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THREE-PHASE
SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINES
11.1 Introduction In the majority of cases, the rotor has the d.c. winding
and the stator the a.c. winding. An alternator with a
It was shown in an earlier chapter that an alternator
rotating a.c. winding and a stationary d.c. winding, while
driven at a constant speed produces an alternating voltage
suitable for smaller outputs, is not satisfactory for the
at a fixed frequency dependent on the number of poles in
larger outputs required at power stations. With these
the machine. A machine designed to be connected to the
machines the output can be in megawatts; a value too
supply and run at synchronous speed is referred to as a
large to be handled with brushes and slip rings. Because
synchronous machine. The description applies to both
the terminal voltages range up to 33 kV, the only
motors and generators. A synchronous condenser is a
satisfactory construction is to have the a.c. windings
special application of a synchronous motor.
stationary and to supply the rotor with d.c.
While the synchronous motor has only one generally
This arrangement has the following advantages:
used name, the synchronous generator is on occasion
referred to as an alternator or as an a.c. generator. The l. extra winding space for the a.c. windings;
term alternator has been used in previous chapters and 2. easier to insulate for higher voltages;
will be used in this chapter but it should be remembered 3. simple, strong rotor construction;
that other terms are in use. 4. lower voltages and currents in the rotating windings;
In general, the principles of construction and 5. the high current \Vindings have solid connections to the
operation are similar for both alternators and generators, "outside" circuit;
just as there were basic similarities between d.c. motors 6. better suited to the higher speeds (and smaller number
and generators. of poles) of turbine drives.
While alternators were once seldom seen outside
power houses and whole communities were supplied from 11.2.1 Stator
a central source, there is now an expanding market for The stator of the three-phase synchronous machine
smaller sized alternators suitable for the provision of consists of a slotted laminated core into which the stator
power for portable tools. Today, with the growth in winding is fitted. The stator winding consists of three
computer control, there is a further need for standby separate windings physically displaced from each other by
generating plant to ensure a continuity of supply to 120° E. Each phase winding has a number of coils
prevent a loss of data from computer memories. So much connected in series to form a definite number of magnetic
information is being stored in computers today that even poles. A four-pole machine, for example, has four groups
brief interruptions to the power supplies can have serious of coils per phase or four "pole-phase groups". The ends
consequences on the accuracy and extent of information of the three phase windings are connected in either star or
stored. delta to the external circuit.
Details of phase windings for a three-phase machine
were shown in Chapter l 0 to consist of three identical
11.2 Alternators windings symmetrically distributed around the stator.
The three-phase synchronous machine has two main
windings: 11.2.2 Rotor
1. a three-phase a.c. winding; The alternator rotor can be of two types-low speed and
2. another winding carrying d.c. high speed.
209
210 ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE ELECTRICAL TR
11.2.3 Prime movers
Low speed
Most diesel engines used as prime movers for
alternators operate within the speed range of 50
r /min and this necessitates the use of rotors witl
pairs of poles.
Hydroelectric turbines have water-driven in
which operate at low speeds, consequently they all
rotors with. many poles. While the diesel-driven alt
usually has its shaft in the horizontal plat
hydroelectric unit has its shaft in the vertical plar
method of construction means that special thrust t
have to be fitted to take the end thrust of the 1
component.
High speed
Turbine prime movers, whether steam or gas,
efficiently at speeds in the vicinity of 3000 r / n
alternator driven by a turbine and producing a fn
of 50 Hz at 3000 r /min must consist of only two
Fig. 11.1 Stator for a tour-pole 415 V three-phase 350 kVA In Chapter 6 the relationship between
alternator frequency and the number of poles was shown tc
DUNLITE GENERATING SET MANUFACTURERS
~
Low speed (salient pole) ~
This type usually consists ofa "spider" similar to that used By transposition
in d.c. machines, on which are bolted the field poles and
the field coils (see Fig. l l .2(a)). Physical constraints limit n=--
120/
the use of this type of rotor to low-speed machines. p
where n = r/min
High speed (cylindrical) f = frequency in hertz
The cylindrical rotor was developed to meet the needs of p = number of poles
higher-speed prime movers. To counteract centrifugal For a large-diameter rotor of twenty-four 1
(b)
Fig. 11.2 Main types of alternator rotors: (a) low speed-salient pole, (b) high speed-cylindrical
THREE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 211
~
ventilation ducts within the core to provide paths through
which cooling air can flow. 11.2.5 Excitation
The usual method for d.c. excitation of the rotor
High speed \Vindings is for each machine to have its own d.c.
The provision of adequate cooling facilities is a problem in generator called an "exciter" (refer to Fig. 11.3). The
high-speed machines of large capacity if the operating exciter can be belt-driven or geared down from the
temperature of the windings is to be kept within safe synchronous machine. but the usual practice is for the
limits. The surface area available for cooling in a high- exciter to be directly coupled to the rotor shaft.
speed machine is less than that in a low-speed machine of The exciter armature rotates within the influence of
the same capacity. the exciter field, causing a d.c. voltage to be generated in
Exciter
, - - - - - - - - - --1 1----------------1 Alternator
I I
I I
I t Stator
windings I
I Brush
gear I
Exciter Rotor
I field
and
slip field I
I rings I
I I
I I
I I
L ___________ J L _________________ J
the armature. The exciter output is fed into the field where V, = generated voltage per phase (r.m.s.)
