(1) When n dislocations pile up under shear stress τ, the first dislocation at x = 0 feels a

concentrated stress of nτ.

(2) Yielding is considered to occur when the concentrated stress nτ reaches a certain critical
value τcrit. That is, n = ! crit / ! .
(3) Pile-up distance l and stress τ are related as l ! n / " .
(4) From (2) and (3), we have l ! 1 / " 2 or ! " l #1/2 .
(5) If l ! d , then we have the second term of (6.5).

6.4.3 von-Mises criterion

plastic deformation → occurs by shear → constant volume ( ! ii " !11 + ! 22 + ! 33 = 0 )

To change the shape of a polycrystal arbitrarily, at least five (5) independent

slip systems must exist.

For crystals such as hcp, if the number of independent slip systems is less than five, extensive
palstic deformation is not possible. → brittle fracture

Chapter 7 Strengthening Mechanisms

7.1 Various strengthening methods
Except composites, all the mothods are to make dislocation motion more difficult by
introducing various obstacles.

Table 7.1 Various strengthening methods

Name
solid-solution hardening
precipitation hardening
dispersion hardening
work hardening
fine-grain hardening
composites
Characteristics
introduction of interstiatial or substitutional atoms
of different kind
distribution of fine precipitates
distribution of 2nd phase particles
increase in dislocation density by plastic deformation
reducing grain size (Hall-Petch relationship)
mixing different materials

Fig. 7.1 Various obstacles against dislocation motion.

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7.2 Absolutely strong obstacles (dispersion hardening)
Orowan mechanism
(1) The dislocation bow out between two particles.
(2) Yielding occurs when the bowed-out dislocation
becomes semi-circular in shape.
Orowan loop
(3) After the yielding, the dislocation leaves Orowan
loops around the particles.
(4) The formation of the Orowan loops makes the
dislocation motion more and more difficult. dispersed
This results in large work-hardening. particle 2r
L

dislocation
CRSS for the Orowan mechanism (Orowan stress)
Fig. 7.2 Orowan mechanism for
(from Eq.(5.2))
dispersion hardening.
µb
!= (7.1)
L

7.3 Less strong obstacles (solid-solution hardening, precipitation hardening)

For either attractive or repulsive interaction (a)
φc
between the dislocation and the obstacle,
dislocation motion

dislocation motion becomes difficult.

obstacle
Yielding occurs before the dislocation becomes
combined
semi-circular in shape. force of TＬ TＬ TＬ
(b) φc

Fm : The maximum force of an obstacle L

to resist dislocation motion. Fm
φc : critical angle for the dislocation
Fig. 7.3 Dislocation bow-out between obstacles.
to overcome an obstacle. Interaction between the dislocation and the
τm : CRSS obstacles is (a) attractive, (b) repulsive.

! m bL = Fm (7.2)
Fm = 2TL cos(!c / 2) (7.3)

From (7.2) and (7.3), we can say that

・strong obstacles・・・ Fm / (2TL ) ! 1 ， !c " 0 (yielding at semi-circular dislocation shape)

・weak obstacles ・・・ Fm / (2TL ) << 1 , !c " # (yielding before semi-circular shape)

If we know Fm (or φc) and L, we find τm . → hardening theories

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7.4 Are the strong obstacles more effecive in material strengthening than the weak
obstacles?

Answer → NO!!
Strong
Usually, weak obstacles are much smaller obstacles
L
than strong obstacles. This means that much
more weak obstacles can be distributed on a
unit area of a slip plane. Naturally, L in Eq.
(7.2) can be made much smaller. Therefore,
Weak
even when Fm is small, ! m can be large. obstacles
L

Fig. 7.4 Strong obstacles vs weak obstacles. See

the difference in the distance between obstacles L.

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Problem 7.1
We know that slip deformation occurs more uniformly in dispersion-hardened alloys than in
precipitation-hardened alloys. Explain the reason why.
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