VIT

UNIVERSITY
(Estd. u/s 3 of UGC Act 1956)

MEE 230
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

COURSE MATERIAL
Prepared by

Dr. R. SUNDARESAN
Senior Professor

School of Mechanical and Building Sciences

B.Tech. (Mechanical Engineering)
VIT University
Vellore – 632 014
MEE230 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES L T P C
3 0 0 3
Objectives
1. To provide students an overview of global energy resources.
2. To introduce students to bio-fuels, hydrogen energy and solar energy.
3. To enable the students understand the importance of energy efficiency and
conservation in the context of future energy supply.
4. To expose students to future energy systems and energy use scenarios with
a focus on promoting the use of renewable energy resources and
technologies.
Outcome Student will be able to
1. Possess the knowledge of global energy resources
2. Use the renewable technologies like solar, biomass, wind, hydrogen etc. to
produce energy.
3. Involve in optimizing and selecting an alternate source of energy.
UNIT I Biofuels
Biofuels classification – Biomass production for energy forming – Energy
through fermentation – Pyrolysis – Gasification and combustion - Biogas -
Aerobic and Anaerobic bio conversion process - Feed stock - Properties of
bio-gas composition - Biogas plant design and operation - Alcoholic
fermentation.
UNIT II Hydrogen Energy
Electrolytic and thermo chemical hydrogen production – Metal hydrides and
storage of hydrogen – Hydrogen energy conversion systems hybrid systems –
Economics and technical feasibility.
UNIT III Solar Energy
Solar radiation - availability- Measurement and estimation- Isotropic and an
isotropic models- Introduction to solar collectors (liquid flat- Plate collector - Air
heater and concentrating collector) and thermal storage- Steady state transient
analysis- Photovoltaic solar cell - Hybrid systems - thermal storage- Solar array
and their characteristics evaluation – Solar distillation – Solar drying.
UNIT IV Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
Geothermal - Wave and Tidal energy - Availability - Geographical distribution
- Power generation using OTEC - Wave and Tidal energy - Scope and
economics - Geothermal energy - Availability - Limitations.
UNIT V Wind Energy
Wind energy - General considerations - Wind Power plant design – Horizontal
axis wind turbine - Vertical axis wind turbine - Rotor selection - Design
considerations - Number of blades - Blade profile - Power regulation - Yaw
system - Choice of power plant - Wind mapping and selection of location-Cost
analysis and economics of systems utilizing renewable sources of energy.
Text book
1. David Merick, Richard Marshall, (2001), Energy, Present and Future
Options, Vol. I and II, John Wiley and sons.
Reference Books
1. Gerald W. Koeppl, (2002), Patnam’s power from wind, Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co.
2. Ritchie J.D., (1999), Source Book for Farm Energy Alternative, McGraw Hill.
3. Twidell, J.W. and Weir, A.D., (1999), Renewable Energy Resources, ELBS.
4. Koteswara Rao, M. V. R., (2006), Energy Resources-Conventional and Non
Conventional, Second Edition, BS Publications.
5. Khan, B. H., (2009), Non-Conventional Energy Resources, Second Edition,
Tata McGraw Hill.
6. Chetan Singh Solanki, (2009), Renewable Energy Technologies: A Practical
Guide for Beginners, Second Printing, PHI Learning Private Limited.
7. Mukherjee, D. and Chakrabarti, S., (2005), Fundamentals of Renewable
Energy Systems, New Age International (P) Limited
8. Chauhan, D.S. and Srivastava, S.K. (2006), Non-Conventional Energy
Resources, New Age International (P) Limited

Mode of Evaluation: Assignment / Quiz / Written Examination.

 UNIT-I
1.0 BIOFUELS
• Biofuel is defined as solid, liquid or gas fuel derived from relatively
recently dead biological material and is distinguished from fossil
fuels, which are derived from long dead biological material.
• Theoretically, biofuels can be produced from any (biological) carbon
source; although, the most common sources are photosynthetic
plants.
• Various plants and plant-derived materials are used for biofuel
manufacturing. Globally, biofuels are most commonly used to power
vehicles, heating homes cornstoves and cooking stoves.

Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis uses light energy and carbon dioxide to make triose

phosphates (G3P)
• G3P is generally considered the first end-product of photosynthesis
• It can be used as a source of metabolic energy, or combined and
rearranged to form monosaccharide or disaccharide sugars, such as
glucose or sucrose, respectively, which can be transported to other
cells, stored as insoluble polysaccharides such as starch, or
converted to structural carbohydrates, such as cellulose or glucans.
 • Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to
chemical energy and storing it in the bonds of sugar. This process
occurs in plants and some algae (Kingdom Protista). Plants need
only light energy, CO2, and H2O to make sugar.

A commonly used slightly simplified equation for photosynthesis is:

6 CO2(g) + 12 H2O(l) + photons → C6H12O6(aq) + 6 O2(g) + 6 H2O(l)

carbon dioxide + water + light energy → glucose + oxygen + water

1.1 Classification of Biofuels

First generation fuels
• Vegetable oil
• Biodiesel
• Bioalcohols
• Biogas

• Syngas

• Solid biofuels
Second generation biofuels
• Biohydrogen
• Biomethanol
• DMF
• Bio-DME
• Fischer-Tropsch Diesel
• Biohydrogen Diesel
• Mixed Alcohols
• Wood Diesel
Third generation biofuels
Algae fuel
 Fourth generation biofuels
Conversion of vegoil and biodiesel into gasoline
Liquid Biofuels
• Bioethanol
• Biodiesel
• Biobutanol
• Pure Plant Oil (PPO)
• Biokerosene
• Pyrolysis oil
Gas Biofuels
• Biogas
• Biopropane
• Synthetic natural gas (SNG)
Solid Biofuels
• Wood
• Manure
• Charcoal

Biogas Gas
Anaerobic
Turbine
Digestion

Gas
Gasification

Electric
power
Waste and Char Gas
Biomass Engine
Pyrolysis

Bio-Oil
Steam
Combustion Turbine
Co-firing Steam

Fuel Conversion Intermediate Generation Product

Figure 1.1 Overview of waste and biomass conversion

routes for power generation
1.2 BIOGAS
• Biogas is produced by the decomposition of animal wastes, plant
wastes and human wastes
• It is produced by digestion, pyrolysis and hydro-gasification
• Digestion is a biological process that takes place in the absence
of oxygen and in the presence of an aerobic organisms at ambient
pressures and temperature of 35 to 70°C
• The container in which this digestion takes place is called digester
Animal wastes
Cattle dung, urine, goat and poultry droppings, slaughter house
wastes, fish wastes, leather and wood wastes, sericulture wastes,
elephant dung, piggery wastes etc.
Agricultural wastes
Aquatic and terrestrial weeds crop residue, stubbles of crops, sugar
can trash, spoiled fodder, bagasse, tobacco wastes, oilcakes fruit
and vegetable processing wastes, press mud, cotton and textile
wastes, spent coffee and tea wastes
Human wastes
Faeces, urine and other wastes emanating from human occupations
Waste of aquatic origin
Marine plants, twigs, algae, water hyacinth and water weeds
Industrial wastes
Sugar factory, tannery, paper etc.
 Table 1.1 Typical Composition of Bio gas
Sl. No. Matter %
1 Methane, CH4 50 – 75
2 Carbon dioxide, CO2 25 – 50
3 Nitrogen, N2 0 – 10
4 Hydrogen, H2 0–1
5 Hydrogen Sulfide, H2S 0–3
6 Oxygen, O2 0–2