windings of the synchronous machine. By adjusting the IP = flux per pole in webers
rheostat in the exciter field circuit, the strength of the f = frequency in hertz
magnetic field in the rotor can be varied. N = number of turns per phase
With very large alternators the d.c. excitation kd = a constant, dependent on winding di
requirements are substantial. This means that the d.c. ti on
generators have to be large also; so large that they may not kp = a constant, dependent on coil pitch
be able to self-excite. Because of this, the generator may
need an exciter of its own-one that is able to self-excite Example 11.2
and provide power for the field of the main d.c. generator Calculate the line voltage of a 50 Hz star-cor
which in turn supplies the rotor field of the alternator. alternator given the following details:
Some alternators use "brushless" excitation in which
the exciter armature has been replaced by a three-phase IP = 0.67 Wb/pole
winding which rotates within the influence of a d.c. Kd = 0.85
magnetic field, causing a three-phase voltage to be KP = 0.98
generated in the exciter. This three-phase exciter output is N = 36 turns/phase
fed through a full-wave bridge rectifier, mounted on the V, = 4.44 IPJN KdKp
end of the exciter and converted to d.c. = 4.44 x 0.67 x 50 x 36 x 0.85
The resulting d.c. is in turn fed into the rotor windings = 4460 v
of the synchronous machine. By varying the current
through the exciter field, the rotor field is varied and so Then V, = yJ x Vp
governs the value of the generated voltage (see Fig. 11.4). = I. 732 x 4460
= 7725 v
11.2.6 Generated voltage
The value of the generated a.c. voltage depends on the 11.2. 7 Effect of load on alternator voltage
strength of the rotor flux and the speed at which it cuts the An alternator can be considered to consist c
windings. Because the speed must be constant (and is components in series:
linked to the frequency required), the sole remaining I. an a.c. generating source;
factor determining the value of the generated voltage is the 2. a resistor-representing iron and copper losse~
strength of the rotor flux. 3. an inductor-representing the inductance
For an alternator the generated voltage is found from: windings and magnetic leakage.
Any load placed on the alternator must be assum
v, = 4.44 IPJNkdkp I in series with these components as shown in Fjgu
Three-phase bridge
rectifier
Three-phase exciter
+
windings Rotor Stator
field windings
Exciter
field
1. Rotating components
.1
Fig. 11.4 Brushless excitation
THREE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 213
generated voltage v,. For a load with a lagging power
,---- l factor, however, the magnetic effect of the stator currents
I I opposes that of the rotor, resulting in a weakened rotor
I I field and reducing the output voltage further than did the
I resistive load (see Fig. l l .6(b)). As before, IR is in phase
I with the load current!. /Xis at 90°E to JR so placing /Z at
I I
I R I Alternator Load z a different angle to the previous case. In a similar manner,
V, is equal to the phasor sum of the output voltage and /Z.
I I For a load with a leading power factor, the flux caused by
I I the stator currents assists that of the rotor resulting in an
I L I increased output voltage (see Fig. l l.6(c)). The
I I characteristics of the three types of loads are shown in
L_ __ J
Figure 11.7.
V _.·IX
-E---.--7· ·.: Leading power
rE=::::::::==:::~~;~-=~;
JR
Output
voltage factor
(b) Lagging power factor Unity power
factor
Lagging power
factor
i.e. 120 000 = ;j3 x 415 x Ix 0.8 is realised that the main power supply has failed. f
:. I= 120000 = 208 A
V3 x 415 x 0.8 ~
This is the full-load current rating for each phase winding
of this particular alternator and it applies irrespective of
the load power factor or of the load power.
be affected by many other considerations. Some of these alternator rated at 6 kVA is driven by a pet
engine. The size and weight of the unit is.
factors are listed below and their order of importance is that it can be carried to any site where po·
governed by the actual use intended for the alternator. required. DEPT OF A'
THREE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 215
expensive method involves the use of a changeover 11.4 Parallel operation of alternators
contactor which drops out when the main supply fails. In
turn this connects a starting motor to the engine and after
-synchronising
the alternator has got up to speed connects it to the load. Most commercial power stations are designed to have a
At the top end of the scale is the so-called "no-break"set. number of alternators operating in parallel, supplying a
The alternator with a heavy flywheel is run as a syn- common load at constant voltage. Because alternator
chronous motor, being separated from the prime-mover efficiency is maximum near its full-load capacity, it is
by an electrically operated clutch. When a mains failure more economical to have each machine delivering its
occurs the clutch is released connecting the alternator and approximate rated output. During the early hours of the
the flywheel to the engine. The engine is quickly run up to morning, for example, when there is a light load, it may be
speed and the alternator reverts to its intended purpose. necessary to have only one machine connected to the line,
The changeover period can be short enough to ensure delivering its rated output. As the load varies during the
continuity of operation of essential equipment. The 24-hour period, so the number of machines connected in
method is very expensive with high operating costs. parallel is determined.
Before a three-phase alternator can be connected in
Load sizes and alternator capacities
parallel with another three-phase supply, the followin2
Smaller generating plant is usually intended for standby conditions must be fulfilled:
purposes for short periods. It usually has only one load
1. The output waveform of each supply must be identical.
connected to it at a time, such as a portable tool or a small This is determined by the design features of the
lighting load. With middle- and larger-sized alternators
alternators. It is standard practice to generate a
consideration has to be given to the possible connection of
sinusoidal waveform supply.
intermittent larger loads, such as the starting currents of
2. The phase sequence or' rotation of each supply must be
motors. The unit then has to have the electrical capacity
the same and this ensures that the e.m.fs of each supply
and engine power to maintain both the output voltage and
reach their maximum values in the same sequence; for
frequency during these current surges to avoid inter-
example, R, W, B. The phase sequence is determined
ruptions to other equipment connected to the same
by the method of connection of the alternator phase
supply.
windings to the terminals of the machine. This check is
Operation of alternators carried out during the commissioning process after the
With the exception of some manually operated equip- initial installation, or following a major maintenance
ment, most operations today are beyond the control of the overhaul, and it is not necessary to do it each time the
operator. Where some degree of manipulation is available machine is connected in parallel with others.
there are two important factors that should always be 3. The alternator and supply voltages must be the same.
considered-voltage and frequency. In most cases the 4. The alternator and supply voltages must also be in
voltage is governed by automatic voltage regulators while phase.
the frequency is controlled by the engine governor. The 5. The alternator and supply frequencies must be
order of operation is to set the speed first, which in turn identical.
sets the frequency, and then adjust the voltage of the unit. The last three conditions are explained in Chapter 10.
