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' (‘RIEEP
or ML-'T»\LS ‘
665
2. Establislt the values of the subtangent
”
llowing types of loading using" at the point of ma.\'imum load for the
the arguments given on
(a) A thin»walled vessel with closed page 646.
ends subjected to internal
(b) A flat sheet subjected pressure,
(c) A thin—walled
to equal biaxial tensions,
spherical vessel subjected to internal
.«t/i.s'irc/'. (tr) pressure.
‘I 0577. (b) 2-0, (c) 0667.
3. A soft lead wire 03 in. diztnieter is
used fuse for a de:'a_ved-action grenade.
The wire is in series with :1 steel spring having as a
a spring constant of M0 lb.
total distance between supports (i.c. ftisexvirc
plus spring) is constant,
per in. The
Before the fuse is see Fig. 346.
set, the point B is held
so that there is no stress in the wire, but
when the safetypin is removed the
spring
BC immediately exerts an axial force _ —~..—J i
l00 lb.
of
on the wire. 7
l
V
FIXED LE/vam
delay ofthe grenade? ~
Assume that the creep ofthe lead wire FIG, 345
is entirely
secondary creep. having a rate given by
creep
is5 i
II
6'
A (in. in./min.)
V
: ’
"
é=/lo"
are A = 10 ><10‘2°, /1 = 3-0, being the 5'
creep rate per hour and a the stress inpounds
per sq. in. Density of the material is 025 lb.
3000 r.p.m. '
wt. per cu. in., and the rotor speed is
Starting from the equations
of equilibrium derive the stress at any point in the
blade and hence the elongation initially
and after 100,000 hours.
Answer. 000083 in.; 000549 in.
total.
5. A lowpressurejointin a pipeline is made bya lead
steel flanges. The total gasket 0-] 25 in. thick between
area ofthe interfaces between lead and steel is 3-5 sq. in. and
the flanges are bolted by 4, }—in. diameter
steel bolts.
Taking the free length ofthe bolts
as Is} in. find the time taken for the interfaeial
pressure to have reduced to half the initial value which is
calculated to be 0-286 tons‘
per sq. in. The joint is at room temperature. Young’s
lb./sq. in. and the secondary modulus for steel = 30X 106 ,
creep rate can be taken as
'
G 7'68
= 2-83x l0 _(
g
min _[
.
Furt/tor Remlittg.‘
I. MACGREGOR, C. W. (I940). ‘The tension test’, Proc. Amer. Soc. Text. M(Irer., 40,
508.
.
FORD, H. (1955). ‘The meclmnical properties of metals. I—~The tensile proper»
ties.‘ Cantor Lecture, Roy. Soc. Arts, 1955, I03, 471.
.
WATTS, A. B., and FORD, H. (1955). ‘On the basic yield stress curve ofa metal‘,
Pror. Inst. Illa‘/1. EIlgI'S., 169, 1141.
UNWIN, W. C. (I910). The Texting ofMaIerialx ofCon.rtructio/t,3rd ed., pp. 49—6l.
Longmans,Green.
.
BRIDGMAN, P.
W. (1952). Studies in Large Plastic Flow and Fracture. Chapter I,
‘Stress distribution at the neck of a tension specimen’, p. 9. McGraw-I-Iill.
SACHS, G. (1924). Z. MeI(IlII<u/tde, 16, 55.
.
COOK, M., and LARKE, E. C. (1945). ‘Resistance of copper and copper alloys to
homogeneous deformation in compression’, 1. Inst. McI., 71, 371.
O0
.
TABOR, D. (1951). The Hm-(Ines: ofMetal.r. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
DUGDALE, D. S. (1955). ‘Experiments with pyramidal indenters’, Parts I and II.
J. Meclt. Phys. Solids, 3, 197, 206.
10. DUGDALE, D. S. (1958). ‘Vickers hardness and compressive strength’, 1. Meclt.
P/l)’S. Solids, 6, 85.
11. MEYER, O. E. (1908), ‘Untersuchungen uber Harteprufung and Harte’, Z. Ver.
dtsclt. lng., 52 p. 645. See also SALMON, H. (1931). Materials and Structures,
Vol. I, p. 529. Longmans.
I2. BISHOP, R. F., HILL, R., and Morr, N. F. (1945). ‘The theory of indentation and
hardness tests’, Proc. pltyx. $047., 57, 147.
