, pedestrian delay, presence of refuge islands and presence of two-step crossing [8].
Muraleetharan et al. (2005) aimed to identify the factors that affect PLOS of crosswalks at
signalized intersections and to propose a method for the estimation of PLOS at signalized
crosswalks. A stepwise multi-variable regression analysis was performed in the city of Sapporo,
Japan using the collected data of various types of intersections. Factors like turning vehicles,
space at corner, crossing facilities, pedestrian-bicycle interaction and delay at signals were found
to significantly affect PLOS of crosswalks at intersections. The results of the study revealed that
turning vehicle volume has greater influence on PLOS than other factors. The results showed a
corresponding decrease in the perceived safety to the pedestrians when the number of turning
vehicles increased. It was also observed that, regarding crossing facilities, pedestrians prefer
design improvements like separate path for bicycles, high visibility zebra crosswalk markings,
and well-designed curb ramps. Also, it was found that as the pedestrians do not accept long
delays at signalized intersections, they prefer pedestrian crosswalks where pedestrians are given
priority [9].
Florez et al. (2014) carried out a study to identify the attributes which define the pedestrians
quality of service matches of the FIFA Confederations Cup which were played in June 2013 in
Rio de Janeiro. The authors found that factors such as pavement and width of the sidewalk,
absence/presence of obstacles, topography, noise and pollution, cleanliness, ease of crossing etc.
influences pedestrians’ perception of comfort while volume and speed of traffic, safety of
intersections and separation between pedestrians and vehicles influences pedestrians’ perception
of comfort [10].

Archana and Reshma (2013) studied the effect of factors which affect pedestrian level of
service at signalized intersections and aimed to develop a pedestrian level of service model
which takes into account pedestrians' perception of safety and comfort using multiple regression
analysis. The researchers concluded that PLOS of a crosswalk at a signalized intersection is
greatly influenced by pedestrian volume, crosswalk surface condition and crosswalk marking
visibility [5].

25
Petritsch et al. (2005) performed a study to develop a PLOS model which can represents
perceptions of pedestrians' at crossings of signalized intersections. Motor vehicle volume and
right turn on red volumes on the street being crossed, permissive left turns from the street
parallel to the crosswalk, number of lanes being crossed, midblock 85th percentile speed of the
vehicles on the street being crossed, presence or absence of right-turn channelization islands and
pedestrian's delay were considered as the primary factors in the PLOS model for crosswalks of
signalized intersections [11].

Bullock et al. (2006) claimed that the PLOS for signalized intersections in HCM which is based
on pedestrian delay does not consider other significant factors such as likelihood of a pedestrian
crossing a road within a reasonable time successfully and safely. The researchers found that
factors such as the presence of geometric characteristics, pedestrian signal phasing characteristics
and conflicting vehicle volumes increase the difficulty a pedestrian encounters while crossing
any road. It was also found that PLOS at crosswalks of signalized intersections can be modeled
considering factors such as geometry of the intersection, traffic volume and signal timing [12].
Jensen (2013) aimed to develop methods for quantifying pedestrian and cyclist stated satisfaction
objectively with roundabouts, signalized and non-signalized intersections, mid-block crossings,
and pedestrian bridges and tunnels in Denmark. The researcher found that variables such as type,
width and height of pedestrian and bicycle facility, length of crossing, size of roundabout, width
of roadway, traffic volume, waiting time and speed limit significantly influence the level of
satisfaction [13].

Zhao et al. (2014) aimed to develop a pedestrian level of service (LOS) model for unsignalized
midblock crossings from the pedestrian’s perception of safety and convenience perspective in
China. The potential factors influencing pedestrian LOS at unsignalized midblock crosswalks
were summarized from four respects: traffic conflicts, the distance between crosswalks, crossing
facilities, and delay. The results revealed that the factors significantly influencing pedestrian
LOS of the overall unsignalized midblock crossings of road segments included volume of two-
way motor vehicle, the distance between marked midblock crosswalks, and the distance between
unmarked crosswalks. Motor vehicle traffic volume was found to have negative effect on
pedestrian LOS, and the distance between marked midblock crosswalks and the distance between
unmarked midblock crosswalks have differently positive effect on pedestrian LOS [14].

26
Kadali and Vedagiri (2015) aimed to evaluate the LOS of midblock crossing facilities with
respect to different land-use type under mixed traffic conditions. An ordered probit (OP) model
was developed by using NLOGIT software package, considering road crossing difficulty as well
as safety, number of vehicles encountered, pedestrian individual factors, and roadway geometry
and land-use type. The researchers found that perceived safety, crossing difficulty, number of
vehicles encountered, land-use condition, number of lanes and median width have significant
effect on pedestrian perceived LOS. Increase in vehicle volume results in decrease in pedestrian
perceived LOS. The pedestrian safety can be improved by improving crossing facilities such as
proper markings, adequate barrier width, lighting and controlling vehicular movement [15]. Chu
Baltes (2001) developed a methodology for assessment of PLOS of midblock crosswalks. The
difficulty in crossing was defined on the basis of a number of factors such as the amount of time
to wait for a suitable gap in traffic, risk of being hit by a vehicle, presence of a pedestrian refuge
or a median, lack of an acceptable traffic gap, parked cars, or anything else that may have an
effect on the crossing difficulty. The results of this study revealed that the crossing difficulty
tended to increase with signal spacing, width of painted median, and turning movements while
the presence of pedestrian signals the perception of difficulty in crossing [16].

27
 CHAPTER -3

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS IN INDIA

3.1 Traffic accidents in India

Traffic accidents in India are a major source of deaths, injuries and property damage every
year. The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) 2016 report states there were 496,762 roads,
railways and railway crossing-related traffic accidents in 2015. Of these, road accidents
accounted for 464,674 accidents which caused 148,707 traffic-related deaths in India. The three
highest total number of fatalities were reported in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu,
and together they accounted for about 33% of total Indian traffic fatalities in 2015. Adjusted for
182.45 million vehicles and its 1.31 billion population, India reported a traffic accident rate of
about 0.8 per 1000 vehicles in 2015 compared to 0.9 per 1000 vehicles in 2012, and an 11.35
fatality rate per 100,000 people in 2015. According to Gururaj, the top three highest traffic
fatality rates per 100,000 people in 2005 were reported by Tamil Nadu, Goa and Haryana, with a
male:female fatality ratio of about 5:1. The reported total fatality, rates per 100,000 people and
the regional variation of traffic accidents per 100,000 people varies by source. For example,
Rahul Goel in 2018 reports an India-wide average fatality rate of 11.6 per 100,000 people and
Goa to be the state with the highest fatality rate.

Figure 3.1 Total number of persons killed and injured due to road accidents, from 2001 to
2010

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According to the 2013 global survey of traffic accidents by the UN World Health Organization,
India suffered a road fatality rate of 16.6 per 100,000 people in 2013. [6] India's average traffic
accident fatality rate was similar to the world average rate of 17.4 deaths per 100,000 people,
less than the low-income countries which averaged 24.1 deaths per 100,000, and higher than the
high-income countries which reported the lowest average rate of 9.2 deaths per 100,000 in 2013.

3.2 Extent of traffic accidents

Tamil Nadu records the highest road accidents for a decade and its capital Chennai has more
accidents than any other city in India.

Accident data in Tamil Nadu

Year Accidents Casualties

2000 8,269 9,300

2001 8,579 9,571

2002 9,012 9,939

2003 8,393 9,275

2004 8,733 9,507

2005 8,844 9,760

2006 10,055 11,009

2007 11,034 12,036

2008 11,813 12,784

2009 12,727 13,746

2010 14,241 15,409

2011 14,359 15,422

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 2012 15,072 16,175

2013 14,504 15,563

Footnote: Sources:

In New Delhi, the capital of India, the frequency of traffic collisions is 40 times higher than the
rate in London, the capital of the United Kingdom.

Traffic collision-related deaths increased from 13 per hour in 2008 to 14 per hour in 2009. More
than 40 per cent of these casualties are associated with motorcycles and trucks. The most
accident-prone time on Indian roads is during the peak hour at afternoon and evening.

According to road traffic safety experts, the actual number of casualties may be higher than what
is documented, as many traffic accidents go unreported. Moreover, victims who die some time
after the accident, a span of time which may vary from a few hours to several days, are not
counted as car accident victims.

In 2015, one person dies every 4 minutes in roads accidents in India, according to NGO 'Indians
for Road Safety'.

India stands out miserably in the latest World Health Organisation's (WHO) "Global Road Safety
Report-2015" with an estimated 207,551 deaths on roads.

30
3.3 Contributing factors

Figure 3.2.Unsafe travel on motorcycles in Hyderabad.

The "GlobStatus Report on Road Safety" published by the World Health Organization (WHO)
identified the major causes of traffic collisions as driving over the speed limit, driving under the
influence, and not using helmets and seat belts. Failure to maintain lane or yield to oncoming
traffic when turning are prime causes of accidents on four lane, non-access controlled National
Highways. The report noted users of motorcycles and motor-powered three-wheelers constitute
the second largest group of traffic collision deaths .

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Economic cost

Figure 3.3.Multiple vehicle collision occurred on a busy road crossing at office time in Kolkata.

The Planning Commission in its 2001–2003 research estimated that traffic collision resulted in
an annual monetary loss of $10 billion (INR 550 billion) during the years 1999–2000. In 2012,
the International Road Federation (IRF) estimated that traffic collision results in an annual
monetary loss of $20 billion (INR 1 trillion (short scale)) in India. This figure includes expenses
associated with the accident victim, property damage and administration expenses.

3.4 Measures to reduce traffic collisions

The Campaign Against Drunken Driving (CADD) is an organization founded by Prince Singhal
which is campaigning against driving under the influence. But this campaign has been
ineffective. The IRF asserts that people in India's political sphere do not have the will to curb
traffic accidents. Harman Singh Siddhu of ArriveSafe, an organization working for improvement
in road traffic safety, asserted that a general lack of respect for traffic rules in India is a
contributing factor for road accidents. He also has pointed out that although the 2010s was
declared by the United Nations as "Decade of Action for Road Safety", no celebration was held
in India. CSIR - Central Road Research Institute has developed an online accident recording
portal. The main purpose of this portal is to encourage people to report the accidents they see. A
group of Indian Researchers have developed a low-cost device which prevents automobile

32
drivers from receiving or making cellphone calls when at wheel, but allows calls to other
passengers in the vehicle.

3.5 Road safety policies in India

Road safety is emerging as a major social concern in the country and the Indian government has
been attempting to tackle this crucial issue for several years. The Road Transport and Safety Bill
2014 was to provide a framework for safer, faster, cost-effective and inclusive movement of
passengers and freight in India. In July 2015, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi said his
government will soon introduce laws to enhance road safety as traffic fatalities and injuries
mount. A new Road Transport and Safety Bill is under preparation and a group of experts
underlined the "urgent" need of a comprehensive national road safety legislation.

Embarq India, an initiative from the World Resources Institute (WRI), has developed significant
expertise in conducting road safety audits on a number of bus rapid transit systems in India.
Arrive SAFE is a NGO who works as a pressure group to give a wake-up call to authorities
concerned and shake the bad driving habits of Indian people. Indian driving schools focus on
youth to enhance the art and skill of efficient driving.

Many multinational companies fund NGOs as part of their own road safety initiatives:

Maruti Suzuki closely works with Ministry of Tribal Development in Gujarat to train young
people in driving.

Michelin, co-founder of the Global Road Safety Initiatives (GRSI), has established, in India, an
innovative partnership with the foundation of PVR Cinemas, PVR Nest as part of its CineArt
"Steer to Safety" program to educate and empower children about road safety. Through this
platform, children learn how to prevent and/or manage in emergency situations on Indian roads.

Henkel has launched a road safety initiative in an effort to address the topical issue of safety
standards on the road in India.

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3.6 List of major accidents

Gujarat 2016

On 5 February 2016, at least 37 people died and 24 others were injured in Gujarat after a
passenger bus plunged off a bridge over the Purna River.

Karnataka 2018

30 people were killed on 24 November 2018 when a bus plunged into Vishweshwaraiah Canal
near Pandavapura, Mandya district, Karnataka.