To do this in the reverse order is to alter the voltage each The value of the voltages, their phase relationship and
time the speed is altered. their frequencies can be adjusted by the operator. The
,--
Synchronising Incoming
Alternator on load lamps alternator
--~\\--
'---------+~._-----Three-phase distributions
voltage of the incoming alternator is adjusted by varying The lamps flicker at a rate equal to the diffen
1111 the field excitation, and the frequency is determined by the frequency between that of the incoming alternator'
speed of the prime mover. busbars leading to the distribution system. 1
To ensure that the alternator and supply voltages are alternator frequency approaches that of the busb•
in phase with each other before connecting them in rate of flickering slows down; when the two freq1
1111
parallel to the load, some method of indicating the phase are equal, the flickering stops. When the lamps '
relationship is required. Smaller-sized alternators can be (dark), the connecting switch can be closed and t
synchronised with lamps, but for larger machines a more machines will remain synchronised. When all the
exact method is required. are dark, there is no potential across the lamps, ind
that the two voltages are in phase with each other
The disadvantage of this connection is that th<
can be dark even with a "small" voltage across ther
11.4.1 Synchronising alternators with smaller alternators the two a.c. sources can sync!
incandescent lamps themselves ifthe difference is not too great, but wit!
"Three dark" method alternators the mechanical and electrical forces ere:
Voltages for synchronising purposes can be checked by a phase displacement between the two sources ca1
connecting a voltmeter to each machine in turn, but this considerable damage.
does not give any indication of polarities or phase
relationships. Incandescent lamps can be used to indicate "Two bright, one dark" method
this and the circuit is shown in Figure 11.10. The circuit for this method is shown in Figure 11.
The voltage rating of the lamps needs to be twice the can be seen to be similar to that of the previous
alternator phase voltage, and the simplest way to achieve except that the connections for two of the Ian
this is to connect two lamps of equal wattage in series. The crossed. Again two lamps are in series and it is t
lamps can be observed as three pairs oflamps or three can cover up three lamps, leaving only three visible (as
be covered, leaving only three visible (as shown in the box by the dotted lines).
in the diagram). To use this circuit it is essential to check thj
If the alternator is properly connected, the three lamps rotation by the "three dark" method first.
should all become bright and dim simultaneously. If they established that the phase rotation is correct i
brighten and dim in sequence, it means that the phase lamps reconnected, it will be found that the lamps!
rotation of the alternator is opposite to that on the and bright in sequence. By noting the order of bri!
distribution system, so the phase rotation of the incoming it becomes a reference in determining whetl
alternator must be reversed. incoming alternator is fast or slow.
THREE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 217
d.c. d.c.
Synchronising Incoming
Alternator on load lamps alternator
,--1
I
I
Fig. 11.11 "Two bright, one dark" lamp method for synchronising alternators
Synchronism occurs when the lower lamp in Figure synchronism the pointer will remain stationary, but it
11.11 is dark and the other two are of equal brilliance. must be brought to an indicated position on the scale
Then the switch can be safely closed. before the main switch of the incoming alternator is
The significance of the correct lamp being dark lies in closed.
the fact that it is connected between two similar phases.
When these two phases are synchronised, the voltage
difference between them is zero. This cannot apply to the 11.5 Hunting in alternators
other lamps since they are connected across dissimilar The driving torque of a diesel engine is not uniform during
phases. a revolution of the flywheel but varies according to ihe
The "two bright, one dark" method gives greater positions of the pistons. Even with a heavy flywheel, the
accuracy-both in determining the relative speeds and variation in torque can result in changes in the induced
frequencies, as well as showing fairly accurately the voltage. These voltage pulses can cause circulating
instant for synchronising. currents to flow between alternators in parallel, resulting
Incoming
Alternator on load alternator
Synchroscope
1!11· in mechanical oscillations. With turbines, the pulsing or polarity: one field is that of the rotating stator a
hunting is usually due to fluctuations in the governor other that of the rotor.
settings with changes in load. Remedies for hunting A synchronous motor has torque only at synch
involve the use of heavy flywheels and special windings in speed, so special steps have to be taken to get the
11111
the pole faces. These windings are discussed in more detail up to speed and synchronised with the supply. Tl
in the next section. magnetic fields are then rotating at the same spe1
lock in with each other. A later section in this c
discusses starting methods for synchronous motors
11.6 Synchronous motors
11.6.1 Construction
Stator 11.6.3 Effect of load on a synchronous mo
The stator of a synchronous motor has a three-phase When a synchronous motor runs on no load, the I
winding, as described in a previous chapter, and is of the positions of stator and rotor poles coincide as sh
same type as that in an alternator. Figure l l.14(a).
When this winding is energised with a.c. it produces a When a load is applied, the rotor must still cont
magnetic flux, which rotates at a speed called the rotate at synchronous speed but due to the rel
synchronous speed. It is the same speed at which the action of the load, the rotor pole lags behind th<
synchronous motor would have to be driven to generate pole. Their relative positions are displaced by the:
an a.c. voltage at line frequency. (called the "torque" or "load" angle), as shown in
The speed can be derived from the same formula used l l.14(b). The greater the load applied, the lar:
for alternators in section 11.2.3. torque angle.
The magnetic coupling between each stator an
Rotor pole distorts according to the load applied. If the I
Although of similar construction to the alternator rotor, it the motor becomes excessive, the magnetic C<
is usually made with salient poles. When excited with d.c. breaks and the rotor slows down until it stops.
it produces alternate north and south magnetic poles, When the motor is rotating at synchronous
which are attracted to those produced in the stator. with a fixed d.c. excitation in the rotor windings, tt
flux cuts the stator windings, inducing a voltage
11.6.2 Operating principle phase winding and opposing the applied voltage
A synchronous motor works on the principle of magnetic law). The phase relationship between this induced
attraction between two magnetic fields of opposite and the applied voltage depends upon the
THREE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 219
Rotation of stator
Torque angle I
Rotor
\
\.