1.2.1 Micro-organisms
• Living creatures which are in microscopic in size and are invisible to
unaided eyes
• They are called bacteria, fungi, virus etc.
• Beneficial bacteria and harmful bacteria
• Compost making production of biogas, vinegar, etc., are beneficial
• Bacteria causing cholera, typhoid, diphtheria are harmful bacteria
• Bacteria can be divided into two groups based on their oxygen
requirement
• Bacteria grow in the presence of oxygen is Aerobic
• Bacteria grow in the absence of gaseous oxygen is Anaerobic
• When organic matter undergoes fermentation through anaerobic
digestion, the gas produced is Biogas
 1.2.2 Anaerobic Digestion
• Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which
microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence
of oxygen
• It is widely used to treat wastewater sludges and organic wastes
because it provides volume and mass reduction of the input material
• As part of an integrated waste management system, anaerobic
digestion reduces the emission of landfill gas into the atmosphere
• Anaerobic digestion is a renewable energy source because the

process produces a methane and carbon dioxide rich biogas suitable

for energy production helping replace fossil fuels
• Anaerobic digestion is particularly suited to wet organic material and
is commonly used for effluent and sewage treatment
• Anaerobic digestion is a simple process that can greatly reduce the
amount of organic matter which might otherwise be destined to be
landfilled or burnt in an incinerator.
• Almost any organic material can be processed with anaerobic
digestion
• This includes biodegradable waste materials such as waste paper,
grass clippings, leftover food, sewage and animal waste

Utilizing anaerobic digestion technologies can help to reduce the

emission of greenhouse gasses in a number of key ways:

• Replacement of fossil fuels

• Reducing methane emission from landfills
• Displacing industrially-produced chemical fertilizers
• Reducing vehicle movements
• Reducing electrical grid transportation losses
1.2.3 Types of Anaerobic Digesters
• Anaerobic activated sludge process
• Anaerobic clarigester
• Anaerobic contact process
• Anaerobic expanded-bed reactor
• Anaerobic filter
• Anaerobic fluidized bed
• Anaerobic lagoon
• Anaerobic migrating blanket reactor
• Batch system anaerobic digester
• Continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)
• Expanded granular sludge bed digestion (EGSB)
• Hybrid reactor
• Imhoff tank
• Internal circulation reactor (IC)
• One-stage anaerobic digester
• Submerged media anaerobic reactor
• Two-stage anaerobic digester
• Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion (UASB)
• Upflow and down-flow anaerobic attached growth
1.2.4 Site selection for Biogas Plant
• Distance: The distance between the plant and the site of gas
consumption should be less in order to achieve economy in
pumping of gas and minimizing gas leakage. For a plant capacity of
2 m3, the optimum distance is 10 m
• Minimum gradient: For conveying the gas a minimum gradient of
1% must be made available for the line
• Open space: The sun light should fall on the plant as temperature
between 15°C to 30°C is essential for gas generation at good rate
• Water table: The plant is normally constructed underground for
ease of charging the feed and unloading slurry requires less
labour. In such cases care should be taken to prevent the seepage
of water and plant should not be constructed if the water table is
more than 10 feet.
• Seasonal run off: Proper care has to be taken to prevent the
interference of run off water during the monsoon. Intercepting
ditches or bunds may be constructed
• Distance from wells: The seepage of fermented slurry may pollute
the well water. Hence a minimum of 15 m should be maintained
from the wells
• Space requirements: Sufficient space must be available for day to
day operation and maintenance. As a guideline 10 to 12 m2 area is
needed per m3 of the gas.
• Availability of water: Plenty of water must be available as the cow
dung slurry with a solid concentration of 7% to 9% is used
• Source of cow dung / materials for biogas generation: The distance
between the material for biogas generation and the gas plant site
should be minimum to economize the transportation cost.
1.3 DIGESTER DESIGN
The design of a digester is based on two factors:
• Based on the amount of waste available and the gas produced
based on the wastes
• Based on the needs
Most of the digesters are based on the second objective since it is easy to
adjust the feed available than to have insufficient