13. SULLY, A. H. (1949). Metallic Creep and Creep-re.ri.r!iIzg’ Alloys. Butterworths
Scientific Publications.
14. LARSON, F. R., and MILLER, T. (1952). ‘A time—temperature relationship for
rupture and creep and creep stresses’, Trans. Amer. Sac. meclt. Eng/-5., 74, 765.
I5. ROTHERHAM, L. (1951). Creep ofMetals. Institute of Physics.
16. Various authors: ‘Interpretationof tests and correlation with service’, Am. Soc.
Met., 23-27 October 1950.
17. DRAPER, J. H. M. (1956). ‘The interpretation of creep data’, Iron and Steel,
November 1956.
18. BAILEY, R. W. (1954). ‘A critical examination of the procedures used in Britain
and the United States to determine creep stresses for the design of power
plant for long life at high temperatures‘, Prov. Inst. meclz. Engrs., 168, 470.
19. ALEXANDER, J. M. (1962), Introduction to Structural Problems in Nuclear
Reactor Engineering. Chapter 9, ‘ The plasticity and creep of metals’. Perga—
mon Press.
DATA
INTERPRETATXON or MECHANICAL rasr
654 the surface to be
212 in. long was pressed into
steel in. square section
%_~
bar independent of the
correctly surmised that such a test should be relationship to the
tested. He number would bear some
applied load and that the hardness
material.
strength properties of the Unwin’.~: hardness test corresponds to plane strain
34, dif—-
ln terms of Chapter 90° included angle (8 = 45°). The main
indentation with a tool having a ensure
had to be sutficiently deep tomaterial
that the test pieces
ficulty with the test was
field beingdeveloped, with
adequate elastic
the plastic of measure-
the full extentof indentations a more accurate tool and means
below it. For smaller
needed. Brinell’s test
ment would have been Unwin’s hardness test was superior to
On technical grounds, inevitable
the score of convenience, however, it was
which superseded it. On applied to an
that could be
that it would lose to tests indenter having a cross-
P actual component with an dimensions in all directions.
scction of roughly equal the
clear advantages from
The Brinell test had geometric
the sacrifice of
latter viewpoint, but at dimension
to surface
11
‘ 1. “-
\/(D3 — (13)) mm2
_ 7-rDh {(.~.D)/2}{D
1
r\//’’
«I, ,.
;
to obtain 3
connection between /2, and Y.
values ofr that For
are large compared with (772)
RADIUS/V
can be expanded and dilT‘rentizitcdto r,,
,'
Q
give
//
///77/ "/
K
(/5 3(/I‘ _,
M =
e
- *‘r FIG. 339
Substituting this value
4
equation gives
,1, {
= Yd(ln 5)
6 (773) ) i
fldr
l
where
6, —— —— i
0
’i r
Meyer, as early
as I908, suggested
test would best be that the results of the
represented by a power law ball indentation
diameter ofthe impression connecting the load I’ and the
(I
P = Cd"
and proposed that the hzirclness (774)
number should be defined by
plot logP against log d, so that the slope of the graph gives the index n, and
the intercept on the axis" of P at logd-= 0 gives the constant c. For annealed
materials, 21 is about 2-5 while for heavily work~hardened mat-frials /2
approaches 2. Equation (775b) then shows that for work—hardened materials
the hardness number should be independent of diameter ofimpression. This
is found to be approximately
true, and indicates from (774), the self~evider:t
fact that, when the yield stress becomes constant the impression increases in
area to balance the increase in applied load. For materials in the annealed
only partly hardened condition the curve of H3 against applied load has or
a
maximum value at a load corresponding roughly to the recommended
test
conditions of Brinell; for example, for mild steel, at about 3000 kg.
on a 10
mm. diameter ball. For other diameters, the fact that geometrically similar
configurations should give equivalent results
can be used to calculate the
optimum load. Thus, since the dimensions of hard-
ness number are
(load)
(length)2
the ratio P/D2 should be a constant.
In the Vickers diamond hardness test,a four—sided
Fro. 340 pyramid on a square base and with an included
angle of 136° between opposite sides is used
as the
indenter. This system provides geometric similarity, independent
ofload, and
that this holds in actuality is easily proved experimentally. However, so far
as
connecting the hardness number with yield stress is concerned, the theoretical
problem is as untractable as that for the spherical indenter of Brinell’s
test.