3.7 Overview of Road Accidents in India

In 2015, there were about five lakh road accidents in India, which killed about 1.5 lakh people
and injured about five lakh people. India, as a signatory to the Brasilia declaration, intends to
reduce road accidents and traffic fatalities by 50% by 2022. The Motor Vehicles (Amendment)
Bill, 2016 has been listed for consideration and passage in the current Budget Session of
Parliament. It seeks to address issues related to road accidents, third party insurance and road
safety measures. In this context, we present some data on road accidents, causes of accidents,
and motor vehicle third party insurance.

Since 2000, while road length has increased by 39%, number of motor vehicles have increased by
158%

 Road length in India has increased from about 4 lakh kilometres in the 1950s to about 55
lakh kilometres in 2015. Majority of this growth has been in rural roads and roads
constructed by the Public Works Department (PWD). Rural roads account for 61%, and
PWD roads for 20% of the total road length. In comparison, urban roads have a 9% share
in the road network. The growth in rural roads may be attributed to schemes such as the
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, which was launched in 2000 and aimed to improve
road connectivity in rural areas.

34
  National Highways constitute 2%, and State Highways 3% of the total road length.
Project Roads, account for 7% of the total road length, and include roads built by various
state departments such as forest, irrigation, electricity, public sector undertakings such as
Steel Authority of India, and the Border Roads Organisation.

Since 2000, while road network in the country has grown by 39%, the number of registered
vehicles has grown by about 158%. While growth in road network will be limited (due to
physical constraints), a constant increase in the number of vehicles on roads may lead to
congestion and road fatalities.

National Highways comprise 2% of the total road network, but witness 28% of the road
accidents

 While highways (both national and state) comprise about 5% of the total road network,
they witness 52% of the accidents. More accidents on highways may be attributed to
higher vehicle speeds and higher volume of traffic on these roads.
 Road standards, construction, and maintenance is determined by the authority under
whose jurisdiction the road falls. Various expert committees have noted that the
responsibility for road safety is diffused across various bodies, and there is no effective
coordination mechanism between these bodies.

Accidents per capita are increasing; Goa and Kerala have most share of accidents per lakh
population

While each bar represents decadal data, the 2014-15 data is only half way through the decade.

• The number of road accidents per lakh population has been increasing since 1970s, with
an 84% increase from 1980 to 1990.

• Across states, Goa had the maximum share in total road accidents/ lakh population in
2015 for the fourth year in a row (222 accidents/ lakh persons). This was followed by Kerala
(110 accidents/ lakh persons), and Tamil Nadu (100 accidents/ lakh persons).

35
In terms of accident fatalities, Tamil Nadu had the highest share in 2015 (23 fatalities/ lakh
persons) followed by Haryana (18 fatalities/ lakh persons), and Karnataka (18 fatalities/ lakh
persons).

Number of road accidents/ lakh population Number of persons killed in road accidents/ lakh
population

Drivers are held responsible for 78% of accidents; 3% accidents are caused by neglect of civic
bodies

• Majority of accidents (78.4%) are caused due to driver’s fault. This includes over
speeding, driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs, and hit and run cases.

Other causes of road accidents include fault of others (7.1%) such as fault of cyclists, pedestrians
or drivers of other vehicles. Fewer accidents are caused due to neglect of civic bodies (2.8%),
defect in motor vehicle (2.3%), and poor weather conditions (1.7%).

67% road accidents take place between 9AM and 9PM; 18-34 year olds most affected

• In 2015, 17.5% of all road accidents occurred between 15:00 hours and 18:00 hours,
followed by 17.3% between 18:00 hours to 21:00 hours. This may be attributed to more vehicles
present on roads during these hours (peak traffic hours).

• In 2015, the maximum number of fatalities were seen in the age group of 18 to 34 (50%),
followed by the age group of 35-64 years (36%).

The World Health Organization has noted that road accidents are a major public health problem
as crashes kill more than 1.25 million people and injure about 50 million people a year, with
90% of such casualties occurring in developing countries.

With unlimited liability, premium for third party insurance has been increasing rapidly

• One of the ways for accident victims to be compensated for road accidents is through
motor vehicle insurance. Motor vehicle insurance has two parts: (i) own damage (OD) and (ii)

36
third party liability (TP). While OD covers for the vehicle and its physical damage, TP provides
for injury or death of others involved in the accident. Under the Motor Vehicle Act, 1988, third
party insurance is compulsory for all motor vehicles.

• Between 2009 and 2014, while premium earned through OD segment has increased by
93%, premium earned through TP has increased by 248%. The share of TP within total motor
accident premium earned has increased from 38% in 2009 to 52% in 2014.

Incurred claims ratio for motor insurance is high; claims ratio for private companies has
been increasing

Data Sources: Ministry of Road Transport and Highways; Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation; Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India; PRS.
Map visualizations have been made using SocialCops.

 The incurred claims on motor insurance business ranged between 84% and 103% of the
net premium earned between 2006-07 and 2014-15. This ratio for private motor insurance
companies has increased from 64% in 2006-07 to 82% in 2014-15.

 Currently third party insurance has unlimited liability which means that the insurer has to
cover the entire amount of compensation as decided by the courts. Compensation
amounts are calculated by courts on the basis of several factors such as age, and earning
capability of the victim, and may go up to several crore rupees. With unlimited liability,
and compensation amounts increasing, claims being paid by insurance companies have
been increasing. Consequently, insurance premiums are being increased regularly.

3.8 Road Accidents In India Claim More Than 1.4 Lakh Lives In 2017

The Indian government has released the official statistics for road accidents, injuries and
fatalities for the year 2017, and the news continues to be bad. As per the latest data, in 2017, a
total of 4,64,910 road accidents were reported in the country, claiming 1,47,913 lives and
causing injuries to 4,70,975 persons, which translates into 405 deaths and 1,290 injuries each day
from 1,274 accidents. This also means that 16 people are killed and another 53 are injured every

37
hour on Indian roads. Considering that these are the officially reported accidents, there must be a
fair number that go unreported across the length and breadth of India.

Shocking as they are, the 2017 figures are a marginal improvement over 2016, which saw 413
deaths and 1,317 accidents on each day of the year. Also, for the second consecutive year, the
number of road accidents in India has declined in 2017 over the previous year.

The number of road accidents has seen a decline from the peak of 5,01,423 in 2015 to 4,80,652
in 2016 and further to 4,64,910 in 2017. The number of persons injured has been on the decline
since 2015; in percentage terms, the number of accidents in 2017 went down by 3.3 percent and
injuries by 4.8 percent compared to 2016. But on the other hand, the number of lives lost due to
road fatalities reduced by just 1.9 percent.

The government report further states that there has also been a decline in the number of fatal
accidents (accident involving at least one death), with a total of 1,34,796 fatal accidents reported
in 2017, (-0.9%). On the other hand the road accident severity (measured by the number of
persons killed per 100 accidents) saw a marginal increase of 0.4 percentage points in 2017 over
the previous year.

While there can be debate on the (marginal) reduction in terms of fatalities, the loss of human
lives and severe injuries cannot be easily measured in complete totality. In a report released
earlier this year, the World Bank estimated that if road accident deaths and injuries were halved,
it could add 7 to 22 percent to GDP per capita over the 24 years in select countries. This would
roughly translate to welfare benefits equivalent to 6 to 32 percent of GDP per capita, which
could be realised over the same period. For a country like India, where there is no formal social
welfare support, and a vast majority of the population belonging to the lower- and middle-class
families, a reduction in road fatalities would give rise to a progressive phenomenon.

The World Bank had said that "Road safety goes beyond the transport sector, with a direct
impact on public health, societies, and economies. Likewise, because road safety is an inherently
cross-sectoral issue, real progress can only happen if all relevant stakeholders unite their efforts."

38
As mobility plays a crucial role in the development of any country, India has seen tremendous
improvement in creation of new roads, highway and bridges among others. Unfortunately, road
safety rules and vehicle safety (safety equipment standards) have not been able to match this fast
pace of infrastructure development or with the same commitment.

National Highways take a big toll, two-wheelers most involved in accidents

The report reveals that the National Highways, which constitute approximately 2 percent of
India's total road network of over 56 lakh kilometres, accounted for 30.4 percent of total road
accidents and 36 percent of deaths in 2017, while accidents on State Highways and other roads
constituted 25 percent and 44.6 percent, respectively. In case of fatality, State Highways
accounted for 26.9 percent, while other roads accounted for 37.1 percent.

What continues to be a huge concern is that among the vehicle categories involved in road
accidents, two-wheelers, which is the most preferred and affordable mode of personal transport,
account for the highest share (33.9 percent) in total accidents and fatalities (29.8 percent) in
2017. Additionally, in terms of road-user categories, the share of two-wheeler riders in total
fatalities has been the highest (33 percent) in 2017, while pedestrian road-users comprise 13.8
percent of people killed in road accidents during 2017.

Light vehicles comprising cars, jeeps and taxis as a category comes a distant second with a share
of 24.5 percent in total accidents and 21.1 percent in total fatalities. Unfortunately, a vast
majority of the people involved in fatal road accidents largely constituted the young population
in the productive age groups: young adults between 18 and 45 years of age accounted for 72.1
percent of the victims in 2017. And people in the working age group of 18 to 60 years of age
accounted for 87.2 percent of the total road accident fatalities.

Tamil Nadu, MP and Karnataka record highest number of accidents

The report further reveals that Tamil Nadu recorded the highest number of road accidents in
2017, but the number of people killed in road accident was the highest in the northern state of
Uttar Pradesh. Major states that achieved significant reduction in road accidents and fatalities in
2017 were Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat and West Bengal. While Uttar Pradesh and Bihar

39
were the worst performers, recording large increase in the number of road accidents and fatalities
in 2017 as compared to 2016.

Overspeeding - No. 1 cause for road fatalities

The father of the nation Mahatma Gandhi once said, “There is more to life than simply
increasing its speed.” The statement still holds true today, maybe more than ever before.

In terms of the main factors behind road accidents, overspeeding topped the list and contributed
to 70.4 percent of all the accidents, which accounts for 66.7 percent lives lost and 72.8 percent
individuals being injured.

Clearly, it will be some time before those at the steering wheel turn more responsible in India,
which points for the need for driver training testing to be far more stringent than it is now and the
need for plenty more driver training institutes to be set up across the country, both by the central
and state governments and the private sector. A number of manufacturers across vehicle
segments, including Maruti Suzuki India, Ashok Leyland, Honda Motorcycle & Scooter India
and Suzuki Motorcycle India, are doing their bit to develop skilled and responsible drivers/riders,
but a lot more needs to be done by all stakeholders.

3.9 The way forward to a safer India

The government has already undertaken a number of steps and is putting in efforts to reduce road
accidents, injuries and fatalities in the country. It has implemented measures that was outlined in
the National Road Safety Policy, and has formulated a multi-pronged road safety strategy based
on 4 Es: Education, Engineering (both of roads and vehicles), Enforcement and Emergency Care.

The Road Transport Ministry has said that it has made road safety an integral part of road design
at planning stage and safety audit of selected stretches of National Highways. And it has also
given high priority to rectification of black spots on national highways.

At the state level, model driving training institutes are being set up that will also provide
refresher training to drivers of Heavy Motor Vehicles (CVs) in the unorganised sector.
Advocacy/publicity campaigns on road safety through the electronic and print media have been

40
sustained and broadened. It has also included road safety activities in Schedule (vii) of the
Companies Act, 2013, to enable companies to undertake road safety related activities under CSR
(Corporate Social Responsibility).

In terms of vehicular safety, mandated standards for vehicles, like seatbelts and anti-lock braking
system among others, has been tightened. Under the National Highway Accident Relief Service
Scheme, the states are provided with cranes and ambulances and the National Highways
Authority of India (NHAI) also provides ambulances at a distance of every 50km on its
completed stretches of NHs under its operation and maintenance contracts.

StopTheCrash safety initiative debuts in India

As the country moves ahead as a global automotive hub, the Global New Car Assessment
Programme (NCAP), the automotive safety watchdog, debuted its ‘StopTheCrash’ safety
campaign in India on September 26.

Led by Global NCAP, StopTheCrash is a multi-stakeholder partnership and a consortium of not-

for-profit organisations including Germany’s ADAC, UK’s Consumers International, and the
Towards Zero Foundation. Alongside, it also includes global Tier-1 majors like Bosch,
Continental, Denso, ITT, Thatcham Research, Veoneer and ZF, all united in their shared
commitment to promote advanced vehicle safety technologies in support of the UN’s Global
Goals and the Decade of Action for Road Safety, which aims to minimise road accidents around
the world by 2020.