1.3.1 Design characteristics based on the size

Raw material availability: The gas production is proportional to the

amount of raw material digested.
Type of material: C/N ratio of the raw material should be in the optimum
range for better digestion. If the raw material is an easily digestible one,
the size of the digester can be reduced proportionally.
Size of raw materials: The feed material should be cut into pieces so that
the surface area for the reaction is the maximum. Also, the slurry
produced should flow smoothly. The scum produced should be
minimized.
Heating requirements: If the digester is situated in cold areas, sufficient
heating arrangements should be provided to keep the digestion
temperature within the optimum range. Burying the digester under the
ground helps to minimize the temperature fluctuations of the ambient
around the digester
Mixing requirements: Providing a mechanism of mixing the feed inside
the digester helps to ensure the easy availability of feed to the bacteria for
the reactions. Also it provides proper slurry flow inside the digester and
avoids the formation of scum
Construction materials available: Use of locally available expertise and
materials close to the site for the construction of a digester reduces the
cost. Fabrication from corrosion resistant materials such as wood,
ferrocement, concrete, brick or stone rather than metal may also reduce
costs by extending equipment life. Larger digesters require proper
maintenance also. Removal of inert wastes such as sand and rocks
prevents wear on mechanical parts and extends equipment life
1.4 Biogas Technology
Biogas is produced from wet biomass through a biological conversion
process that involves bacterial breakdown of organic matter by micro-
organisms to produce CH4, CO2 and H2O.
The process is known as ‘anaerobic digestion’ which proceeds in three
steps.
1. Hydrolysis
2. Acid formation
3. Methane formation
Hydrolysis
• Organic waste of animal and plants contains carbohydrates in the
form of cellulose, hemi cellulose and lignin
• A group of anaerobic micro-organisms breakdowns complex
organic material into simple and soluble organic components,
primarily acetates
• The hydrolysis depends on bacterial concentration, quality of
substrate, pH (between 6 and 7) and temperature (30°C to 40°C) of
digester contents
Acid Formation
Decomposed simple organic material is acted upon by acetogenic
bacteria and converted into simple acetic acid
Methane Formation
• Acetic acid so formed becomes the substrate strictly for anaerobic
methanogeric bacteria, which ferment acetic acid to CH4 and CO2
• Biogas consists of CH4 and CO2 traces of other gases as H2, CO, N2,
O2 and H2S
• Gas mixture is saturated with water vapour
• The methane content of biogas is about 60% which provides
a high calorific value to find use in cooking, lighting and
power generation
Hydrolysis Phase: (C5H10O5) n + H2O → n (C5H12O6)
Acid Phase: n (C5H12O6) → CH3CH (OH) COOH
Methane Phase: 4H2 + CO2 → 2H2O + CH4
CH3CH (OH) COOH +H2O +CO2 →CH3COOH + CH4

Table 1.2 Energy Density (Heating values) of various fuels

Sl. No. Primary Resources Energy Density

1 Coal: Anthracite 32-34 MJ/kg
Bituminous 26-30 MJ/kg
Coke 29 MJ/kg
2 Brown coal: Lignite (old) 16-24 MJ/kg
Lignite (new) 10-14 MJ/kg
Peat 8-9 MJ/kg
3 Crude petroleum 45 MJ/kg
Petrol 51-52 MJ/kg
Diesel 45-46 MJ/kg
4 Natural gas 50 MJ/kg, (42 MJ/m3)
Methane (85% CH4) 45 MJ/kg, (38 MJ/m3 )
Propane 50 MJ/kg, (45 MJ/m3)
Hydrogen 142 MJ/kg, (12 MJ/m3)
 Floating
Mixing Pit Gas pipe
Gas Holder Spent slurry

Outlet tank

Inlet pipe Outlet pipe

Slurry

Partition
Wall

Support Masonary
Pipe work

Figure 1.1 Floating Drum Biogas Plant

(KVIC Model)
 Gas
Removable Valve
man hole Loose Cover
cover Gas
Pipe
Inlet

Gas
100mm

Spent
Slurry

Displacement
tank

Slurry
Digester

Foundation

Figure 1.2 Fixed dome biogas plant (Janta model)