The Vickers hardness number is given by the load in kilograms divided by the
area ofthe sloping surfaces in square millimetres.
kg.
Hy = 1-854. E (776)
dzmmz
where dis the average diagonal length.
For a rigid-plastic body, the displaced material would be forced
sloping faces so that the indentation would have up the
concave faces in horizontal
projection (Fig. 340). Elastic-plastic materials show this effect in the
annealed
state, but when fully work-hardened approach a true square projection owing
to elastic accommodation of the displaced material. The variation of yield
stress in forming the indentation might be expected to be dependent only
the configuration of the diamond, and by analogy with the indentationupon
wide-angle die in the plane strain case, the amount of \vork—hardening ofa
should
not be large. A mean yield stress should therefore be possible. In fact, Tabor
found that the Vickers hardness number bore an almost
constant ratio to the
yield stress at a compressive strain of8
per cent reckoned from the initial state
of the test piece.
In the past, relationships between hardness number (particularly Brincll
at
CREEP "or METALS
657
~ ber) and ultimate tensile strength have
been claimed. Since the U.T.S. is
4“; ring] stress corresponding to the point ofinstability in the tensile test, a
l
6 Creep of Metals
(A) CREEP
resr
Creep is the deformation exhibited by
a metal under constant loading over
an extended period of time. The temperature at which metal has
a measurable
creep varies with the metal, but at
room temperature most metals are not
subject to creep, in that a given stress
may cause a plastic deformation, but
equilibrium is quickly reached and there is essentially
of the stress—strain curve with time. no change in the shape
At high temperatures this is not true, and under
metal that would be stable at a constant applied load a
room temperature slowly deforms, and may
suffer very large strains although the
loading is constant.
Creep tests have been made with various
types ofloading, including tension,
compression, torsion, etc., although almost all
reference books has been obtained with simple creep
data reported in the
tensile loading. The tension
‘t piece is enclosed in
a furnace maintained at a constant temperature
1°
~(
1 C.) and loaded, usually through a lever system with a
applied stress is therefore increasing constant load. The
as the test proceeds since the area
decreases, although,
over the range of strains (say, 2—3 per cent extension) of
interest in practice the error is not large.
Creep is a temperature sensitive phenomenon. As
the temperature rises, the
creep rate increases and failure occurs in progressively shorter times.
Tempera-
ture not only causes the creep rate to increase directly, but it
siderable influence indirectly through also has a con-
metallurgical effects of prolonged
heating.
A typical creep curve is shown in Fig. 341.
It the strain (or
extension) against time for constant temperature represents
and applied load. When the
load is first applied there may be (usually is) instantaneous
an extension that is
elastic (recoverable), possibly also accompanied
by plastic (irrecoverable)
extension followed by :1 region of‘primary’
or ‘transient’ creep in which the
creep rate decreases. During this stage the rate ofstrain hardening exceeds
the
rate ofthermal softening. ln the ‘secondary’ ‘steady
balance is reached between the strain hardeningor state‘ creep stage, a
and thermal softening mechan-
isms and a more—0r-less
constant creep rate results.
Most creep curves ofenginecring materials
are plotted in terms ofparticular
658 lNTERPRl3TATlON OF MECHANICAL TEST DATA
>STRAIN
SECONDARY DR STEADY
STATE CREEP
/
PRIMARY M
NSIEN 7
nuCREEP
msmvmvsous
EXTENSION
>J
/
JI
T
'
" ””"_
FIG. 34]
stresses, although in fact they are carried out under constant load conditions.
This in part explains the ‘tertiary’ or ‘accelerating’ creep region, since the
area of the test piece, as in the tensile test, is decreasing so that the creep is
occurring under increasing stress. The shape of the curve cannot be entirely
explained on this basis however, and it has to be concluded that intercrystalline
cracking and other metallurgical changes are involved in this part of the
deformation.
The tertiary stage ends in rupture. The secondary stage is usually very long
compared with primary or tertiary stages for most creep resistant materials,
and creep curves are frequently plotted on a log (time) basis.
In engineering design, we are mainly concerned to achieve a criterion for the
stresses that can be applied to a material, at the operating temperature and
under specified conditions, without excessive deformations. The definition of
allowable deformations depends upon the application. For example, the
following table gives typical figures.