The event saw participation from key representatives of all global NCAPs; it was designed to
showcase live demonstrations of crash avoidance technologies at the Buddh International Circuit
in Greater Noida, followed by a two-day World Congress at the Institute of Road Traffic
Education (IRTE) in Faridabad, driving awareness about the benefits of equipping cars and two-
wheelers with active safety systems that can prevent lethal crashes in the real world.

Hopefully, given the growing road safety sensitising efforts and initiatives by the government,
automobile manufacturers across segments, industry bodies SIAM and ACMA, the message of
staying safe on the road and being responsible motorists and pedestrians is reaching the populace

41
at large. And that the fatalities and accidents on Indian roads will be far fewer than they have
been in previous years.

Every life lost, every injury is one too many. It is imperative that all stakeholders, including the
government, local authorities, vehicle manufacturers, component suppliers, NGOs and also
pedestrians, should continue to increase their effort at keeping India safe.

3.10 ROAD CRASH STATISTICS 2016

I. According to the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, 1,50,785 people were killed and
another 4,94,624 were injured in 4,80,652 road crashes in India in 2016. This translates into 1317
crashes and 413 deaths every day or 55 crashes and 17 deaths every hour. The number of
road crash deaths have increased by 31% from 2007 to 2017 and that of fatal road crashes
have increased by 25.6% in the same period.
Road crash fatalities increased by 3% in the last one year (from 1,46,133 in 2015 to 1,50,785 in
2016) and accident severity2 increased from 29.1 in 2015 to 31.4 in 2016. The number of fatal
accidents has increased consistently since 2005 and saw a sharp rise from 1,31,726 in 2015 to
1,36,071 in 2016.
There has been a decline in the number of road crash cases and injured persons by 4.1% and
1.1% respectively.

II. In case of road crash deaths, Uttar Pradesh topped the list with a percentage share of
12.8% followed by Tamil Nadu (11.4%) and Maharashtra (8.6%). Top ten states in road
crash fatalities:

42
III. Two-wheelers accounted for the highest share in total road crashes (1,62,280),
contributing 33.8%, followed by cars, jeeps and taxis (1,13,267) contributing 23.6% and trucks,
tempos, tractors and other articulated vehicles (1,01,085) contributing 21.0% and buses (37,487)
contributing 7.8% to total road crash fatalities. Detailed statistics based on vehicle type is
enlisted below:

43
IV. In 2016, 15, 746 pedestrians were killed in road crashes contributing to a share of
10.5% in total road crash deaths, as against 13, 894 in 2015. This suggests that there has
been a spike in pedestrian deaths by 11.7% in the last one year.

V. Top five cities in road crash fatalities:

VI. Age profile of road crash victims for 2016 reveals that productive youth aged between
18-45 years accounted for a share of 68.6% in total road crash fatalities:

VII. Responsibility of drivers is the top contributor to road crash deaths, accounting for
80.3% deaths out of the total road crash fatalities in 2016. Top three causes of road accident
fatalities by responsibility of drivers:

44
VIII. Road crashes and fatalities due to mobile phone usage while driving is a new data point
specifically covered in the report. It resulted in 4, 976 road crashes, 2,138 road accident deaths
and injuries to 4,746 number of persons during the year 2016.

45
 CHAPTER -4

TRAFFIC COLLISION
4.1 TRAFFIC COLLISION

A traffic collision, also called a motor vehicle collision (MVC) among other terms, occurs
when a vehicle collides with another vehicle, pedestrian, animal, road debris, or other stationary
obstruction, such as a tree, pole or building. Traffic collisions often result in injury, death, and
property damage.

A number of factors contribute to the risk of collision, including vehicle design, speed of
operation, road design, road environment, and driver skill, impairment due to alcohol or drugs,
and behavior, notably distracted driving, speeding and street racing. Worldwide, motor vehicle
collisions lead to death and disability as well as financial costs to both society and the individuals
involved.

In 2013, 54 million people worldwide sustained injuries from traffic collisions. This resulted in
1.4 million deaths in 2013, up from 1.1 million deaths in 1990. About 68,000 of these occurred
in children less than five years old. Almost all high-income countries have decreasing death
rates, while the majority of low-income countries have increasing death rates due to traffic
collisions. Middle-income countries have the highest rate with 20 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants,
accounting for 80% of all road fatalities with 52% of all vehicles. While the death rate in Africa
is the highest (24.1 per 100,000 inhabitants), the lowest rate is to be found in Europe (10.3 per
100,000 inhabitants).

Many different terms are commonly used to describe vehicle collisions. The World Health
Organization uses the term road traffic injury, while the U.S. Census Bureau uses the term motor
vehicle accidents (MVA),[5] and Transport Canada uses the term "motor vehicle traffic collision"
(MVTC).[6] Other common terms include auto accident, car accident, car crash, car smash, car
wreck, motor vehicle collision (MVC), personal injury collision (PIC), road accident, road

46
traffic accident (RTA), road traffic collision (RTC), and road traffic incident (RTI) as well as
more unofficial terms including smash-up, pile-up, and fender bender.

Some organizations have begun to avoid the term "accident", instead preferring terms such as
"collision", "crash" or "incident". This is because the term "accident" implies that there is no-one
to blame, whereas most traffic collisions are the result of driving under the influence, excessive
speed, distractions such as mobile phones or other risky behavior.

Historically, in the United States, the use of terms other than "accidents" had been criticized for
holding back safety improvements, based on the idea that a culture of blame may discourage the
involved parties from fully disclosing the facts, and thus frustrate attempts to address the real
root causes.

Health effects

Psychological

Following collisions, long-lasting psychological trauma may occur. These issues may make
those who have been in a crash afraid to drive again. In some cases, the psychological trauma
may affect individuals' life can cause difficulty to go to work, attend school, or perform family
responsibilities.

Physical

A number of physical injuries can commonly result from the blunt force trauma caused by a
collision, ranging from bruising and contusions to catastrophic physical injury (e.g., paralysis) or
death.

Causes

A 1985 study by K. Rumar, using British and American crash reports as data, suggested 57% of
crashes were due solely to driver factors, 27% to combined roadway and driver factors, 6% to
combined vehicle and driver factors, 3% solely to roadway factors, 3% to combined roadway,
driver, and vehicle factors, 2% solely to vehicle factors, and 1% to combined roadway and

47
vehicle factors.[14] Reducing the severity of injury in crashes is more important than reducing
incidence and ranking incidence by broad categories of causes is misleading regarding severe
injury reduction. Vehicle and road modifications are generally more effective than behavioral
change efforts with the exception of certain laws such as required use of seat belts, motorcycle
helmets and graduated licensing of teenagers.

Human factors

Man with visible facial scars resulting from a car collision

Human factors in vehicle collisions include anything related to drivers and other road users that
may contribute to a collision. Examples include driver behavior, visual and auditory acuity,
decision-making ability, and reaction speed.

A 1985 report based on British and American crash data found driver error, intoxication and
other human factors contribute wholly or partly to about 93% of crashes.

Drivers distracted by mobile devices had nearly four times greater risk of crashing their cars than
those who were not. Dialing a phone is the most dangerous distraction, increasing a drivers’
chance of crashing by 12 times, followed by reading or writing, which increased the risk by 10
times.

An RAC survey of British drivers found 78% of drivers thought they were highly skilled at
driving, and most thought they were better than other drivers, a result suggesting overconfidence
in their abilities. Nearly all drivers who had been in a crash did not believe themselves to be at
fault. One survey of drivers reported that they thought the key elements of good driving were:

 controlling a car including a good awareness of the car's size and capabilities

48
  reading and reacting to road conditions, weather, road signs and the environment
 alertness, reading and anticipating the behavior of other drivers.

Although proficiency in these skills is taught and tested as part of the driving exam, a "good"
driver can still be at a high risk of crashing because:

...the feeling of being confident in more and more challenging situations is experienced as
evidence of driving ability, and that 'proven' ability reinforces the feelings of confidence.
Confidence feeds itself and grows unchecked until something happens – a near-miss or an
accident.

An AXA survey concluded Irish drivers are very safety-conscious relative to other European
drivers. However, this does not translate to significantly lower crash rates in Ireland. [19]

Accompanying changes to road designs have been wide-scale adoptions of rules of the road
alongside law enforcement policies that included drink-driving laws, setting of speed limits, and
speed enforcement systems such as speed cameras. Some countries' driving tests have been
expanded to test a new driver's behavior during emergencies, and their hazard perception.

There are demographic differences in crash rates. For example, although young people tend to
have good reaction times, disproportionately more young male drivers feature in collisions, [20]
with researchers observing that many exhibit behaviors and attitudes to risk that can place them
in more hazardous situations than other road users. This is reflected by actuaries when they set
insurance rates for different age groups, partly based on their age, sex, and choice of vehicle.
Older drivers with slower reactions might be expected to be involved in more collisions, but this
has not been the case as they tend to drive less and, apparently, more cautiously. [21] Attempts to
impose traffic policies can be complicated by local circumstances and driver behavior. In 1969
Leeming warned that there is a balance to be struck when "improving" the safety of a road:

Conversely, a location that does not look dangerous may have a high crash frequency. This is, in
part, because if drivers perceive a location as hazardous, they take more care. Collisions may be
more likely to happen when hazardous road or traffic conditions are not obvious at a glance, or
where the conditions are too complicated for the limited human machine to perceive and react in

49
the time and distance available. High incidence of crashes is not indicative of high injury risk.
Crashes are common in areas of high vehicle congestion, but fatal crashes occur
disproportionately on rural roads at night when traffic is relatively light.

This phenomenon has been observed in risk compensation research, where the predicted
reductions in collision rates have not occurred after legislative or technical changes. One study
observed that the introduction of improved brakes resulted in more aggressive driving, and
another argued that compulsory seat belt laws have not been accompanied by a clearly attributed
fall in overall fatalities. Most claims of risk compensation offsetting the effects of vehicle
regulation and belt use laws have been discredited by research using more refined data.

In the 1990s, Hans Monderman's studies of driver behavior led him to the realization that signs
and regulations had an adverse effect on a driver's ability to interact safely with other road users.
Monderman developed shared space principles, rooted in the principles of the woonerven of the
1970s. He concluded that the removal of highway clutter, while allowing drivers and other road
users to mingle with equal priority, could help drivers recognize environmental clues. They
relied on their cognitive skills alone, reducing traffic speeds radically and resulting in lower
levels of road casualties and lower levels of congestion.

Some crashes are intended; staged crashes, for example, involve at least one party who hopes to
crash a vehicle in order to submit lucrative claims to an insurance company. In the United States
during the 1990s, criminals recruited Latin immigrants to deliberately crash cars, usually by
cutting in front of another car and slamming on the brakes. It was an illegal and risky job, and
they were typically paid only $100. Jose Luis Lopez Perez, a staged crash driver, died after one
such maneuver, leading to an investigation that uncovered the increasing frequency of this type
of crash.

Motor vehicle speed

The U.S. Department of Transportation's Federal Highway Administration review research on

traffic speed in 1998. The summary says:

50
  The evidence shows the risk of having a crash is increased both for vehicles traveling
slower than the average speed, and for those traveling above the average speed.
 The risk of being injured increases exponentially with speeds much faster than the
median speed.
 The severity/ lethality of a crash depends on the vehicle speed change at impact.
 There is limited evidence suggesting lower speed limits result in lower speeds on a
system-wide basis.
 Most crashes related to speed involve speed too fast for the conditions.
 More research is needed to determine the effectiveness of traffic calming.

The Road and Traffic Authority (RTA) of the Australian state of New South Wales (NSW)
asserts speeding (traveling too fast for the prevailing conditions or above the posted speed limit)
is a factor in about 40 percent of road deaths. The RTA also say speeding increases the risk of a
crash and its severity. On another web page, the RTA qualify their claims by referring to one
specific piece of research from 1997, and writes "research has shown that the risk of a crash
causing death or injury increases rapidly, even with small increases above an appropriately set
speed limit."