·~
(a) No load
I
(b) Loaded
Fig. 11.14 Relative positions of stator and rotor magnetic fields in a synchronous motor
positions of each stator and rotor pole, which in turn For a fixed rotor winding excitation, an increase in
depend upon the load applied to the motor. load on a synchronous motor will therefore cause an
Neglecting motor losses, on no load the torque angle is increase in current drawn from the supply.. with a poorer
zero, and so the induced voltage V, and the applied power factor.
voltage V are equal and opposite. The resultant voltage
VR across the windings is zero, and so the current drawn
from the supply is also zero. This is illustrated by the 11.6.4 Effect of varying field excitation
phasors in Figure l l .15(a). If the load applied to a synchronous motor is constant, the
When a light load is applied to the motor, the torque power input to the motor is also constant.
angle a increases, and the induced voltage Vg in the stator When the rotor field excitation is varied, the induced
windings is now ( 180 - a) 0 E out of phase with the applied voltage in each stator winding is also altered.
voltage V, as shown in Figure l l. l 5(b ). These two The phasor diagram in Figure l l.16(a) represents the
voltages combine to produce an effective voltage v. conditions for a given load at unity power factor. The
across the stator windings, which is sufficient to draw a power input per phase is Vl1. If the rotor field excitation is
current I from the supply. Because of the relatively high decreased, the induced voltage Ve decreases, as shown in
inductance of the stator windings, the line current /in each Figure l l. l 6(b ). This causes the line current h to lag the
winding lags each resultant voltage v. by nearly 90°E. applied voltage Vby <1>2. Since the load, and so the power
This causes the line current I to lag the applied voltage input, is constant, the power component of /2 must remain
by cl>. the same as Ii in Figure l l.16(a). The line current Ii must
As the load is increased, so the torque angle is increase to accommodate the lagging power factor. A
increased. This causes an increase in the resultant voltage reduction in the d .c. field excitation therefore causes an
VR across each stator winding, as seen in Figure l l.15(c). increase in line current, and a lagging power factor.
Because of the increase in the value of VR• the line current If the d.c. excitation is increased, the induced voltage
I increases, and the phase angle ¢ between the applied V,increases as shown in Figure l l.16(c). The line current
voltage V and the line current I also increases. h will therefore lead the applied voltage V by ci>J, and will
v, v
-
If a synchronous motor has sufficient d.c. excitation to
cause it to draw a leading current from the supply, the
effect is one of power factor correction for other loads
within an installation.
A motor running with a leading power factor is called
overexcited, and is often designed to run as a synchronous --s
motor driving a load and correcting overall power factor
at the same time. The driven load selected is usually one in
demand throughout the installation (e.g. air compressors,
hydraulic systems or frequency changers for portable
tools).
An added advantage can be an economical incentive
.
loo o --
---
offered by supply authorities for ensuring a certain - 11 •• ·1
minimum value power factor in an installation. For
example, the charge per kWh may be reduced if the power
factor does not drop below 0.75 or some similar figure. Fig.11.17 Salient pole with amortisseur wind
THREE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 221
surging causes an induced voltage in the copper bars. This connected to the supply. It is an expensive method.
results in a magnetic field being created and opposing the particularly if high starting torques are required.
surging effect.
Often the shorting-out bars are extended around the Induction motor starting
rotor. resulting in a squirrel cage-type rotor winding A reduced line voltage is applied to the stator windings
about the salient poles. While damping any tendency of and the d.c. winding on the rotor is short-circuited. With
the rotor to hunt, they can also assist the motor in starting. the aid of the amortisseur winding, the complete machine
behaves as an induction motor as it accelerates up to a
11.6. 7 Starting methods for synchronous motors speed slightly below synchronism. At an appropriate time
Auxiliary motors the short is removed from the rotor winding. d.c. is
Some synch'ronous motors are equipped with a special
applied and the full line voltage applied to the stator
motor designed for use during the starting period only.
winding. Because the speed is only slightly less than
The auxiliary motor runs the synchronous motor up to synchronous speed, the rotor field is able to lock in with
speed, at which stage it is first synchronised and then the stator field and accelerate to synchronism.
Exercises
11.1 What advantages are there in using the 11.8 What is meant by the term "phase sequence"
rotating d.c. field-type construction for when applied to three-phase synchronous
synchronous machines? alternators?
11.2 What are the constructional differences 11.9 In what way does the principle of operation of
between low-speed and high-speed alterna- a synchronous motor differ from that of an
tors? induction motor?
11.3 Explain why a low-speed synchronous 11.10 Why is a synchronous motor not self-
machine has a large salient pole-type rotor. starting?
11.4 What is the purpose of the "exciter"? 11.11 State two characteristics that are applicable
only to a synchronous motor.
11.5 How many poles must a synchronous
machine have to operate at 250 r/min and a 11.12 Explain how an increase in the load applied to
frequency of 50 Hz? a synchronous motor affects the line current
11.6 How does the power factor of the load affect and power factor.
the output voltage of an alternator? 11.13 How can the power factor of a synchronous
11. 7 State five conditions that must be satisfied motor be changed?
before an alternator can be synchronised 11.14 What are some applications for synchronous
with an existing supply. motors?
CHAPTER12
THREE-PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR!
12.1 Introduction The stator core is held in the motor frame whi
serves to carry the bearings holding the rotor, to
The majority of a.c. motors used in industry are of the the coils and to provide a means whereby the wholl
induction type. They are rugged and have a high degree of mounted (see Fig. 12.1 ).
reliability. A three-phase induction n1otor consists of a
The motor frame takes various forms, depen1
laminated stator with three identical windings placed
the conditions under which the motor will aper;
symmetrically in slots within it. The rotor is also
open-type frame allo\vs free ventilation to take
laminated, and usually has single-turn conductors placed
drip-proof frame has a closed upper half, while a
within its slots and short-circuited at the ends. To achieve
ventilation through the lower half; a totally enclm
special characteristics, conventional windings are some-
prevents the exchange of air between the inside
times used instead. The motor derives its name from the
outside of the frame.
fact that the currents flowing in the rotor are induced and
not drawn directly from the supply.