2Q
E
"’
S
0I
..U)
<
i‘
3
E
/O
.»,»~_
.
I
e ..t]__
—-—-1/MEILUG SCALE)
(B)DER1VED FROM A.
FIG. 342A, B
stress levels against log (time) all at a constant temperature (usually the work-
ing temperature) can be plotted (Fig. 342).
From graphs ofthis kind (Fig. 342A) the time to produce a given strain 5 at
the various stress levels can be read oil‘ and second graph (Fig. 3423) of the
21
stress to produce this strain can be plotted against time. The same procedure
‘n be used for strains up to rupture, and a family ofsuch curves constructed
'
54
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. .
IEMPERAIURE
TIMEILDG
seas) t 3,
9 6,
TEMPERATURE
(A) TEMPERATUREV LOG TIME V TEMPERATURE
CURVES FOR DIFFERENT (B) STRESS
STRESSES FOR A CERTAIN FOR DIFFERENT TIMES I
FOR A CERTAIN STRAIN é
STRAIN 5
FIG. 344A, B
5‘
(E Et
in which = =
5;‘,
CREEP
or Meurs 661
If steady state creep, and
A
= a constant, for a given stress,
/Q activation energy for the
:
.
creep process at given stress,
R
= Boltzmann’s constant,
T absolute temperature,
I :
= the time to reach any strain 6.
One typical approach is
to rc\vrite this equation as
:
T(lnA—lne+ In!)
-r
= T(B+ln
1)
R I7
(778)
he sufiix indicating that the activation
/2
tress levelp. Bis a constant for given energy required depends upon the
a
.arsen~Miller parameter, has been
strain The term T(B+ logr), called the
shown to predict experimental results
wide range of times over
and temperatures for many steels, high
lloys and aluminium alloys. temperature
Also it is often found that straight—linc relation-
hips are obtained when
log (stress) is plotted against the Larsen—Miller
-arameter and a general relationship
ofthe form
In]; /\',+/c1T(B—2—lnt)
ppliesi = (779)
It can be shown, from (777) (779)
to that this is equivalent to
= Cp"e""T
5'
(780)
'
re Cand n
are constants for a given material. A relationship
“ah”
be used to solve ofthis kind
some problems if the primary creep can be ignored by
xtrapolating the secondary
creep line back
0 the strain ordinate for
uming it can be considered
zero time, and as-
as entirely an
nstantaneous elastic strain.
INTERPRETATION MIECHANICAL
or TEST DATA
fall below a certain value in specified time, since
a otherwise the joint will
leak.
«._
"_€=£
50 [70
Also, 60
=e5+ 6, and substituting for e,; we get
. __
: '7,
\
6-I-6(—--1):
P
0
,3’: : B 0
g
P0 '
la‘
.
' 5dl eodp
pod! _
O
\
‘./\
.
LC.
dp dc )9,
C_ C
d—t
_ -53 - _
(731)
But de/dr
= = Cp" by (780) at constant temperature.
e’
far: 1:
1
—E—Cfp"'dp,
from (731)
0
In
METAILS '
V
66.:
-v
-
complex stress states to be predicted to some extent. We use the Von Mises
vield criterion and the Le'vy—Mises flow rule.
/I The equations are:
(0) (In—p:)’+(172-1I3)2+(/5-/>1)‘ = 2Y2 = 253 (534)
X
(/1)
3 (2/’1”I’2#I’3)
6}
: X
(339)
.
52 30/’2‘l’3—1’t) -1
: X
53 §(2l’.=’l’1—l’z)
=
(c) é,+é2+c'3 = 0 (537)
for constancy of volume.
€
_é
= A0" (783)
_
= -1
E
=
lftte. —e2)1+<ea~é3>2+(e.~e3>2}‘” (558)
Then Pd {Dd
0
pg #
-
_-)4
, I’: —
-— l7r 1’
...l
\/2'1 +(~—=0J+(°~2e,—)}
3'1”
{
_.
1
12/ M Pd Pal ’
\./3/u1
« _
‘ 4:
—
:
664 ENTERPRETATION OF MECHANICAL TEST DATA
Xzpd Pd _XPd vfl
,_rt‘
‘9
77;“ - :17
“A[.[2Pd_I;1_ O
_
,
'
S‘
_E 4t—
2t
x\'Pzi
“i°"27‘Izi
Pc! Pd
,_t. — _
— 41‘
w‘<2 5 13’ x Pd
{<1+1)-+(1>Z+(1)2}‘”
,
= from (:1), (558)
4 t 727,
X
Pd (d), (783)
= A0 , from
_n .