The contributory factor report in the official British road casualty statistics show for 2006, that
"exceeding speed limit" was a contributory factor in 5% of all casualty crashes (14% of all fatal
crashes), and "traveling too fast for conditions" was a contributory factor in 11% of all casualty
crashes (18% of all fatal crashes).

Assured clear distance ahead

A common cause of accidents is driving faster than one can stop within their field of vision. Such
practice is illegal and is particularly responsible for an increase of fatalities at night – when it
occurs most.

Driver impairment

Driver impairment describes factors that prevent the driver from driving at their normal level of
skill. Common impairments include:

51
Alcohol

Relative risk of collisions based on blood alcohol levels According to the Government of
Canada, coroner reports from 2008 suggested almost 40% of fatally injured drivers consumed
some quantity of alcohol before the collision.

Physical impairment

Poor eyesight and/or physical impairment, with many jurisdictions setting simple sight tests
and/or requiring appropriate vehicle modifications before being allowed to drive;

Youth

Insurance statistics demonstrate a notably higher incidence of collisions and fatalities among
drivers aged in their teens or early twenties, with insurance rates reflecting this data. These
drivers have the highest incidence of both collisions and fatalities among all driver age groups, a
fact that was observed well before the advent of mobile phones.

Females in this age group exhibit somewhat lower collision and fatality rates than males but still
register well above the median for drivers of all ages. Also within this group, the highest
collision incidence rate occurs within the first year of licensed driving. For this reason, many US
states have enacted a zero-tolerance policy wherein receiving a moving violation within the first
six months to one year of obtaining a license results in automatic license suspension. No US state
allows fourteen year-olds to obtain drivers’ licenses any longer.

Old age

Old age, with some jurisdictions requiring driver retesting for reaction speed and eyesight after a
certain age.

Sleep deprivation

52
A graph outlining the relationship between number of hours driven and the percent of
commercial truck crashes related to driver fatigue. Various factors such as fatigue or sleep
deprivation might increase the risk, or numbers of hours driving might increase the risk of an
accident.

Drug use

Including some prescription drugs, over the counter drugs (notably antihistamines, opioids and
muscarinic antagonists), and illegal drugs.

Distraction

Research suggests that the driver's attention is affected by distracting sounds such as
conversations and operating a mobile phone while driving. Many jurisdictions now restrict or
outlaw the use of some types of phone within the car. Recent research conducted by British
scientists suggests that music can also have an effect; classical music is considered to be
calming, yet too much could relax the driver to a condition of distraction. On the other hand,
hard rock may encourage the driver to step on the acceleration pedal, thus creating a potentially
dangerous situation on the road.

Cell phone use is an increasingly significant problem on the roads and as the U.S. National
Safety Council compiled more than 30 studies postulating that hands-free is not a safer option,
because the brain remains distracted by the conversation and cannot focus solely on the task of
driving.

53
Intent

Some traffic collisions are caused intentionally by a driver. For example, an accident may be
caused by a driver who intends to commit suicide. Accidents may also be intentionally caused by
people who hope to make an insurance claim against the other driver, or may be staged for such
purposes as insurance fraud. Motor vehicles may also be involved in collisions as part of a
deliberate effort to hurt other people, such as in a vehicle-ramming attack.

Combinations of factors

Several conditions can combine to create a much worse situation, for example:

 Combining low doses of alcohol and cannabis has a more severe effect on driving
performance than either cannabis or alcohol in isolation, [48] or
 Taking recommended doses of several drugs together, which individually do not cause
impairment, may combine to bring on drowsiness or other impairment. This could be
more pronounced in an elderly person whose renal function is less efficient than a
younger person's.

Thus, there are situations when a person may be impaired, but still legally allowed to drive, and
becomes a potential hazard to themselves and other road users. Pedestrians or cyclists are
affected in the same way and can similarly jeopardize themselves or others when on the road.

Road design

A potential long fall stopped by an early guardrail, ca. 1920. Guardrails, median barriers, or other
physical objects can help reduce the consequences of a collision or minimize damage.

54
A 1985 US study showed that about 34% of serious crashes had contributing factors related to
the roadway or its environment. Most of these crashes also involved a human factor. [14] The road
or environmental factor was either noted as making a significant contribution to the
circumstances of the crash, or did not allow room to recover. In these circumstances, it is
frequently the driver who is blamed rather than the road; those reporting the collisions have a
tendency to overlook the human factors involved, such as the subtleties of design and
maintenance that a driver could fail to observe or inadequately compensate for.

Research has shown that careful design and maintenance, with well-designed intersections, road
surfaces, visibility and traffic control devices, can result in significant improvements in collision
rates.

Individual roads also have widely differing performance in the event of an impact. In Europe,
there are now EuroRAP tests that indicate how "self-explaining" and forgiving a particular road
and its roadside would be in the event of a major incident.

In the UK, research has shown that investment in a safe road infrastructure program could yield a
⅓ reduction in road deaths, saving as much as £6 billion per year. A consortium of 13 major road
safety stakeholders have formed the Campaign for Safe Road Design, which is calling on the UK
Government to make safe road design a national transport priority.

Vehicle design and maintenance

A 2005 Chevrolet Malibu involved in a rollover crash

55
Seat belts

Research has shown that, across all collision types, it is less likely that seat belts were worn in
collisions involving death or serious injury, rather than light injury; wearing a seat belt reduces
the risk of death by about 45 percent. Seat belt use is controversial, with notable critics such as
Professor John Adams suggesting that their use may lead to a net increase in road casualties due
to a phenomenon known as risk compensation. However, actual observation of driver behaviors
before and after seat belt laws does not support the risk compensation hypothesis. Several
important driving behaviors were observed on the road before and after the belt use law was
enforced in Newfoundland, and in Nova Scotia during the same period without a law. Belt use
increased from 16 percent to 77 percent in Newfoundland and remained virtually unchanged in
Nova Scotia. Four driver behaviors (speed, stopping at intersections when the control light was
amber, turning left in front of oncoming traffic, and gaps in following distance) were measured
at various sites before and after the law. Changes in these behaviors in Newfoundland were
similar to those in Nova Scotia, except that drivers in Newfoundland drove slower on
expressways after the law, contrary to the risk compensation theory.

Maintenance

A well-designed and well-maintained vehicle, with good brakes, tires and well-adjusted
suspension will be more controllable in an emergency and thus be better equipped to avoid
collisions. Some mandatory vehicle inspection schemes include tests for some aspects of
roadworthiness, such as the UK's MOT test or German TÜV conformance inspection.

The design of vehicles has also evolved to improve protection after collision, both for vehicle
occupants and for those outside of the vehicle. Much of this work was led by automotive
industry competition and technological innovation, leading to measures such as Saab's safety
cage and reinforced roof pillars of 1946, Ford´s 1956 Lifeguard safety package, and Saab and
Volvo's introduction of standard fit seatbelts in 1959. Other initiatives were accelerated as a
reaction to consumer pressure, after publications such as Ralph Nader's 1965 book Unsafe at Any
Speed accused motor manufacturers of indifference towards safety.

56
In the early 1970s, British Leyland started an intensive programme of vehicle safety research,
producing a number of prototype experimental safety vehicles demonstrating various innovations
for occupant and pedestrian protection such as air bags, anti-lock brakes, impact-absorbing side-
panels, front and rear head restraints, run-flat tires, smooth and deformable front-ends, impact-
absorbing bumpers, and retractable headlamps. Design has also been influenced by government
legislation, such as the Euro NCAP impact test.

Common features designed to improve safety include thicker pillars, safety glass, interiors with
no sharp edges, stronger bodies, other active or passive safety features, and smooth exteriors to
reduce the consequences of an impact with pedestrians.

The UK Department for Transport publish road casualty statistics for each type of collision and
vehicle through its Road Casualties Great Britain report.[56] These statistics show a ten to one
ratio of in-vehicle fatalities between types of car. In most cars, occupants have a 2–8% chance of
death in a two-car collision.

Center of gravity

Some crash types tend to have more serious consequences. Rollovers have become more
common in recent years, perhaps due to increased popularity of taller SUVs, people carriers, and
minivans, which have a higher center of gravity than standard passenger cars. Rollovers can be
fatal, especially if the occupants are ejected because they were not wearing seat belts (83% of
ejections during rollovers were fatal when the driver did not wear a seat belt, compared to 25%
when they did). After a new design of Mercedes Benz notoriously failed a 'moose test' (sudden
swerving to avoid an obstacle), some manufacturers enhanced suspension using stability control
linked to an anti-lock braking system to reduce the likelihood of rollover. After retrofitting these
systems to its models in 1999–2000, Mercedes saw its models involved in fewer crashes.

Now, about 40% of new US vehicles, mainly the SUVs, vans and pickup trucks that are more
susceptible to rollover, are being produced with a lower center of gravity and enhanced
suspension with stability control linked to its anti-lock braking system to reduce the risk of
rollover and meet US federal requirements that mandate anti-rollover technology by September
2011.

57
Motorcycles

Motorcyclists have little protection other than their clothing and helmets. This difference is
reflected in the casualty statistics, where they are more than twice as likely to suffer severely
after a collision. In 2005, there were 198,735 road crashes with 271,017 reported casualties on
roads in Great Britain. This included 3,201 deaths (1.1%) and 28,954 serious injuries (10.7%)
overall. Of these casualties 178,302 (66%) were car users and 24,824 (9%) were motorcyclists,
of whom 569 were killed (2.3%) and 5,939 seriously injured (24%).

Sociological factors

Studies in United States have shown that poor people have a greater risk of dying in a car crash
than people who are well-off. Car deaths are also higher in poorer states.

Similar studies in France have shown the same results. This may be due to working-class people
having less access to secure equipment in cars, having older cars which are less protected against
crash, and must cover more distance to go to work each day.

Other

Other possibly hazardous factors that may alter a driver's soundness on the road includes:

 Irritability,
 Following specifically distinct rules too bureaucratically, inflexibly or rigidly when
unique circumstances might suggest otherwise
 Sudden swerving into somebody's blind spot without first clearly making oneself visible
through the wing mirror
 Unfamiliarity with one's dashboard features, center console or other interior handling
devices after a recent car purchase
 Lack of visibility due to windshield design or sun glare
 Distraction by scenery, a sexually attractive person or sexually suggestive advertising
 Traffic safety culture, a variety of aspects of safety culture could impact on the number of
crashes.

58
Prevention

A large body of knowledge has been amassed on how to prevent car crashes, and reduce the
severity of those that do occur.

United Nations

Owing to the global and massive scale of the issue, with predictions that by 2020 road traffic
deaths and injuries will exceed HIV/AIDS as a burden of death and disability, the United
Nations and its subsidiary bodies have passed resolutions and held conferences on the issue. The
first United Nations General Assembly resolution and debate was in 2003 The World Day of
Remembrance for Road Traffic Victims was declared in 2005. In 2009 the first high level
ministerial conference on road safety was held in Moscow.

The World Health Organization, a specialized agency of the United Nations Organization, in its
Global Status Report on Road Safety 2009, estimates that over 90% of the world’s fatalities on
the roads occur in low-income and middle-income countries, which have only 48% of the
world’s registered vehicles, and predicts road traffic injuries will rise to become the fifth leading
cause of death by 2030.

Collision migration

Collisions migration refers to a situation where action to reduce road traffic collisions in one
place may result in those collisions resurfacing elsewhere. For example, an accident blackspot
may occur at a dangerous bend. The treatment for this may be to increase signage, post an
advisory speed limit, apply a high-friction road surface, add crash barriers or any one of a
number of other visible interventions. The immediate result may be to reduce collisions at the
bend, but the subconscious relaxation on leaving the "dangerous" bend may cause drivers to act
with fractionally less care on the rest of the road, resulting in an increase in collisions elsewhere
on the road, and no overall improvement over the area. In the same way, increasing familiarity
with the treated area will often result in a reduction over time to the previous level of care
(regression to the mean) and may result in faster speeds around the bend due to perceived
increased safety (risk compensation).