12.2.2 Motor enclosures
The conditions governing the actual installatio
12.2 Construction induction motor are normally beyond the contrc
12.2.1 Stator motor manufacturer. As a result the motor is
The laminated stator core is made up from sheet steel factured in various enclosures. A motor dr
punchings with slots on the inner surface. The windings compressor for a refrigerated display cabir
consist of three identical windings, laid out in the same example, may operate under such clean and d
fashion as the alternator and synchronous motor. In ditions that the motor enclosure need only pr
motors of higher power ratings the stator slots are of the mounting for the bearings and a means for fi:;.
open type to allow the insertion of pre-shaped and motor in a horizontal plane. At the same time
insulated coils, but in smaller sizes the slots are partially closure provides mechanical protection against ac
closed to reduce the air gap as much as possible. spillage and enables cooling air to circulate freely·
the motor windings.
Compare this situation with a water turbin
used for irrigation purposes. In most cases the t
mounted vertically at the bore head and is g
protection from the weather. The motor neeC
totally enclosed to prevent the entry of water and
is by means of heat transfer through the motor 1
The air sealed within the motor housing is circulat
internal fan, so transferring the heat generatec
windings to the housing. This heat is then transl
the atmosphere by a second fan circulating free a
the outside of the motor housing.
For detailed information on electric motor s
reference should be made to Australian Stan1
Fig. 12.1 The component parts of a 415 V, 3.7 kW, four-pole 1359 on the requirements for rotating e
three-phase induction motor. This particular machines. It is an extensive standard with many
motor is of the totally enclosed type and is and often calls up other standards that may be
intended for direct coupling to its load as shown
by the flanged construction of the endshield at to particular sections. Electrical rotating macl
the upper left. POPE ELECTRIC MOTORS now classified by two letters followed by four n
222
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 223
II \I II
II \I II
Fig. 12.2 Squirrel-cage rotor for an induction motor 111111
POPE ELECTRIC MOTORS 111111
111111
This classification number is different for such categories
as cooling, mounting and protection.
Fig. 12.3 Wound rotor for an induction motor
12.2.3 Rotor
Squirrel-cage rotor
The rotor of a three-phase motor consists of a shaft with poles. Usually the rotor winding has three phases,
bearings, laminated iron core, and rotor conductors. The connected internally in star, and terminating at three slip
most common type of construction is that with rotor bars rings. A typical wound rotor is shown in Figure 12.3.
in the lamination slots rather than a winding. The rotor The slip rings are connected by means of brushes to a
bars, short-circuited at each end by a solid ring, are often star-connected variable resistance, as in Figure 12.4. This
made of copper strip welded to copper rings, but for small rotor rheostat provides the means of increasing the
to medium size motors they may be cast in one piece out of resistance of the rotor circuit during starting, thereby
aluminium. Usually included in the rotor casting is a series producing a high starting torque at a low starting current.
of vanes for creating air movement. Figure I 2.2 shows As the speed increases, the external resistance is gradually
these vanes standing out from each shorting ring. The reduced, lowering the rotor circuit resistance as the rotor
photograph also shows skewed conductors in the rotor. reactance decreases.
The main purpose for slanting the conductors in the rotor Under operating conditions, the variations in rotor
is to ensure a smooth steady acceleration during starting. circuit resistance provide a means of cbntrolling the speed
Varying the physical design features of the bars affects the of the motor-an increase in resistance produces a
motor performance. Embedding them deeper into the reduction in speed. This also produces a loss in efficiency
rotor, for example, increases their inductance and gives a due to the 12 R losses in the rheostat.
lower starting current but at the same time creates a lower The wound-rotor motor is more expensive than the
pull-out torque. squirrel-cage motor due to the cost of manufacture of the
This type of rotor is then restricted to loads requiring wound rotor. It also has a higher starting torque and
low-starting torques such as centrifugal pumps. The rotor lower starting current, but poorer running characteristics
windings, if assembled without the laminations, resemble than the squirrel-cage motor.
a metal cage giving rise to the often-used name of
"squirrel-cage" rotors although the standards refer to
them simply as "cage" rotors. 12.3 Operating principles
12.3.1 Rotating magnetic fields
Wound rotor For its operation a three-phase induction motor is
The wound rotor is fitted with insulated windings, similar dependent on a rotating magnetic field being established
to the stator winding and having the same number of by the a.c. windings. The three separate windings are
Three-phase
supply
+ A
..- ~
/
/
s,
•··
/
.. 7
..I ··.
I
I ..
I
I
\
I ·. /
\,.. ,;::
/
•/
.... /
installed in the stator at 120° E intervals to each other and for example, alternates in direction in the diagran
provide a fixed number of poles for each phase. This is not rotate in any way. lt simply varies in stren
shown diagrammatically in Figure l 2.5(a) for one phase direction in the vertical plane. Similarly a pulsatir
of a two-pole machine. Figure 12.5(b) shows the three also established by the other two phases giving a
phases in relationship to each other giving a total of six three magnetic fluxes which combine into one r
poles. Phase A is drawn as a solid line, phase Bas a dotted flux. This flux rotates at synchronous speed. At r
line and phase Casa dashed line. Note that this sequence
is carried through for the explanation and applies to the
current waveforms, the magnetic fields and the phasors.
Assun1ption
'• le
---.
In the following explanation for the production of a \ / \
rotating field one assumption has been made as a ·;
reference, that winding ends A, B, C when connected to a I ·.. \
\ I
positive source of voltage makes the adjacent iron core a I I
north magnetic pole. From this it will follow that the I
0° : 120~ 240°
opposite poles become south magnetic poles. These I
details are also shown in Figure 12.5(a). If the current \
\ . I
flow is reversed then the magnetic poles are also reversed. \
With the three windings connected in star by joining ... \ I
ends Ai, B1, C, together, and the ends A, B and C
connected to a three-phase supply, the phase currents IA,
' /
.....
!Band !care 120 °E out of phase with each other. These
are shown in Figure 12.6. Because each current is 2 3 4 5 6 7
alternating, each pair of poles sets up a magnetic flux that
Fig. 12.6 Waveform diagram showing three-phase<
continually changes from one polarity to the other. Note at 120° E to each other (for reference num
that although the flux set up by A phase in Figure l 2.5(b), text)
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 225
<l>c
/
····........ . .