E7 \/2A.(‘/T) Pd "-'
This gives
A.
=
3 "
(7)
_
./M(vTT)
3Pd -
and .. = z -
We can proceed as before to find the strain in any given time.
Examples to Chapter 40
(elastic strains ignored),
The results of a tensile te st are given in the table below
1.
of the neck and the
together with measurements made of the minimum diamete r 1
I/zl'e/‘L/Jrefafio/2
of Meclzanical Test Data
I Introduction
It was pointed out in Chapter 24 that although engineering design is based ..-,_t
5° *5v :53‘
(*0 «>0 "i
"
5s-:3‘ \\:‘ '\°’
‘t~
\° e\\$\\\-\00%95 -
3
.
"\\\V.
- “ 0°
644 INTERPRETATION or MECHANICAL TEST DATA
‘ V
4 --e 69
\~ ¢>\‘ , £313
\i'AK; 0¢_¢§“:<
Q25‘
Q? a
gs‘
FRDOF
'‘‘‘' ‘‘ ' ‘ ‘
'“
”
smsss
MAXIMUM
(A) LOAD
FRACTURE
ELASTIC PLASTIC
:7,
FIRST YIELD
E
UNLOADINE :3
3
4
V\
ELASTIC
LOCAL
EXTENSION
I
I.
UNIFOR/[W EL 0 NGA TI0 N—— STRAIN
-<:—
ELONGA TION
Original area
.
Ultimate .
tensile Maximum load
strength =
——_—.j—
Original area
Percentage elongation Total extension to fracture
= X 100
Original
, _
length
Percentage reduction of area
Original area— Final area of neck at fracture
_g Original area X100
Some materials have characteristic load-extension
curves: for example,
many steels show a sudden yielding without increase in load at first yield (the
‘
yield point’)'and an extension of as much 4
as per cent of the gauge length may
occur before a state of equilibrium is again obtained as shown by the rising
load-extension curve. This is a non-uniform deformation
ageing phenomena. Some non—ferrous materials (particularly process, related to
magnesium alloys of aluminium in certain heat treated states) also copper and
show the
same kind of behaviour.
The conventional tensile ‘properties’
are not in fact physical properties of
the material and for reliable specification
by its (true stress)—(true strain)
a material should be characterised
curve. Ifit assumed that the test piece remains
is
uniform in cross—section over its gauge length (this depends
with which it is made to a large extent) then the (true stress)—(trueupon the accuracy
strain)
curve can be drawn from the results ofa tensile test up to the point ofnecking.
Thus, if P is the current tensile load and is the corresponding
e engineers
strain, we have true stress
P P] P
—— = Ao(I+e)
= A— = A0/0 — 7 8
(6)
The true strain
= e = ln(l+e) (I20)
Alternatively, we can plot a curve of equivalent
stress 6 against equivalent
strain, defined by (560) and (558), 420 and 417. For the tensile test, the
pp.
equivalent stress 6 = Y, and the equivalent strain
f?l;”=li1é—1(—::
2": (559)
1‘
Usually in the form ofa proofstrcss: that is,
a test piece must be able to sustain a given
stress (or load in the testing machine) without the
loading exceeding a certain agreed permanent extension on release of the
amount.
A
INTERPRET.-\TlON OF MECHANICAL TEST DATA
i__
'\
A curve ofthis kind can be considered as representing a physical property of ‘
_Beyond the point of maximum load, however, the true stress Ycan
no longer
be simply related to the applied load P by (768), because the state ofstress is no
longer uniform nor uniaxial, and the strain is no longer definable by the general r’
elongation.
The point of maximum load is easily determined from the following con«
sideration. With continued plastic strain the yield stress increases (strain-
hardening) but the rate ofhardening slows up and the area supporting the load
decreases. The strain-hardening rate is
‘D’ "('14)
de _ dc
and since A
=
1+e
n'Y PzI(l+e) l+_c’zi/f+V1:
dc _g Ade A0 (/2 _
T A0 r/(2 A0
(1
.
When Pis a maximum if = 0 and = £
N
P 1:’
A Y
W
f:
AA0 = (l+e)
.