 Table 1.3 Comparison between fixed and floating dome digesters
Sl. No. Floating Drum Fixed Dome
1 High capital investment Low
High maintenance cost Low (no moving part)
2 Steel gas holder needs No steel gas holder
replacement due to
corrosion
3 Life span – Digester : 30 Longer life span
years
Gas holder : 5 to 8 years
4 Drum space cannot be used Space can be used for other
for other purposes purposes
5 Effect of low temperature Less
during winter is more
6 Suitable for dung. Other Can be adapted / modified for
organic materials will clog other materials along with
inlet pipe dung slurry
7 Gas released at constant Variable gas pressure may
pressure cause slight reduction in
appliance efficiency. Gas
pressure regulator is a must
for engine applications
8 Construction is known to Dome construction is a skilled
masons but drum fabrication job & requires thorough
requires workshop facility training of masons
9 Locating & rectification of Difficult
defects in drum are easy
10 Requires less evacuation More
work
11 In areas of higher water Construction of plant is
table, horizontal plants could difficult in high water table
be installed areas
1.5 Factors affecting Anaerobic Digestion
• Temperature
• pH
• Availability of feed material
• Carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio
• Concentration of feed
• Mixing and Feeding rate
• Toxic materials
• Anaerobic condition
• Retention time
1.5.1 Temperature
Temperature has a significant effect on anaerobic digestion of organic
material
The optimum temperature for Mesophilic flora is 30 - 40 °C and
Thermophilic flora is 50 - 60 °C
As the temperature increases, the total retention period decreases and
vice-versa
1.5.2 pH

Measure of pH value indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions and

micro organisms are sensitive to pH of the digested slurry
For optimum biogas production, pH can be varied between 6.8 and 7.2
Control on pH should be exercised by adding alkali when it drops below
6.6
1.5.3 Availability of feed material
Steady supply of substrate and continuous operation of the digester
ensures a higher output than intermittent use
1.5.4 Carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio
Methanogenic bacteria need carbon and nitrogen for its survival
Carbon is required for energy while nitrogen for building cell protein
The consumption of carbon is 30 to 35 times faster than that of nitrogen
A favourable ratio of C : N can be taken as 30 : 1
1.5.5 Concentration of feed

The anaerobic fermentation of organic matter proceeds best if the

feeding material contains 7-13 % of solid matter
The usual materials fermented in a biogas plant normally contain higher
percentage of solids and they are therefore usually diluted with water
From experiments, it is found that a 1:1 (by volume) slurry of cow dung
and water, corresponding to a 10-12% of total solids, is effective for
optimum gas production
1.5.6 Mixing
Stirring of slurry inside the digester is desirable to simulate bacterial
action resulting in higher gas production, though it is not always
essential
Continuous feeding of fresh waste into the digester always induces
some movement in the mass of material in the digester, helping to
expose fresh undigested material to the bacteria
Normally, for small size plants, stirring is not provided
1.5.7 Toxic materials