- - , - , - •-••-~- <l>R
,/ ···...
.......... <t>
B B
Flg.12.7 The resultant flux produced by currents flowing at position 1 in Figure 12.6
position I in Figure 12.6, the current IA is zero and no flux position I. If drawn to scale it can also be shown that the
is produced by the winding A-A1. Current Is is negative length of the resultant has remained constant, indicating
and so will produce a south pole at Band a north pole at that the field strength has remained constant.
B1. Current leis positive and so will produce a north pole At position 3 (Fig. 12.6), IA is positive, producing a
at C and a south pole at C1. Because currents /oand le are north pole at A and a south pole at A,, 18 is zero, and
equal the two magnetic fields are equal in strength. The le is negative, producing a south pole at C and a north
direction of these fields are shown in Figure 12. 7. In the pole at C 1. These fields are drawn out in Figure 12.9
accompanying phasor diagram the addition of these two together with their phasors. The resultant field has rotated
fields is shown giving a resultant instantaneous field 4>n. a further 60°E in a clockwise direction. (There is a 60°E
At position 2 in Figure 12.6, IA is positive, Io is still difference between all the numbered positions in Fig.
negative while leis zero. This produces a north pole at A, 12.6.) For each of the numbered positions the resultant
a south pole at B, and nothing at C. These are shown in field rotates a further 60°E in a clockwise direction. For
Figure 12.8 together with the phasor diagram showing the one complete cycle of current (360°E) the resultant
addition of the phasors to give the resultant instantaneous magnetic field rotates 360°E.
magnetic field. Since all coils have an equal number of
turns, the relative strengths of the magnetic fields can be
gauged by measuring the vertical heights of the current 12.3.2 Rate of rotation
waveforms at the positions indicated by the reference BycomparingFigures 12.6, 12.7, 12.8and 12.9itcanbe
number. In this instance the direction of the resultant seen that for the time intervals of 60° E between the
magnetic field has shifted 60° E clockwise from that in positions l, 2 and 3 the resultant field rotates an equal
Fig. 12.8 The resultant flux produced at position 2 in Fig. 12.9 The resultant flux produced at position 3 in
Figure 12.6 Figure 12.6
226 ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE ELECTRICAL Tl
Example 12.1
A two-pole machine is connected to a 50 Hz supply. Find c
the speed at which the magnetic field rotates around the
stator. ...... ow
50 Hz = 50 cycles per second I
speed of rotation = 50 revolutions per second I
= 50 x 60 revolutions per minute L _ - - - - - -------0 B
= 3000 r/min. (a) RWB sequence
- 227
LJ Rotor conductor
N
~ Rotor flux
-
Thrust
' .
(a) Stator flux {b) Rotor flux (c) Resultant flux
Fig. 12.11 Production of torque in an induction motor
process causes a force to be exerted on the rotor The formula for determining percentage slip is:
conductor trying to force it to the right and out of the
stator magnetic field. A similar force is exerted on all the
rotor conductors as the field rotates, and if sufficient force s% = nsyn - n x 100
nsyn
is created the rotor will commence rotating in the same
direction as the rotating magnetic field. Provided it is free
to rotate the rotor will accelerate until it approaches where s% = percentage slip
synchronous speed. nsyn = synchronous speed
This rotating force, called the torque of the motor, is n = rotor speed
the result of the interaction of the two fluxes. The stator
flux remains fairly constant, but the rotor flux varies with At standstill (i.e. when starting) the slip is !00%,
the rotor current, which is determined by such factors as whereas if the motor could run at synchronous speed, the
the impedance, the induced voltage and the relative speed slip would be zero.
of the rotor conductors.
Supply frequency the difference between its speed and the rotating m
.................. field becomes less and the generated voltage cam
rotor circulating currents also becomes less. This
reduces the stator current.
The typical relationship between the stator
Rotor and the rotor speed is shown in Figure 12.13(
frequency initial circulating current in the rotor is affected
frequency of the supply, the resistance of the rot
and the inductance of the rotor circuit-that is, the
limiting factor is the impedance of the rotor circu
/Rotor
stationary the usual type of power transformer, the frequ
the supply is the line frequency, but in this c
0 Slip 100°/o
frequency commences at line frequency and
Fig. 12.12 Relation between rotor frequency and slip
decreases as the motor speed increases. As a consi
the torque created can change as the speed chan.
Example 12.3
Figure l 2. l 3(b) for the typical relationships I
Determine the rotor frequency of a two-pole, 50 Hz speed and torque. For small values of slip the t
induction motor if the rotor speed is 2850 r/min. assumed to be proportional to the slip. As the mo
s = nsyn - n x 100 increases the torque increases and the speed de
nSJ'll
until the torque reaches a maximum value ca
3000 - 2850 breakdown torque. If the motor is loaded bey'
3000 x 100 = 5% point, the torque and the speed both decrease
motor quickly comes to a standstill. An overa
s.[ for starting torque is in the region of 1.5 times t
f,, =TOO torque, while the breakdown torque is usually abc
5 x 50 the rated torque. Australian Standard 1359.41
= loO = 2.5 Hz
minimum requirements for these torque val·
As the rotor frequency varies, so does the rotor provides a table for a range of motor sizes.
inductive reactance, and this affects the starting and The resistance of the rotor conductors
running characteristics of the motor. constant at power line frequencies for all 1
purposes, while the inductive reactance decreas(
rotor speed increases. As a guide, torque re
maximum when the rotor resistance in ohms is
12.5 Operating characteristics the rotor reactance in ohms. Since the resistance
12.5.1 Squirrel-~age motors then the breakdown torque can only be al
When power is first applied to a stationary motor, the relationship to the motor speed by altering the inc
stator windings act as transformer primary windings with of the rotor. In turn this affects the starting
the resultant magnetic field rotating at synchronous Australian Standard 1359.41 allows for only t•
speed. The rotor then behaves as a shorted secondary types of rotor-normal and high torque-and a
winding causing a high circulating current in the rotor types are necessarily by prior arrangements
bars and a high starting current in the stator windings. As 1nanufacturer. For the high-torque motor the
the rotor accelerates in the direction of the rotating field, breakdown torque remains around twice rate<
Breakdown
torque
Rated torque
100
Rated current
100
0 n fl syn 0 n n,
(a) Current/speed curve {b) Torque/speed curve
300
300
200
r----
Torque
200 %
Torque Rated torque
% Rated torque 100
100 -------------
Oc__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~-l-
Speed n~yn
Speed
Fig.12.17 High resistance rotor bars
Fig. 12.14 Low starting torque rotor bars
bars of greater cross-section where part is imbedded
deeper into the rotor magnetic circuit. Starting torque is
still about 150% of running torque but the starting current
is reduced to about five times the running current. It is
suitable for use with equipment of low starting inertia
such as fans, blowers and some types of machinery.