A0
A de = A de =
_/1o
(1 +e)Z
7 ’;1
_ +e
1
Y de T Z :1;
Alternatively, differentiating (120) gives
de_
I
de_ 1+e’
ldY_ 1dY.ds
“'h'l
” —__~__.
Yde Yde de
Hence, from the above, \ve have that at the maximum load, t1Y/de = Y.
The point of maximum load can therefore be determined from the true
stress/true strain curve, by finding the point on the curve having a subtangent
of unity (Fig. 333).
647
THE TENSILE TEST
ma:\'imum load therefor 3 depends
The extent ofthe uniform elongation up to
capacity ofthe material. The greater the slope ofthe
\.
gon the strain hardening
strcss—strain curve, the greater is (1/Y)(d}',’z!e), and the
smaller the area A
before the equality is established.
The conclusion to be drawn from
X i
/
‘
Slggis
this is that the uniform extension is Y 5'1 =Y
rms Pomr
4
dz
properties than the total elongation,
4
//
'!
reservoir
as a means of deciding the
of strength represented by the
difT—
,._____ W0-fl tl __ ._}.___. rm-'5 smuu
FiI_‘,_ 333
5
‘ill?
Fig. 334
Where r = O, u
= 0, so that 2: —e,r/2. Hence
E9 8,
: 9;
and
= = — :2".
pr:/)3
from the Lévy-Mises flow rule.
Again, the yield criterion requires that
;;,—p, = Y or ,7, = p,+ Y
Thus, whatever the distribution ofp,,
p, differs from it (and from jig) by an
amount Y, at all points ofthe cross—section.
With certain assumptions and
approximations Bridgman arrives at the
result that at the minimum cross—section
Z
Y I Dia +2aR—1)=
.2
‘P. = ZHR fie ( 7708)
,{ a2+2aR—r2'}
_ )
p,.— ll+ln ) ( 77Gb )
2aR
a and R being defined in Fig. 334.
The stress p_. is connected with the load by ’
P= I
0
27rp_.rdr
= 71Y(a2+2aR)ln
(14,211?)
(770c)
can be stated:
(I) Plastic strains uniform
(2) The
over a definable gauge length are required.
strain must be capable of being accurately
measured over the whole
range ofdeformation. .<._
/*:40°/.
/ 30“l..
V
SWESS,
!
YIELD YIELD STRESS CURVE
10 20 30 40
REDUCTION “In
r
FIG. 335
TESTS 651
PLANE STRAIN AND SIMPLE COMPRESSION
All four
Friction is reduced by relubricating between each load increment.
cylinders are successively subjected to the same load, and the percentage
against
reduction in height calculated. Extrapolation of percentage reduction
with an
:10‘.-’.’1o
ratio gives the percentage reduction that would have occurred
infinitely long test piece (Fig. 336).
For any gauge length
/10
in the infinitely‘ long test piece the ideal currc-nt
LOADS .-
YIcLD STRESS ct/.N‘>’E
~»~
T T2 T3 TA T5
'
-“":;‘“r"‘3
\
r '7 ...-..-.2
l
§'f—;fg‘é‘s’‘g’s‘”
STRESS
2%;
‘Th\...‘-....\._-..
YIELD
EXTRAPULATED '
POINTS REDUCTION PER CENT
FIG. 336
cross—sectional area,
height /2 can be found, and consequently the ideal current
and the true stress.
shown
The tension and compression curves for high conductivity copper are
in Fig. 337. The tensile results were obtained by measuring the minimum
warm 3
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FIG. 337
(From \V:Ius and Ford, 1955)
compressive
diameter of the neck, and the elongation strain converted to
strain, on the basis of equivalence of logarithmic strain (percentage compres-
sion is more convenient than logarithmic strain as an abscissa since it does not
extend the curve so much at higher values). The compression curve slightly
is
above the tensile at low strains, but is sensibly belowit at strains above about
20 per cent. This is more likely to be owing to uncertainties in assessing the
anything else, although the
true stress in the neck ofthe tensile test piece than
anisotropy developed by the two tests will be difTerent.
DATA
652 XNTERPRETATION or MECH.—\.\’lCAL TEST
compression test on strip material
In Chapter 34, Section 4, the plane strain
close agreement with the true yield
was described, and it was shown that very variables xxithin certain lirnits.
stress can be obtained by holding the important 551.