The main toxic elements are : higher concentrations of ammonia,

soluble sulfides, metallic salts of Cu, Zn, Ni, Na, K, Ca, Mg, etc
The materials in solution can only be toxic to digestion
1.5.8 Anaerobic Conditions
Inside the digester, strict anaerobic condition has to be maintained since
the methane producing bacteria is sensitive to the presence of O2
1.5.9 Retention Time
It is the average length of time a sample of waste remaining in the
digester
For batch digestion, it is simply the time from the start-up to the
completion of the cycle
For continuous digestion, the HRT (Hydraulic Retention Time) is the
ratio between the volume of the digester contents to the volume of feed
(m3 / (m3/day)). The optimum retention time is found to vary between
14 to 60 days
1.6 BIOMASS
• Biomass refers to the mass of biological material produced from
living processes which includes the materials derived from plants as
well as animals
• Chemically biomass refers to hydrocarbons containing hydrogen,
carbon and oxygen which can be represented by C6n(H2O)5n
• Biomass is a scientific term for living mater, more specifically any
organic matter that has been derived from plants as a result of
phosynthetic conversion process
• Biomass is a sustainable resource that it is constantly being formed
by the interaction of air, water, soil and sunlight
• Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the
carbonaceous waste of various human and natural activities.
• The organic materials produced by plants, such as leaves, roots,
seeds, and stalks (stem)
• The term “biomass” is intended to refer to materials that do not
directly go into foods or consumer products but may have alternative
industrial uses.
• The total mass of living matter within a given unit of environmental
area. Plant material, vegetation, or agricultural waste used as a fuel
or energy source
• Biomass is a complex mixture of organic materials, such as
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, along with small amounts of
minerals, such as sodium, phosphorus, calcium, and iron. The main
components of plant biomass are carbohydrates (approximately
75%, dry weight) and lignin (approximately 25%), which can vary with
plant type
Common sources of biomass
• Woody biomass, Crop residues, Animal waste
• agricultural wastes, such as corn stalks, straw, seed hulls,
sugarcane leavings, bagasse, nutshells, and manure from cattle,
poultry, and hogs
• wood materials, such as wood or bark, sawdust, timber slash, and
mill scrap
• municipal waste, such as waste paper and yard clippings
Woody Biomass
This includes biomass in the form of trees; trees from forest, from farms,
commercial plantations etc. The use of woody biomass is mainly for
household and industrial application for making furniture, shelter,
agricultural tools etc. Woody biomass also has applications supplying our
energy needs. In rural areas, woody biomass is used as fuel wood for
cooking purposes while in urban areas, characoal-an upgraded form
woody biomass is used for cooking.
Crop Residues
This includes crops and plant residues produced in the field. These are
the residues that remain after taking out seeds from the crops. For
instance, husk, bagasse, cereal straw, nut shells etc. The crop residues
have several applications. It can be used for livestock feeding, as manure
together with animal dung as source of nutrients for soil.
Animal Waste
The animal dung and poultry manure come in this category. Animal waste
is a good source of nutrients and is used as a fertilizer. Animal dung is
also used for cooking either directly by burning or converting it into
biogas, which is then burned to cook food. Thus animals also fulfill our
needs.
1.6.1. Advantages
It is renewable source
Energy storage is an in-built feature of it
It is an indigenous source requiring little or no foreign exchange
The pollutant emissions from combustion of biomass are usually
lower than those from fossil fuels
Commercial use of biomass may avoid or reduce the problems of
waste disposal in other industries, particularly municipal solid waste
in urban centres
The nitrogen rich bio-digested slurry and sludge from a biogas plant
serves as a very good soil conditioner and improves the fertility of
the soil
Varying capacity can be installed; any capacity can be operated,
even at lower loads, with no seasonality involved
The forestry and agricultural industries that supply feed stocks also
provide substantial economic development opportunities in rural
areas.
1.7 BIOMASS CONVERSIONS
• Physical Method (Briquetting and Pelletization processes)
• Direct combustion, such as wood waste and bagasse
(sugarcane refuge)
• Thermochemical conversion (gasification and liquefaction)
• Biochemical conversion (anaerobic digestion and fermentation)
1.7.1 Pyrolysis
• Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of a condensed substance
by heating
• Pyrolysis of organic materials produces combustible gases,
including carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane, and other
hydrocarbons
1.7.2 Gasification
• Gasification is the process of converting solid fuels to gaseous fuel
• Gasification is a process that converts carbonaceous materials, such
as coal, petroleum, or biomass, into carbon monoxide and hydrogen
by reacting the raw material at high temperatures with a controlled
amount of oxygen and/or steam. The resulting gas mixture is called
synthesis gas or syngas and is itself a fuel.
1.7.3 Fermentation
• In a general sense, fermentation is the conversion of a carbohydrate
such as sugar into an acid or an alcohol
• More specifically, fermentation can refer to the use of yeast to
change sugar into alcohol or the use of bacteria to create lactic acid
in certain foods
• Fermentation occurs naturally in many different foods given the right
conditions, and humans have intentionally made use of it for many
thousands of years
• Sugars are the most common substrate of fermentation, and typical
examples of fermentation products are ethanol, lactic acid, and
hydrogen
• Industrial fermentation, the breakdown and re-assembly of
biochemicals for industry, often in aerobic growth conditions
In food science, fermentation may mean:
• Fermentation (food), the conversion of carbohydrates into alcohols
or acids under anaerobic conditions used for making certain foods
1.7.4 Alcoholic Fermentation
• In brewing, alcoholic fermentation is the conversion of sugar into
carbon dioxide gas (CO2) and ethyl alcohol
• This process is carried out by yeast enzymes
1.8 Types of Gasifiers
• Counter-current fixed bed (Up draft gasifier)
• Co-current fixed bed (Down draft gasifier)
• Cross-flow gasifier
• Fluidized bed gasifier and Entrained flow gasifier