59
Road Traffic Accidents (Rtas)

Road traffic accidents (RTAs) have emerged as an important public health issue which needs to
be tackled by a multi-disciplinary approach. The trend in RTA injuries and death is becoming
alarming in countries like India. The number of fatal and disabling road accident happening is
increasing day by day and is a real public health challenge for all the concerned agencies to
prevent it. The approach to implement the rules and regulations available to prevent road
accidents is often ineffective and half-hearted. Awareness creation, strict implementation of
traffic rules, and scientific engineering measures are the need of the hour to prevent this public
health catastrophe. This article is intended to create awareness among the health professionals
about the various modalities available to prevent road accidents and also to inculcate a sense of
responsibility toward spreading the message of road safety as a good citizen of our country.

otorization has enhanced the lives of many individuals and societies, but the benefits have come
with a price. Although the number of lives lost in road accidents in high-income countries
indicate a downward trend in recent decades, for most of the world's population, the burden of
road-traffic injury—in terms of societal and economic costs—is rising substantially.[1] Injury
and deaths due to road traffic accidents (RTA) are a major public health problem in developing
countries where more than 85% of all deaths and 90% of disability-adjusted life years were lost
from road traffic injuries.[2]

As a developing country, India is no exception. Not a day passes without RTA happening in the
roads in India in which countless number of people are killed or disabled. Often members of the
whole family are wiped out. Those who are affected or killed are mostly people in their prime
productive age. The highest burden of injuries and fatalities is borne disproportionately by poor
people, as they are mostly pedestrians, cyclists, and passengers of buses and minibuses.[2]

The data for fatal accidents presented to the Parliament by the Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways for year 2008 shows that 119,860 people perished in mishaps that year and the
national and state highways accounted for nearly half of all road accidents.[3] Deaths due to road
accidents in 2009 were reported to be 126,896 and in 2010 it increased to 133,938 which is about
5.5% over and above the previous year's deaths. Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,

60
Karnataka, and Rajasthan have accounted for 11.5%, 10.5%, 7.1%, and 6.8%, respectively, of
total “Road Accident” deaths in the country.[4] The trend is alarming and is leading to a
frightening situation day by day.

4.2 India Tops Global List of Fatalities from Road Crashes

1. More than 1.3 lakh people died on Indian roads, giving India the dubious honor of
topping the list of road deaths across the world.
2. Until 2 years ago, the International Road Federation placed India second behind China.
3. China has managed to reduce the number of road deaths from over 100,000 to 90,000 or
so, and in India the situation has worsened.
4. With just 1% of the world's vehicles, India manages to account for 10% of its road
fatalities, up from 8% at last count.
5. In India the situation is exacerbated by poor enforcement of traffic laws and myopic
policies on the part of our policy makers.
6. In the United States, which has close to 300 million people and more than 250 million
vehicles, the number of deaths per 10,000 vehicles is 1.6, while in India this number,
known as the “road fatality rate,” is as high as 14.
7. In comparison, China has a road fatality rate of about 5 with almost twice as many
vehicles. Besides, in China, the fatality rate has seen a downward trend, while in India it
is raising.[5]

4.3 Alarming Trend in Tamil Nadu

In 2007, in Tamil Nadu, 12,036 persons died on the roads out of 59,140 accidents. During the
same period, 1146 people were killed in the Chennai city roads out of 7570 accidents. During
2009 over 12,000 people lost their lives in the State, while in Chennai city alone 611 people died.
During 2010, Tamil Nadu has reported maximum number (64,996) of road accidents accounting
for 15.1% of such accidents in the country while in Chennai 1408 persons were killed out of
9521 accidents. During 2011, a total of 13,119 persons were killed out of 55,592 accidents
[Table 1]. Now Tamil Nadu seems to be topping the list of most number of road accidents
happening in the Country with Chennai city having the deadliest roads among India's six

61
metropolises. On an average, 35 persons die in road mishaps every day in Tamil Nadu while it is
about 2 persons per day in the Chennai city.[3,6]

Table 4.1 Number of fatal and nonfatal accidents reported in Tamil Nadu

Contributing Factors

The road accidents are happening most often due to the reckless and speedy driving of the
vehicles, not obeying or following traffic rules, the attitudes of the “right of the mighty” bigger
vehicles toward the smaller vehicles, overburdened or overcapacity hauling of public and
transport vehicles, poor maintenance of the vehicles, drunk and driving, driver fatigue, and above
all the appalling condition of the already chocked roads with every inch encroached by
unauthorized persons and properties [Table 4.2].

Table 4.2 Fault Of Road Accidents

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Human Factors in RTA

Human factor contribute significantly to increasing number of road accidents in India. Most
drivers continue to be acting like maniacs in a tearing hurry and error in judgment often leads to
major accidents. Reckless driving, over speeding, decline to follow traffic rules, and drunken
driving are main reasons for road accidents.

Drunken Driving

Drunken driving is one of the major causes of road accidents. The statistics also show that most
of the road accidents in the highways are due to drunken driving only. Globally, some 480,000
deaths and 20 million of people get injured by drunken driving every year. In most high-income
countries about 20% of fatally injured drivers have excess alcohol in their blood, i.e., blood
alcohol concentration (BAC) in excess of the legal limit. In contrast, studies in low- and middle-
income countries like India have shown that between 33% and 69% of fatally injured drivers and
between 8% and 29% of nonfatally injured drivers had consumed alcohol before their crash.[8]

In India, drunken driving is customary in commercial vehicle drivers. Private car owners and
youngsters are also major players in the game. Small bars along the Indian highways are of
prime concern to control drunken driving. India has laws to check the drunken driving but its
effective implementation is still to be worked upon. In Bangalore, 28% of crashes involving
males over 15 years were attributable to alcohol. Drunken driving has been responsible for 70%
of road fatalities in Mumbai and Delhi.[9]

Driver Fatigue

Driver fatigue is a very dangerous condition created when a person is suffering symptoms of
fatigue while driving, often resulting from the hypnotic effect especially during nighttime driving
either falling asleep at the wheel or so exhausted to make serious- and fatal-driving errors. The
increasing number of traffic accidents due to a diminished driver's vigilance level has become a
serious problem for society. Statistics show that 20% of all the traffic accidents and up to one-
quarter of fatal and serious accidents are due to drivers with a diminished vigilance level.

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Furthermore, accidents related to driver's hypo-vigilance are more serious than other types of
accidents, since sleepy drivers often do not take correct action prior to a collision.[10]

Realizing this serious Public Health Issue happening globally, the WHO in 2004 came out with a
theme of “Road Safety is No Accidents” to highlight the urgency to tackle the issue on a priority
basis.[11] It is high time for us to look into the various issues of the RTA in this perspective so
that corrective and preventive measures can be undertaken in an urgent manner so that further
damages can be lessened.

4.4 Road Safety—A Public Health Issue

World's first RTA is supposed to have occurred in 1896. Everybody concerned at that time
reported to have said, “this should never happen again.” But more than a century later, 1.2
million people were killed on roads every year and up to 50 million more are injured. For every
one killed, injured, or disabled by RTA, there are countless others deeply affected by the cost of
prolonged medical care, loss of a family bread winner, or the extra funds needed to care for the
people with disabilities. RTA survivors, their families, friends, and other care givers often suffer
adverse social, physical, and psychological effects. If the current trends continue, the number of
people killed and injured on the world's roads will rise by more than 60% by 2020.[11]

Some Facts on RTAs

1. Worldwide an estimated 3247 people are killed every day and it is the second leading
cause of death among people aged 5−29 years.
2. RTA injures or disables between 20 million and 50 million people a year.
3. RTA ranks as the 11th leading cause of death and accounts for 2.1% of all deaths
globally.
4. 90% of the RTA deaths occur in the low income and middle income countries.
5. More than half of all RTA deaths among young adults between 15 and 44 years of age
and 73% of all the RTA fatalities are males.
6. The most vulnerable road users are pedestrians, cyclists, two-wheeler riders, and
passengers on public transport.

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 7. RTA injuries are becoming the third largest contributor to the global burden of diseases
by 2020.
8. RTA deaths are predicted to increase by 83% in developing countries and to decrease by
27% in the developed countries.
9. It is estimated that every year RTA costs billions of rupees globally and nationally. An
RTA injury puts significant strain on health care budgets.

Preventive Measures for RTA

Road deaths and injuries are preventable. A wide range of effective road safety interventions
exist and a scientific system approach to road safety is essential to tackle the problem. This
approach should address the traffic system as a whole and look into interactions between vehicle,
road users, and road infrastructure to identify solution.

Vehicles

1. Well-maintained vehicles with good breaks, lighting, tyres etc. will reduce accidents.
2. Older vehicles and highly polluting vehicles should be phased out.
3. Vehicles should be provided with seat belts and other necessary safety provisions (like
airbags).

Condition of roads

1. Roads should be well maintained with frequent relaying of road surfaces and markings of
road safety signs.
2. Provide proper footpaths for pedestrians and pedestrian crossings at intersections.
3. Provide separate lanes for slow-moving and fast-moving vehicles.
4. Roads and junctions should be wide and well lit so that visibility is good.

Human factor

1. Drivers can significantly contribute to reducing the accidents.

2. Issuing of the driving license should be strictly based on the minimum proficiency
acquired by the learners from designated driving schools.

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 3. Minimum qualifications should be fixed for different categories of drivers.
4. All drivers should be properly trained and should posses a valid driving license.
5. Educate the drivers and traveling public about traffic rules.
6. Carry out periodic medical checkup especially vision and hearing for the drivers.
7. Training on first aid should be compulsory along with heath education and traffic
education for the general public to prevent accidents.
8. Indiscriminate honking to be avoided, except as a means of greeting or in dire
emergencies.

Legislation

1. Rules for compulsory wearing of helmets by two wheelers and seat belts by four wheelers
must be implemented.
2. Enforce traffic rules by the concerned authorities strictly.
3. Removal of stray animals like cattle and removal of encroachments on footpath and road
margins will enable smooth flow of traffic.
4. Preventing haphazard parking of vehicles on busy roads and intersections to ensure free
flow of traffic.

Management of accident victims

1. The importance of the “Golden Hour” in giving adequate treatment to the accident victim
in saving the injured should be highlighted to both the health personals and the
community.
2. Provision of medical care/first aid care facilities on highways and busy roads.
3. Provision of ambulances and trained health personals in shifting and transporting the
injured person to nearby hospitals for treatment.
4. Awareness creation among all sections of the society to treat accident victims with
sympathy and without fear so that the morbidity and mortality can be reduced.

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First Aid in Road Accidents

Many deaths and impact of injuries can be prevented with first aid if causalities are treated
immediately.

The basic aims of first aid are

1. To save life,
2. To protect the casualty from getting more harm,
3. To reduce pain and priorities of casualty treatment.

Immediate requirements in a RTA situation are as follows.

Critical 4 min

One of the most common causes of a road accident death is due to loss of oxygen supply. This is
mostly caused by a blocked airway. Normally it takes less than 4 min for a blocked airway to
cause death.

The “golden hour”

The first hour after the trauma is called the “golden hour.”. If proper first aid is given, road
accident victims have a greater chance of survival and a reduction in the severity of their injuries.

Multidisciplinary Approach in RTA Prevention

WHO road safety campaign 2011: World unites to halt death and injury on the road

Governments, international agencies, civil society organizations, and private companies from
more than 100 countries have launched the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011 − 2020. The
presidents and prime ministers of these countries are expressing their commitment and launching
national plans for the Decade, which seeks to save 5 million lives over the 10-year period. India
is also a committed partner in this campaign and on May 11 the event was launched with greater
commitment to minimize road accidents.[12]

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“Road Safety Week” is observed throughout the country every year in the month of January in
order to highlight and emphasize the need for safe roads by taking up activities to promote the
concept.[13] Prevention of RTA is a responsibility of various agencies and a multi-disciplinary
approach will effectively reduce the incidence of RTA and reduction in injuries and deaths on
the roads. Effective community participation also plays a key role in the prevention of RTA.
Everybody should be concerned and should work toward achieving a safe road travel so that
“road accidents should never happen again.”

Protection is needed for three main vulnerable groups—pedestrians, who in urban areas
constitute up to 70% of the fatalities; passengers commuting on buses, trucks, and minibuses,
who constitute the next largest population group affected; and cyclists. Addressing the risks of
these three groups will require multiple policy initiatives.[14] There is clearly a need for road
safety education and it should be directed toward road users, who are frequently involved and
injured in RTAs. The real pressure and motivation to improve driving skills can come only
through licensing authorities by adopting stricter, more comprehensive, and scientifically based
tests, laying a stress on road rules, regulations, and traffic control devices.[15]

The injury profile for road traffic crashes in developing countries differs in important ways from
the profile seen in developed countries. The safety on our roads needs to be given the highest
priority by governments as well as the public at an all-India level.