To keep the friction to a
The principle of the test is shown in Fig. 275, p.
with relubrication between
minimum the load is applied in small increments,
oil was used, the graphite
each increment. A mixture of graphite and mineral
pencil. This method is clean
being applied by rubbing the strip with a graphite
parallel to the strip surface.
and simple and ensures that the flakes are smeared
graphite. The ratio of
A very thin layer of oil or grease is then spread over the
oil to graphite is critical ; excess oil is squeezed out under
load, carrying graphite
friction and tends to become
with it while graphite alone does not give such low
lubricant is present as a
embedded in the metal surface. In the ideal case, the
film covering the contact area after deformation.
dies acts as a restraint to
The non—deforming material on each side of the
elongating the material
lateral spread ofthe strip, all the deformation going into
widtli),/(die breadth) ratio is above about
between the dies, so long as the (strip thickness) ratio. It was
12. Another important factor is the (die breadth)/(strip
between the dies is
shown in Chapter 34 that although the deformation pattern is
thickness over 2: l, the
complex, when the ratio of die breadth to strip
two planes at 45° to the die
deformation approaches closely to pure shear on the
yield stress (measured by the die load divided by
axes, in which case the yield stress is simple tension or com-
contact area) is exactly Z/\/3 times the
pression.
far because friction
We cannot increase the (breadth)/(thickness) ratio too
will again intrude, even with incremental loading
and lubrication; but it is
deformation is main-
found that if the ratio is kept between 2:1 and 4:1 the
distinct advantages
tained very closely to plane compression. This method has material on
the eflect of the overhanging
over simple compression owing to deform according to a
each side of the dies which forces the plastic zone to
frictional restraint.
certain flow pattern rather than according to the
obtained in this way,
Fig. 337 shows curves for high conductivity copper
indentation but relubricating
making progressive load increments in the same
(die breadth)/(strip thick-
each time and changing the die breadth so that the
ness) ratio was kept between 2 and 4.
related to the simple
This basic stress~strain curve should be capable ofbeing diflier by the factor
compression curve: the stress ordinate should merely
1-155, while the strains occurring in the two cases can
be related through the
plotted as percentage
appropriate expressions for equivalent strain and
reduction in plane strain.
in Fig. 336, while B is
The lowest curve in Fig. 337 is simple compression, as
equivalent strain as plane com-
the same curve converted to the same basis of is shown as curve A and
pression (i.e. using (558), p. 417). Plane compression the
obtained as described above. The uppermost stress curve indicates
was is equal to the initial strip
correction that has to be made if the die breadth
279 in Chapter 34.
thickness, and compares, of course, with Fig.
is be remarked that this curve,
At the top, the ratio A/B is plotted. It to
INDENTATION HARDNESS TESTING 653
ewtrapolated back to zero reduction, cuts the ordinate exactly at 1-155
( 2/\/3), but falls steadily with increasing deformation to value of about
a
1-08 at 80 per cent compression.
Herein lies one ofthe main difficulties in obtaining a basic yield stress
curve;
although by changing over to compression we can extend the total uniform
strain about twenty times compared with that in the tensile test, another factor
it enters in that metallic materials develop directional properties. For example,
the yield stress in the transverse direction (i.e. in the direction in which extension
is prevented) is about 8 to 13
per cent higher than in the longitudinal direction
in the plane strain test, and the anisotropy will develop differently under
different strain systems.
Plane strain compression is closely reached in cold rolling, and Fig. 313 in
Chapter 37 (p. 609) shows curves for mild steel obtained both by a direct plane
strain test as described above, and also on progressively cold rolled strip,
similarly tested after each pass. The difference between the
curves is the
additional (redundant) shearing in cold rolling owing to the curvature of
the rolls, which causes an additional shear not represented in the overall
reduction.
An approach to a stress-—strain curve by a predominantly tensile stress is
realised in wire—drawing (Chapter 38) in that overall strains much greater than
those in the tensile test are obtained without a neck forming in the wire. As
in cold rolling there is a non—uniform distribution of
stress and strain in the
die, so that a test carried out on a piece ofwire after each pass does not give
a basic stress—strain curve, although it may not be much in excess. But the
process at least serves to illustrate that elongations of several hundred per
cent are thus possible, compared with about 40 per cent for the most ductile
materials in simple tension, merely by suppressingthe radial tensile component
9‘
if stress.