Figure 12.16 gives one example of a rotor with two sets
of rotor bars. The inner set is shown with half as many
300
Rated bars as the outer set and includes an optional air gap.
speed Depending on performance requirements there may
200
Torque be different shaped bars, no air gap or a full set of bars in
% Rated torque
100
the cage. Starting torque is high-here it is 225% of rated
torque-and starting current is about five times rated
running current. Applications are air compressors,
o~------------e~
Speed nsyn crushers, refrigerator compressor motors or reciprocating
Fig.12.15 Standard rotor bars
force pumps. A typical example of high resistance rotor
bars with low starting current requirements is shown in
Figure 12. l 7. With this construction the starting torque
can be increased to about 275% with fairly low starting
currents. It is at the expense of a lower rated speed (i.e.
increased slip). Typical uses are flywheel mounted
machinery such as presses and punches. It is excellent with
hoists where the maximum load occurs at the start of the
lift. The details above apply particularly to copper rotor
bars. If aluminium is used for the rotor bars then the
Torque
%
300
200
_____ ------.,speed
Rated
cross-sectional area of the bars must be increased to allow
for the metal's higher resistivity. The shape may also be
changed to incorporate desired starting and running
characteristics. Figure 12. l 8 shows a "tear-drop" shaped
Rated torque cast aluminium bar. In practice the shape may also be
100 -------------- inverted to alter the characteristics to suit a particular
purpose.
o~----------'+-
Speed nsyn
----
(a) No-load conditions (b) Loaded conditions
Fig. 12.20 Current phasors for an induction motor
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 231
100%
L, 0-----j
L'D-----1
Lau-----1
10 Ai
0
Fig. 12.24 Starting connections with a three-phase, star-connected autotransformer
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 233
(b) For 70% tapping:
motor current = 70% of D.O.L. starting current
= 70%of 160A
= 0.7 x 160
= 112A
Fuses L,
A fuse is designed to become an open circuit once a certain L,
value of current is exceeded. This does not mean that a
La
fuse will "blow" immediately its rating is reached. The fuse
element can carry small overloads for a period of time,
depending on the amount of the excess current and the
rate at which the heat being generated can be dissipated.
This characteristic makes a fuse suitable for motor
protection circuits, where the fuse must be able to handle
the starting currents. *
Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers, on the other hand, can be designed to
operate with only small overloads and steps may have to
be taken to slow the action down and enable motors to be E
K1.1 K1.2 K1.3
started. Some circuit breakers operate on a magnetic
attraction principle, others on a thermal element; most
operate with both magnetic and thermal elements.
Contactors Oil-
Both fuses and circuit breakers are designed to protect
electrical circuits against excessive currents, but serve no
useful purpose in the event of power failures. As a means
of protection contactors are used. When a power failure
or low-voltage situation occurs the contactor drops out,
so switching the equipment off until power is restored. As
an added protection against faulty starting sequences,
most motor starters are automatic once the initial
Power circuit I Control ci.
pushbutton operation has been made. Fig. 12.28 Contactor circuit tor D.0.L. starting
The following examples show pushbutton-operated
circuits for each of the five means of starting three-phase
induction motors. The circuits are shown with fuse
protection and thermal overload current protection as
possibly the most common protection methods en- L,
countered. Individual manufacturers have their own L,
preferences for starter circuits and these may vary in detail
from one firm to another and from one model to another. La
L,
L,
K3.1
I
K3.2 K3.3 IK4.1 1<1.4
~
K3.4 K2.5 K3.5
K2/5 K3/5
Control circuit
8. Contacts K3.l, K3.2 and K3.3 close and complete the voltage is available to the control circuit whe
delta connection, allowing full line voltage to be button is released.
applied to the motor. 5. The delayed opening contact Kl.5 opens afi
9. Pressing the stop button de-energises all coils and determined time lapse and forces K2 to op
allows the starter to revert to the "off' state. the delta connection. Contact K2.4 then clo
and coil K3 is activated.
6. Contacts K3.l and K3.2 close, and full lin
12.7.5 Autotransformer contactor starter circuit is applied to the motor through the Kl cc
(Fig. 12.31) series with two lines. The electrical interloc
Circuit operation K3.3 opens and isolates coil K2.
7. Pressing the stop button de-energises all
1. Pressing the start button completes a circuit from L3
allows the starter to revert to the "off'' state.
through the normally closed stop button, a normally
closed delay contact Kl.5, electrical interlock K3.3,
12.7.6 Secondary resistance contactor start
coil K2, and the normally closed thermal overload
(Fig. 12.32)
contact t to L 2.
2. When K2 is activated, it closes the contacts K2. l and Circuit operation
K2.2 connecting the ends of the autotransformers to l. Pressing the start button completes a circui1
line L 2 in an open delta configuration. through the normally closed stop button, coi
3. The operation of K2 simultaneously closes contact the thermal overload contact t to L2 • Coil ~
K2.3 and opens contact K2.4-the electrical interlock is in parallel with coil Kl, is activated at
to prevent K3 operating while K2 is active. time as Kl but only operates after a pred<
4. K2.3 supplies power to coil Kl, which is also activated. time delay.
Contacts Kl.I, Kl.2, Kl.3 and Kl.4 close. Full line 2. Contact K 1.4 bridges out the start button cc
voltage is connected to the autotransformers and a that on the release of the start button the ,
reduced line voltage is supplied to the motor via the remains in the operational state-Le. the cont1
transformer tapping. Contact Kl.4 ensures that a is latched in the "on" position.