The national road safety and traffic management board bill, 2010

The Bill seeks to establish a National Road Safety and Traffic Management Board for the
development and regulation of road safety, traffic management system, and safety standards in
highway design and construction. The functions of the Board include recommending minimum
standards for design, construction, and maintenance of national highways, recommending
minimum standards for trauma and paramedical facilities for traffic-related injuries on the
national highway, and conduct safety audits to monitor compliance with the standards notified by
the central government.

It also recommends minimum safety standards for the manufacture of mechanically propelled
vehicles and other types of vehicles, recommends minimum conditions of safety such as

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specifying the maximum load bearing and capacity limits, recommends standards for vehicular
traffic on the national highways (speed lanes, right of way), conduct research on road safety and
management, establish procedure for data collection, involve nongovernment organizations in
the promotion of road safety, and provide for special requirement of women, children, and senior
citizens.

The legislation was introduced in May 2010 and sought to create separate national and state
boards to address road safety issues, including road engineering, awareness campaigns to reduce
accidents on national and state highways, and coordination with different agencies on safety
issues. Two years after it was rejected by a parliamentary standing committee with a stinging
critique, the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways has decided to give another push to
National Road Safety and Traffic Management Board Bill in the current financial year.[16]

Motor vehicle amendment bill 2007 cleared by the cabinet

During the post-Budget session in March 2012, a new bill on Motor Vehicle Act was passed in
the Parliament and the Union Cabinet has approved the Motor Vehicle Amendment Bill 2007
which will enhance the tooth and power of the traffic enforcing agencies throughout the country,
a uniform code of strict traffic rules and enhanced penalties for different types of traffic
violations which is expected to act as a deterrent for traffic violations and there by help to reduce
road accidents and deaths.

According to the amendment, the use of mobile phones or iPads while driving could be subjected
to a fine of Rs 500 for the first offence, with Rs 2000 and Rs 5000 chargeable for the second
time. Now jumping the red light for the first time will fetch you Rs 100 − 500. And a second
traffic violation under this will cost Rs 300 − 1500. For overspeeding, a fine ranging between Rs
400 and Rs 1000 can be imposed for the first offence and for the second offence Rs 2000 and Rs
5000. There is no substantial change in the penalty of rash driving. For the first offence you will
pay a penalty of Rs 1000 and/or 6 months in jail. While the same offence a second time will cost
you between Rs 2000 and Rs 5000.

The bill has categorized driving under influence as follows. In cases where the alcohol level is
between 30 and 60 mg per 100 ml of blood, the offender will be subjected to 6 months in jail

69
and/or Rs 2000 fine. In cases where the alcohol level is between 60 and 150 mg per 100 ml of
blood, the offender will be subjected to 1 year jail and/or Rs 4000 fine. For alcohol levels of over
150 mg per 100 ml of blood, the offender will get a penalty of 2 years imprisonment and/or Rs
5000 fine. In the case of death in a road accident, the compensation proposed has been hiked
from Rs 25,000 to Rs 100,000. In the case of serious injury, the compensation would be Rs
50,000. As per the new bill, motor insurance claims have to be filed within a year of the
accident.[17]

Emergency medical care to victims of accidents and other emergencies

The Supreme Court of India as long back as 1989 observed that when accidents occur and the
victims are taken to hospitals or to a medical practitioner, they are not taken care of for giving
emergency medical treatment on the ground that the case is a medico-legal case and the injured
person should go to a Government Hospital. The Supreme Court emphasized the need for
making it obligatory for hospitals and medical practitioners to provide emergency medical care.
The Law Commission of India has taken up the subject of “Emergency Medical Care to Victims
of Accidents’ and other Emergencies” in the light of the observations of the Supreme Court of
India regarding the refusal of hospitals to grant emergency relief to patients who are injured in
accidents and are in emergency medical condition.[18]

This law clearly states that it shall be the duty of every hospital and every medical practitioner to
immediately attend on every person involved in an accident or who is purportedly in an
emergency condition, when such a person has come or has been brought to the hospital or to the
private medical practitioner and screen or transfer such person as stated in section 4 and when
the screening reveals the existence of an emergency medical condition, to stabilize or transfer
such person as stated in section 5 and afford them, such medical treatment as may be urgently
called for:

1. Without raising any objection that it is a medico-legal case requiring information to the
police authorities,

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 2. Whether or not such a person is immediately in a position to make payment for screening
and emergency medical treatment, and without insisting on payment as a condition
precedent,
3. Whether or not such a person has medical insurance or is a member of any medical
scheme of the person's employer or to a scheme which otherwise provides for medical
reimbursement, and
4. Without raising any other unreasonable objection.

Even in spite of this legal protection, the emergency care to accident victims is delayed resulting
in loss of precious lives.

Road Safety Information Systems

Road Traffic Injuries are one of the leading causes of premature deaths, hospitalizations,
disabilities, and socioeconomic losses. The problem is hidden and unrecognized due to the
absence of good quality information within the health and related sectors. The currently available
data reveal only the number of deaths due to different causes of injuries which is not enough to
formulate injury prevention programs. The Injury surveillance system aims at collecting relevant
information from a large number of participating organizations in a uniform way to understand
injury profiles and characteristics. Reliable and scientific information is one of the basic
requisites to plan, implement, and evaluate road safety activities. Information of RTI is primarily
collected by the Police department and sufficient information is not available from the health
sector and under-reporting is a serious issue undermining the public health burden and impact of
RTIs.[19]

Road Traffic Injury Surveillance Project

A Bengaluru study showed that nearly 5 − 10% of deaths and more than 50% of moderate to
serious injuries are not included in official reports. In this context, the Bengaluru injury and road
traffic injury surveillance program had been initiated in 2007 under the auspices of the Indian
Council of Medical Research, World Health Organization India country office and Ministry of
Health and Family Welfare, New Delhi. This project was planned to develop a surveillance
program with data collection from 25 major hospitals in Bengaluru along with linkages to police

71
records. As a pilot project, this program was initiated in Bengaluru, Pune, and New Delhi.
Depending on the experiences and the lessons learnt, the program will be expanded to other parts
of India.[20] This RTI surveillance endeavor is a prelude to integration with the Government of
India's Integrated Disease Surveillance Project (IDSP). IDSP is a decentralized, state-based
surveillance program in the country, which is intended to detect early warning signals of
impending outbreaks and help initiate an effective response in a timely manner. RTAs is one
among the core conditions under surveillance in IDSP (linkup with police computers).[21]

Road Traffic Injury is a Public Health Issue

The health sector is an important partner in the process of prevention and control of RTA. But
the role of the medical professionals in advocacy for the prevention and control of RTA is
always under-rated. The role of health sector is to provide appropriate prehospital and hospital
care and rehabilitation for victims, improve data collection, contribute to policies, develop
prevention activities, conduct advocacy, and contribute to the implementation and evaluation of
interventions.

To sum up, the road traffic injury prevention can be achieved by

1. Avoiding overspeeding and following speed limits

2. Avoiding drunken driving
3. Use of helmets by two-wheeler drivers
4. Use of seat belts and child restraints in cars
5. Improving visibility, appropriate headlights and road lightings
6. Obeying traffic rules.

Conclusions

India's Motor Vehicles Act lagging far behind the needs of a fast-motorizing society is painfully
evident from its road safety record. In a country witnessing 10% annual growth in vehicles, and
boasting a network of 3.3 million km of roads, the Bill for creation of a statutory National Road
Safety and Traffic Management Board must be speeded up. Such an agency is vital to set
standards for road design, inspect existing roads, and investigate accidents scientifically.

72
It should take a “zero tolerance” policy toward the most common transgressions—dangerous and
reckless driving; disregard for traffic rules; jumping red lights; driving under the influence of
liquor; failing to use seatbelts; and driving without a helmet—to bring about a visible change.

But strict implementation of traffic rules and stringent punishments alone will not solve the
persisting crisis. Change in the mind set of riders and drivers and road users realizing their
responsibilities alone will bring about a change.

Most countries have a multidisciplinary approach to traffic planning and road design. It is done
by psychologists, engineers, doctors, sociologists, vehicle experts, etc., In India, road traffic is
still a civil engineering issue. Lessons can be learnt from the eminent guidelines and good
practices for good behavior on the roads practiced in developed countries where safety,
orderliness, and discipline are ingrained in the citizens, come what may. Mere celebration of the
annual Road Safety Week during the first week of January does not serve any purpose. Drivers
should learn to show consideration and respect to co-vehicle drivers and pedestrians so that our
roads become safer. But it looks a long way to go.

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 CHAPTER -5
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Overview
Fatalities and injuries resulting from road traffic accidents are a major and growing public health
problem in India. Every week nearly 2,650 people get killed and 9,000 get injured due to traffic
accidents. In 2018, latest year for which data is available, 137,423 people died and 469,900
people got injured due to road accidents in India. Traffic accidents have now earned India a
dubious distinction; with nearly 140,000 deaths annually, the country has overtaken China to top
the world in road fatalities. India is the only country in the world which faces more than 15
fatalities and 53 injuries every hour as a consequence of road crashes. While in many developed
and developing countries including China, the situation is generally improving, India faces a
worsening situation. If the trend continues, the total number of road traffic deaths in India would
increase by 100% between 2018 and 2027. Without increased efforts and new initiatives, the
total number of road traffic deaths in India is likely to cross the mark of 250,000 by 2025. The
main aim of this study is to analyze the road traffic accidents in India at national, state, and
metropolitan city level. Focus would be to identify the major road safety issues and discuss
countermeasures that would have potential to address the specific road safety problems. The
primary source of data for the study is Accidental Deaths & Suicides in India, 1970 to 2018
published by the National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of
India, New Delhi. The analysis shows that during the last ten years, road accidental fatalities in
India have increased at the rate of 5% per year while the population of the country has increased
only at the rate of 1.4% per year. Due to this, fatality risk, road accidental deaths per 100,000
people, has increased from 7.9 in 2008 to 11.2 in 2018. Fatality risk in India is not only
quadruple than that in some of the developed countries such as United Kingdom and Sweden but
also still increasing rapidly. It is also found that the distribution of road accidental deaths and
injuries varies according to age, gender, month and time. Among people of all age groups,
people of economically active age group of 30-59 years is the most vulnerable. However, if we
compare gender-wise fatalities and accidents, we found that the males accounted for 85.2% of all
fatalities and 82.1% of all injuries in 2018. Moreover, road accidents are relatively higher in

74
May-June and December-January which shows that extreme weather influences the occurrence
of road accidents. Accidents remain relatively constant and high during 9 AM - 9 PM and
variable but low during mid-night and early hours of the day. However, this does not imply that
daytime driving is more risky than nighttime driving. The study also tries to find out cause-wise
distribution of road accidents. There are several factors responsible for accidents but drivers’
fault is found to be the most important one; drivers’ fault accounted for 78% of total accidents in
2018. Analysis of road traffic accidents across states and union territories reveals that, during the
year 2018, three states and union territories, Tamil Nadu (22.8), Haryana (17.2), and Andhra
Pradesh (16.9), faced 50% higher fatality risk than all India average (11.2). It is found that the
burden of road traffic accidents in India is relatively low in its metropolitan cities (million plus
cities), though fatality risk varies from 3.0 fatalities per 100,000 people in Kolkata to 25.5
fatalities per 100,000 people in Jaipur. From 2008 to 2018, fatality risk in 6 out of 21 selected
metropolitan cities increased at higher rate than that in the country. Ahmedabad faced the highest
increase in fatality risk (0.6 to 4.2) followed by Varanasi (9.5 to 17.9), Patna (9.2 to 17.4),
Chennai (8.8 to 14.3), Jaipur (15.9 to 25.5), and Vishakhapatnam (15.5 to 22.0).

5.2 Month- and time-wise distribution of road accidents

Figure 5.1 presents month-wise distribution of road accidents in India. Although monthly
variation in road accidents is not substantial, road accidents are relatively higher in May-June
and December-January. This shows that extreme weather influences the occurrence of road
accidents. Since temperature is fairly high in May-June in India, it might have had its impact on
road accidents. High temperatures have both psychological and physiological effect on drivers.
Emotions rise with the temperature, people are more irritable to others, they get tired, lose their
concentration, and their reaction time gets slower (Bijleveld and Churchill, 2009). This may be
the reason why number of road accidents is relatively higher in summer particularly in May.
Although occurrence of road accidents in December-January is not as high as in May-June, in
general, it is higher than that in other months. This may be because certain part of the country
particularly North India faces poor visibility on the roads in the months of December and
January due to foggy weather condition. In foggy weather, people generally drive somewhat
slower, but simultaneously keep a shorter following distance to the vehicle in front of them. In
combination with the decreased field of vision, this increases the risk of crashes (Bijleveld and

75
Churchill, 2009). Figure 5.2 shows time-wise distribution of road accidents in India. This figure
clearly reveals that there is substantial variation in road accidents during different times of the
day. Accidents remain relatively constant and high during 9 AM to 9 PM and variable but low
during mid-night and early hours of the day. However, this does not imply that daytime driving
is more risky than nighttime driving. If we estimate accident risk per vehicle-km or passenger-
km during day as well as nighttime, we may find that driving during nighttime is riskier than
daytime. Unavailability of data restricts us to estimate the accident risk during daytime vis-à-vis
nighttime.

Figure 5.1. Number of Road Accidents by Month of Occurrence in 2008 and 2018

76
 Figure 5.2. Number of Road Accidents by Time of Occurrence in 2008 and 2018

5.3 Causes of road accidents

Figure 5.3 presents cause-wise distribution of road accidents in India in 2018. It clearly shows
that drivers’ fault is the single most important factor responsible for accidents. Drivers’ fault
accounted for 78% of total accidents, 76.5% of total injuries and 73.7% of total fatalities in 2018.
Within the category of drivers’ fault, accidents caused due to exceeding lawful speed accounted
for a high share of 55.6%. As a share of total accidents and deaths due to drivers’ fault, intake of
alcohol and drugs accounted for 5.3% and 6.4%, respectively. As a share of total road accidents
and deaths, overloading / overcrowding of vehicles accounted for 19.6% and 22.8%,
respectively. The fault of cyclists and pedestrians appears to be marginal; they account only
1.2% and 2.2% of total accidents, respectively. The accidents caused due to defects in motor
vehicle condition and road condition is also negligible in comparison to drivers’ fault. They
accounted only 1.8% and 0.8% of total road accidents, respectively.

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 Figure 5.3. Causes of Road Accidents in 2018

5.4 Analysis of road accident scenario at state level

Figure 5.4 presents fatality risk, number of fatalities per 100,000 people, across Indian states and
union territories for the year 2008 and 2018. There is a huge variation in fatality risk across states
and union territories, ranging from 0 fatality per 100,000 people in Lakshadweep to 22.8
fatalities per 100,000 people in Tamil Nadu in 2018. During the same year, three states, Tamil
Nadu (22.8), Haryana (17.2), and Andhra Pradesh (16.9), faced 50% higher fatality risk than all
India average (11.2). In 2018, fatality risk in 16 out of 35 states and union territories was higher
than the all India average. From 2008 to 2018, fatality risk in 11 states and union territories
increased at higher rate than that in the whole country. During the same period, Jharkhand faced
the highest increase in fatality risk (1.6 to 8.1) followed by Punjab (6.2 to 16.2), A & N Island
(3.2 to 7.5), Bihar (2.5 to 5.0), Assam (4.1 to 7.8), Madhya Pradesh (7.1 to 12.0), Uttar Pradesh
(4.6 to 7.5), Orissa (6.1 to 9.8), Tamil Nadu (14.6 to 22.8), Sikkim (7.1 to 10.8), and
Chhattisgarh (9.4 to 13.9). However, there are nine states and union territories which
experienced decrease in fatality risk from 2008 to 2018. Out of these nine states and union
territories, Lakshadweep (1.7 to 0.0), Nagaland (3.1 to 1.5), Chandigarh (14.0 to 7.6), Delhi
(12.9 to 9.3), and Punducherry (18.6 to 14.9) experienced sharp decline in their fatality risk.

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Figure 5 presents fatality rate, number of fatalities per 10,000 vehicles, across Indian states and
union territories for the year 2008 and 2018. There is a huge variation in fatality rate across states
and union territories, ranging from 0 fatality per 10,000 vehicles in Lakshadweep to 16.0
fatalities per 10,000 vehicles in Bihar in 2018. During the same year, five states, Bihar (16.0),
Sikkim (15.8), West Bengal (15.1), Himachal Pradesh (14.3), and Assam (13.5) faced 50%
higher fatality rate than all India average (8.6). In 2018, fatality rate in 16 out of 35 states and
union territories was higher than the all India average. From 2008 to 2018, fatality rate has
decreased in most of the states and union territories; in fact, 24 out of 35 states and union
territories experienced higher decline in their fatality rate than that in the whole country. Fatality
rate in 8 states and union territories declined by more than 50%. However, two states, Jharkhand
(4.1 to 8.4) and Punjab (4.7 to 7.3), and one union territory, A & N Island (4.3 to 5.2), faced
increase in their fatality rate.

Figure 5.4a. Road Accident Fatality Risk in Indian States and Union Territories in 2018

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Figure 5.4b. Road Accident Fatality Risk in Indian States and Union Territories in 2008

Figure 5.5a. Road Accident Fatality Rate in Indian States and Union Territories in 2018

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 Figure 5.5b. Road Accident Fatality Rate in Indian States and Union Territories in 2008

5.5 Analysis of road accident scenario at city level

The burden of road traffic accidents in India is marginally lower in its metropolitan cities
(million plus cities). On an average, fatality risk in metropolitan cities is 9.9 fatalities per
100,000 people, which is slightly lower than all India average of 11.2 fatalities per 100,000
people. However, there is a huge variation in fatality risk across cities of India, ranging from 3.0
fatalities per 100,000 people for Kolkata to 25.5 fatalities per 100,000 people for Jaipur in 2018
(see, Figure 6). During the same year, Jaipur (25.5), Kanpur (22.3), Vishakhapatnam (22.0),
Varanasi (17.9), Lucknow (17.7), and Patna (17.4) faced more than 50% higher fatality risk than
the metropolitan city average (9.9). From 2008 to 2018, fatality risk in 6 out of 21 selected
metropolitan cities increased at higher rate than that in the country.

Ahmedabad faced the highest increase in fatality risk (0.6 to 4.2) followed by Varanasi (9.5 to
17.9), Patna (9.2 to 17.4), Chennai (8.8 to 14.3), Jaipur (15.9 to 25.5), and Vishakhapatnam (15.5
to 22.0). However, there are eight cities which experienced decrease in fatality risk from 2008 to
2018; out of these, Bangaluru experienced the highest decrease from 15.5 to 8.8 fatalities per
100,000 people whereas Kolkata experienced the lowest decrease (3.3 to 3.0). Due to fall in
fatality risk in eight cities, fatality risk in metropolitan cities in India increased only by 5% in a

81
span of a decade from 9.4 fatalities per 100,000 people in 2008 to 9.9 fatalities per 100,000
people in 2018. Figure 7 presents fatality rate across Indian metropolitan cities for the year 2008
and 2018. In 2018, fatality rate varied from 1.5 fatalities per 10,000 vehicles for Hyderabad to
8.5 fatalities per 10,000 vehicles for Kolkata. However, fatality rate in none of the sample cities
is higher than all India average (8.6 fatalities per 10,000 vehicles). From 2008 to 2018, fatality
rate has declined in fifteen out of twenty one sample cities. Seven cities, Indore, Bangaluru,
Hyderabad, Bhopal, Pune, Kanpur, and Mumbai, experienced more than 50% decrease in their
fatality rate in a span of a decade. That's why, fatality rate in Indian metropolitan cities decreased
by 42% from 5.1 fatalities per 10,000 vehicles in 2008 to 3.0 fatalities per 10,000 in 2018. The
decline is in line with the expectation since as motorization increases fatality rate decreases
(Singh, 2012).

5.6 The way forward

Road traffic fatalities and injuries are, to a great extent, preventable, since the risk of incurring
injury in an accident is largely predictable and many countermeasures, proven to be effective,
exist. The most effective way to reduce fatalities and injuries would be through an integrated
approach involving close collaboration of many sectors. Progress is being made in many parts of
the world where multisectoral strategic plans are leading to incremental reductions in the number
of road accidental fatalities and injuries (Evans, 2008). Such strategies focus on four key factors
that contribute to the risk of occurrence of a road accident – exposure, behavioral factors, road
environment, and vehicle factors. Perhaps the least used of all road safety intervention strategies
are those that aim to reduce exposure to risk. Risk in road traffic arises out of a need to travel –
to have access to work or for education or leisure pursuits. Therefore, there is a need to promote
not only regional economies in such a way that reduces the need for long-distance travel but also
self sufficient compact townships which would reduce the need for short-distance travel within
the cities. The problem of road accidents in India also gets aggravated due to mixed nature of
road traffic on its roads – with pedestrians, bicycles, mopeds, scooters, motorcycles, auto-
rickshaws, taxis, vans, cars, trucks, and buses sharing the same road space. In other words, the
same road network is used by different categories of motorized and non-motorized vehicles, of
varying width and speed. To reduce the exposure to risk, there is a need not only to segregate fast

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moving from slow moving vehicles and heavy from light vehicles but also enforce speed limit on
fast moving vehicles. Road accidents and related injuries and fatalities are highly dependent on
the speed of motor vehicles. Empirical evidences suggest that an average increase in speed of 1
Km/h is associated with a 3% higher risk of a crash involving an injury (Finch et al., 1994;
Taylor et al., 2000). For car occupants in a crash with an impact of 80 Km/h, the likelihood of
death is 20 times what it would have been at an impact speed of 32 Km/h (Margie et al., 2004).
Pedestrians have a 90% chance of surviving car crashes at 30 Km/h or below, but less than a
50% chance of surviving impacts at 45 Km/h or above (Ashton and Mackay, 1983). While in
many developed countries, there is increasing use of in-built mechanisms in trucks and buses to
restrict speeds above a certain limit, such devices are rarely used in India, if installed, are
disabled by the operators. Commercial bus and truck operations, particularly privately owned
ones, are often based on timetables that put pressure on drivers to speed. In many places in India,
private bus operators link the wages of drivers with the ticket receipts and number of trips, which
encourages high speeds. Although various states and union territories and city authorities in India
have imposed speed limits on motor vehicles, enforcement of the same is almost non-existent.
The time has come to strictly enforce the implementation of speed limits both on highways and
city roads. In mix traffic environment, restriction on vehicle speed would also help in reducing
casualties to pedestrians, cyclists, and other vulnerable road users. Behavior of road users, the
way people drive, cycle, or walk on the road, are the most common source of road injuries and
fatalities. Factors such as age and experience of driver, alcohol and drug use, fatigue, acute
psychological stress, and enforcement of traffic laws are the key determinants of accident and
fatality risk. In general, inexperienced drivers are relatively high risk road users, and in newly
motorized societies the risk gets increased due to relatively high proportion of new drivers in the
driving population. In countries like India where this growth is accompanied by inadequate
driver training and testing facilities, the risk gets further increased. As discussed before, road
accidents and related fatalities are highly dependent on the speed of motor vehicles. Drivers’
speed choice is influenced not only by the legal speed limit but also by age and experience of
driver, alcohol and drug use, psychological condition, road layout, traffic density, road surface
condition, and the level of enforcement of speed limits. There is still a lack of acceptance among
drivers that their choice of speed may increase accident risk not only for themselves but also for
other road users. To reduce accident risk, there is a need to focus on changing the drivers’