L,
L,
La
I
I
IE
K1 .1 K1.2 K1.3
I
IE K1.4
K3.1 K32
I
K2.3
1
I
I
I
I
~ I
Power circuit I Control circuit
K1.4
K2.1 K3.1
R R R K1/4 K4/2
R R R
3. Contacts Kl.I, Kl.2 and Kl.3 close and apply full 12.7.7 Part winding starters
line voltage to the stator terminals of the motor. The Another method of motor starting gradually gaining a
rotor has two resistors in series with each winding and, measure of acceptance is the part winding motor starting
as the ends are connected in star, current flows in the method. As with other methods the primary intention is
rotor windings and the motor is able to generate torque to reduce starting current and/or torque of a motor. With
and commence turning. larger motors the initial starting torque can transmit high
4. After the delay time, K2 operates and closes contact and damaging shock values to transmission components,
K2.l. This causes K4 to be activated along with K3, and some type of reduced torque starting becomes
a second time delay relay. essential.
5. Contacts K4.l and K4.2 then close and reduce the The phase windings of the stator are divided into
amount of resistance connected across the slip rings. parallel sections each of the requisite number of poles
This action enables the motor to attain a higher speed. and each capable of withstanding full line voltage. Parts
6. After a further time delay, coil K3 operates and closes of the stator winding are energised and as the motor gains
contact K3.l. Coil K5 is then activated and closes speed more sections of the stator winding are energised.
contacts K5 .I and K5 .2. This action removes the Normal control and power components are used to
remainder of the resistance in the rotor circuit and provide the necessary switching. As much of the motor's
the motor is in its normal running mode. windings remain connected to the line in a closed
7. Pressing the stop button de-energises all coils and transition sequence, current surges are kept to a
allows the starter to revert to the "off' state. minimum.
238 ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE ELECTRICAL l
T= F.r L, L, L,
Example 12.5
A motor exerts a force of 360 newtons at the rim of a
pulley with a diameter of 0.5 metre. Calculate the torque
developed by the motor.
T= F.r (c) Run (stage 3)
= 360 x .Q2 = 90 Nm Fig. 12.33 Part winding starting
2 =
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 239
L,
L,
L,
I
I
I
I
IE
I
j
t-----+---+-r-.,
r;;\
~ K2.1-2.3
l1> y ,
-
II~K2.4
K1/5 K2/4 K3/1
+ - I ~-____.
Power circuit Control circuit
A, A
A
B I
I
I
Reversed I
phase
I
s, I
(a)
I (b)
I
~----
L, 0 - - - - - - - , '1 -~---- ....
I
\ L,0-----~
\
A
\
\
\
I \
x I
'\ B
----
B
L20-X_]
I
L2 o-x---~ , ______ ...... JL2 0---1--fY--VYl
I -,I
_________ /
\
I
-
JL,()----------J
L, ( _ } - - - - - - - - - ' --------·--/
/
Exercises
12.1 Briefly describe how the rotating magnetic 12.8 What is meant by:
field is produced in a three-phase motor. (a) synchronous speed of an induction
12.2 (a) Define the term "synchronous speed''. motor?
(b) Make a table showing the synchronous (b) actual speed?
speeds of two-, four-, six- and eight-pole (c) slip speed?
induction motors for frequencies of 40, 50 (d) What is the relationship between each
and 60 Hz. of these three speeds?
12.3 Explain why an induction motor runs at less 12.9 Sketch a typical torque/speed curve for an
than synchronous speed. induction motor having a normal squirrel-
cage rotor. At low values of slip, how does the
12.4 Explain why the power factor of an induction torque vary with load? What occurs when
motor increases with the load. breakdown torque is reached?
12.5 Briefly describe the construction of the 12.10 Why do squirrel-cage motors take relatively
squirrel-cage and the wound-rotor. large amounts of current when connected
D.0.L.?
12.6 List three methods by which the starting 12.11 Discuss speed control by a method of
current of a three-phase squirrel-cage in- changing the number of poles in a motor.
duction motor may be reduced. 12.12 Draw a circuit diagram for a star-delta starter
12.7 What is the disadvantage in starting a using push buttons for its initiation. Discuss
squirrel-cage induction motor on a reduced the operation of the circuit and list two uses
voltage? for this type of starter.
Problems
12.13 Determine the percentage slip for the (b) 1.5 kW, 940 r/min;
following three-phase, 50 Hz motors: (c) 12 kW, 720 r/min;
(a) four-pole, 1420 r/min; (d) 5 kW, 1450 r/min.
(b) six-pole, 960 r/min; 12.17 On full load, a three-phase, 415 V, 50 Hz,
(c) eight-pole, 720 r/min. six-pole motor draws 19 A at a power factor of
12.14 A 15 kW, three-phase, 415 V, 50 Hz, four-pole 0.85. If the torque developed is 95 Nm and the
induction motor draws 190 A when started slip is 7%, calculate the efficiency of the
D.O.L. in delta. Determine the starting motor.
current using: 12.18 A cutting tool exerts a tangential force of 400
(a) the star-delta method; N on a 90 mm diameter steel bar which is
(b) the autotransformer method (60% tap- rotating at 145 r/min in a lathe. The efficiency
ping). of the lathe gear train is 62% and the three-
phase, 415 V motor efficiency is 81%.
12.15 At full load the efficiency of the motor in Calculate the motor current if the power
problem 12.14 is 83%, the power factor is 0.84 factor is 0.83.
and the slip is 4%. Determine:
12.19 The rotor speed of a 10 kW, 415 V, three-
(a) the torque developed; phase, four-pole motor is 1455 r/min when it
(b) the current drawn. operates from a source of 50 Hz. Find:
12.16 Calculate the full-load torque of each of the (a) synchronous speed;
following motors: (b) slip speed;
(a) 7.5 kW, 1440 r/min; (c) frequency of rotor currents.