83
perception of speed risk. The level of enforcement of traffic law and the severity of penalties for
infringement also influence the behavior of road users. Low levels of enforcement often negate
the efforts made to improve road safety through legislation. Simply legislating is rarely effective
without enforcement, education, and publicity campaigns to raise public awareness of the
purpose of the legislation. When used in support of legislation and law enforcement, education,
publicity, and information can create shared social norms for road safety. However, when used in
isolation, education, information, and publicity do not generally deliver tangible and sustained
reductions in accidental deaths and injuries (O’Neill et al., 2002; Zaza et al., 2001). Therefore, a
systems approach to road injury prevention, that is, using the legislation and law enforcement
with the support of education, information, and publicity campaigns, needs to be adopted by the
government to influence the behavior of road users and consequently to reduce the rate of road
accidents and related fatalities and injuries. Most of the traffic accidents are caused by human
errors. In 2018, drivers’ fault accounted for 78% of total accidents, 76.5% of total injuries, and
73.7% of total fatalities in India. For this reason, road safety initiatives traditionally focus on
‘fixing’ the driver in order to prevent accidents. There is no doubt that the approaches involving
road-safety education and enforcement such as wear your seat belts, always wear helmet while
driving, say no to drunken driving, and general adherence to traffic rules are essential in
curtailing traffic accidents, however, it is equally important to realize that people will always
make mistakes. Therefore, there is a need to focus on mediating the outcome of accidents by
designing safer vehicles and safer roads. It is indeed possible to protect the road user in the event
of an accident by designing vehicles and roads to work together to ensure crash energies do not
overwhelm the human. For vulnerable road users such as pedestrians, bicyclists, motorcyclists,
and those using informal public transport, road design must ensure that they are not exposed to
high speed traffic (Singh, 2009). Therefore, roads should be designed in such a way so that it is
not only self-explaining but also forgiving.
Conclusion of our result Part :
The analysis shows that the distribution of road accidental deaths and injuries in India varies
according to age, gender, month and time. It is found that the economically active age group is
the most vulnerable population group. In general, males face higher fatality and accident risk
than their female counterparts. Moreover, road accidents are relatively higher in May-June and
December-January which shows that extreme weather influences the occurrence of road

84
accidents. Accidents are relatively constant and high during 9 AM to 9 PM and variable but low
during mid-night and early hours of the day. There are several factors responsible for accidents
but drivers’ fault is the most important factor; drivers’ fault accounted for 78% of total accidents,
76.5% of total injuries and 73.7% of total fatalities in 2018. The study also analysed road
accident scenario across Indian states and cities. It is found that during the year 2018, three
states, Tamil Nadu (22.8), Haryana (17.2), and Andhra Pradesh (16.9), faced 50% higher fatality
risk than all India average (11.2). It is also found that the burden of road traffic accidents in India
is marginally lower in its metropolitan cities. However, there is a huge variation in fatality risk
across cities of India, ranging from 3.0 fatalities per 100,000 people for Kolkata to 25.5 fatalities
per 100,000 people for Jaipur. Despite the growing burden of road traffic fatalities and injuries,
road safety has received insufficient attention at the central, state, and local government levels.
The main reason for this is that the problem of road traffic accidents does not belong to any
specific agency, either at central or state or local government levels. The responsibility of dealing
with the various aspects of problems including road worthiness test for vehicles, the design of
road networks and roads, urban planning, the introduction and enforcement of road safety
legislations, and post-crash medical care is divided among many different agencies, sectors, and
groups. There has usually been no leader to ensure that they coordinate their efforts and address
the problem holistically. This situation needs to change so that responsibility is clearly assigned,
specific roles are allocated to specific agencies, and duplication is avoided.
Many countries, particularly from developed world, have experienced sharp reduction in road
traffic accidents and fatalities over the past couple of decades by adopting a systems approach to
road safety that emphasizes environment, vehicle, and road user interventions, rather than only
focusing on direct approaches aimed at changing the behavior of road users. Although solutions
for road safety problems in India may differ from those countries that have very high rate of
motorization, some basic principles would remain the same. These include, for example, good
road design and traffic management, improved vehicle standards, speed control, the use of seat
belts and helmets, and the enforcement of alcohol limits (Margie et al., 2004). Current efforts to
address the problems of road safety are minimal in comparison to what should be done. While
there are many interventions that can save lives, political will and commitment at central, state,
and local government levels are essential and without them little can be achieved. Road users in
India deserve better and safer road travel.

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 CHAPTER -6
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The traffic characteristics and the user behaviour in developing countries like India are
significantly different from other developed countries. The perception of users differs among
various vehicle classes. This study investigates the various factors influencing the users’ level of
service perception at signalized intersections under mixed traffic conditions.
A user perception questionnaire survey was carried out to find out the most influencing factors
that affect the perception of LOS by different vehicle type users. The analysis was carried out for
different vehicle type users. Percentage response obtained for each factor was calculated and the
factors were ranked. The profound analysis of the heterogeneous vehicle classes confirms that
the importance of the various factors is different for different vehicle type users. Analysis
revealed that waiting time is the most important factor while perceiving Level of Service for all
the vehicle type users. Waiting is always considered as a negative experience, which makes the
users frustrated.
This may be the reason for rating waiting time as the most important factor, irrespective of the
different vehicle types considered in the study. Aesthetics is the least important factor. Other
factors rank differently for different vehicle type users. For motorized two-wheeler users, road
surface quality and presence of pedestrians are the second and third most important factors. The
presence of heavy vehicles has a higher impact on the maneuverability of vehicles like motorized
two-wheelers and motorized three-wheelers.
The increase in number of crossing pedestrians, lead to an increase in the number of accidents,
reduction in the speed of the vehicles etc. Similar is the case with the presence of heavy vehicles
and the presence of obstructions. Hence, it can be concluded that users consider a multitude of
factors for perceiving the LOS at signalized intersection. Based on the importance of each factor,
modifications or improvements can be done. Making improvements in these identified factors
have a great impact on the perceived quality.
The results show that the socio-economic factors, as well as the travel-related factors, have a
significant influence on the importance rating of the influencing factors.

86
The findings from the reveals that there are factors other than delay that influence the users’
perception of LOS at signalized intersection. Considering delay as the sole service measure lacks
the justification as from the study it was found that other factors also influence the LOS rating by
the users. The present study is focused on identifying the factors influencing the user perception
of LOS under mixed traffic condition. The study does not quantify the impact of the influencing
factors on the users’ perceived LOS. Studies can be further carried out to determine the user
perceived
LOS based on the influencing factors. As the user perceived LOS is a discrete choice made by
the user after accounting for the various influencing factors, an ordered probit model will be the
best choice of modeling such kind of data. In addition, the present study does not incorporate the
perceptions of pedestrians and non-motorized users. Level of service at an intersection may be
different for different users (like pedestrians, non-motorized traffic, motorized traffic) of that
intersection. Deriving a single measure, though important, may be difficult. The finding from the
study throws insight to establish user perceived LOS under mixed traffic condition by
incorporating the factors identified in this research. While interpreting the level of service based
on user perception one must be aware that there are many types of users at an intersection and
improving the LOS for one may often reduce the LOS for another type of user.
Following are the findings from the research estimation of pedestrian level of service at
signalized intersection in urban Indian condition-
‒ Developed a method to define the level of service (LOS) of pedestrian at signalized
intersection under mixed traffic condition, in India mostly mixed traffic condition will present
due to the presence of different classes of vehicles.
‒ In the study mainly it has been observed that number of pedestrian, number of lanes and right
turning traffic are having very less correlation with LOS, and this indicates that left turning
traffic and delay are more significant for LOS values.
‒ Level-of-service modal was validated with field data of the given Bhopal city and studied the
various factors affecting such as number of pedestrian, through traffic, number of lanes, and
delay on level of service.
‒ Roadway designers can use the pedestrian LOS model to test alternative intersection designs
by iteratively changing the independent variables to find the best contribution of factor to
achieve the desired LOS. The method proposed in this study provides not only the pedestrian

87
LOS at intersection but also the factors contributing to less correlation and more significance
LOS values.

Top Collisions and Tips for Avoiding them:

1. Rear-end collisions. You look down to change the radio station and look up and all of
the sudden you are rear-ending the car in front of you. There just wasn’t enough time to
brake. The NHTA states that over 29% of the crashes that happen on the road are rear-
ended collisions. Rear-ends occur mostly at intersections, highways, highway off-ramps,
and heavy-traffic areas. The more deadly rear-ends accidents happen when driving
through roadway-construction or work zones.

o Tips to avoid: 89% of rear-end crashes occur because the driver was distracted.
Deter your distracted driving, put down the phone, and even go so far as putting
your phone on driving mode, and set your music for your car ride before taking
off. Some other ways to prevent rear ends include: Keeping your focus on the
road and cars around you and by not ever tailgating, be sure to leave enough space
between you and the car in front of you. The rule of thumb is to drive 3-seconds
behind another vehicle at ideal driving conditions. If the road is curvy, icy, wet, or
there is low visibility give yourself more time and increase it to 6-seconds.

2. Parked-car collisions. You are jamming out to your favorite tunes and go to back out
of your parking spot and a car is whizzing by, they don’t don’t stop and uh oh, you
collide with one another. We’ve been there and have the bumper dents to prove it. These
crashes usually occur when a car is leaving their parking spot or multiple cars are moving
about in parking lot.

o Tips to avoid: When backing-up don’t just use your rearview mirror or back-up
camera to check to see if there are cars approaching. Do it the old-fashion way
and turn around and check your back windows to see if any cars are coming your
way. If you park further out and away from the traffic areas, then it could help
prevent any accidents since your car would not be surrounded by the congestion.

88
3. Hydroplaning collisions. After a rainstorm, you head out to run errands and when
driving through an intersection your vehicle goes through a large puddle and you can no
longer control it, because of this you hit a pole. This happens to many other drivers; wet
roads cause more than 10% of traffic fatalities each year. When you hydroplane you have
no control over the vehicle’s direction since the tires cannot make contact with the road
which most likely will result in a crash.

o Tips to avoid: Make sure your tire tread isn’t too worn down, having good tread
will allow for your tires to make better contact with wet roads. Drive slower when
going through large puddles on the road and definitely save your cruise control
feature for another day. If your vehicle does end up hydroplaning, stop
accelerating, and don’t stomp your food on the brakes. Instead, apply a steady
pressure and allow the car to coast into a lower speed.

4. Wildlife collisions. Did you know that instances of collisions with large animals
nearly doubles during the fall season? In the U.S. an estimated 1.23 million deer-related
accidents occur per year. Take those animal crossing signs seriously, you never know
when you might be seeing a deer in headlights.

o Tips to avoid: If you drive through forest areas often, consider getting a deer
whistle. The noise wards off animals and is designed specifically to attach to a
car’s bumper. Other tips for avoiding animal collisions include using your high
beam and keeping to the speed limit.

5. Side-impact collisions. Your making a left turn and another vehicle runs a light and
hits you on the side of your car. In other words, you just got t-boned, ouch! Side-impact
collisions involve any vehicle that has the right away but the other driver fails to stop.
This type of accident causes 27% of passenger deaths according to the Insurance Institute
for Highway Safety.

o Tips to avoid: Follow the rules of the road, pay attention to stop signs, red lights,
and who has the right away. Don’t try to make the light before it turns red, instead

89
 drive the speed limit and slow down on yellow. Invest in a vehicle that has side
airbags to protect your precious cargo inside.

6. Front-impact collisions. The roads are a bit slippery and you end up driving directly
into a tree. The front end of your car looks like a crumpled piece of paper now. Front-
impacts are 54% of all the auto accidents that occur and it is where the front of your
vehicle hits another vehicle or another object.

o Tips to avoid: Adjust your driving to the weather; if it is raining or snowing, slow
down and be more cautious. Doing so will help to give you more time to react in
case your car loses control. Keep your eyes up and on the road and avoid texting
and driving.

There is clearly a need for road safety education and it should be directed towards road users,
who are frequently involved and injured in RTAs (e.g. students). An integrated programme of
road safety education is suggested.
(a) Pre-school children may be introduced to the elementary concepts of road safety through
stories involving the animal world.
(b) Primary school children may be given practice guidance on the use of side walks and road
crossing techniques.
(c) For middle school students - road signs and bicycle riding.
(d) High school students can be taught about reaction time, braking distance, defensive driving
and hazards of alcoholic drinks. Road side random breath testing for alcohol should be done by
using breath analyzers, which can be confirmed by blood concentration level of alcohol.
The real pressure and motivation to improve driving skills can come only through licensing
authorities by adopting stricter, more comprehensive and scientifically based test laying a stress
on road rules, regulations and traffic control devices.
At the time of giving license to the public transport drivers (Bus and Trucks), they can be given
training in first-aid skills so that victims are attended immediately in the post accident period.

90
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