Table 1.4 Typical composition of producer gas

Sl.No. Gas %
1 Carbon monoxide 18 – 22%
2 Hydrogen 13 – 19%
3 Methane 1 – 5%
4 Heavier hydrocarbons 0.2 – 0.4 %
5 carbon dioxide 9 – 12%
6 Nitrogen 45 – 55%
7 Water vapour 4%

Application of Biomass Gasification Processes

Large scale applications (500 kW and above)
Medium scale applications (30-500 kW)
Small scale applications (7-30 kW)
Micro scale applications (1-7 kW)
 Feed

Gas

200°C
Drying Zone
400°C
Distillation Zone
600°C (Pyrolysis zone)

Reduction Zone
950°C
Hearth Zone
1300°C (Oxidation Zone)

Air
Grate
Ash Zone
Figure 1.3 Updraft gasifier

1.8.1 Updraft Gasifier

• In the updraft gasifier the feed is introduced at the top and the air at the
bottom of the unit via a grate
• Immediately above the grate the solid char (the residual solid
remaining after the release of volatiles) formed higher up the gasifier is
combusted and the temperature reaches about 1000°C.
• Ash falls through the grate at the bottom and the hot gases pass
upwards and are reduced.
• Higher up the gasifier again, the biomass is pyrolysed and in the top
zone, the feed is dried, cooling the gases to around 200–300°C
• In the pyrolysis zone, where the volatile compounds are released,
considerable quantities of tar are formed which condenses partly on
the biomass higher up and partly leaves the gasifier with the product
gas
• The temperature in the gasification zone is controlled by adding steam
to the air used for gasification, or by humidifying the air
• Due to the low temperature of the gas leaving the gasifier, the overall
energy efficiency of the process is high but so also is the tar content of
the gas
• The filtering effect of the feed helps to produce a gas with a low
particulate content
 Biomass
feed

Drying Zone

Pyrolysis Zone

Heart Zone
(Oxidation Zone)
Air Air

Reduction Zone

Grate
Gas
Ash pit

Figure 1.4 Downdraft Gasifier

1.8.2 Downdraft Gasifier

• In the downdraft gasifier, the feed and the air move in the same
direction. The product gases leave the gasifier after passing through
the hot zone, enabling the partial cracking of the tars formed during
gasification and giving a gas with low tar content
• Because the gases leave the gasifier unit at temperatures about
900–1000°C, the overall energy efficiency of a downdraft gasifier is low,
due to the high heat content carried over by the hot gas
• The tar content of the product gas is lower than for an updraft gasifier
but the particulates content of the gas is high
 Biomass feed

Drying Zone

Pyrolysis Zone

Reduction Zone
Air Gas

Oxidation Zone
Grate
Ash pit

Figure 1.5 Cross draft Gasifier

1.9.3 Cross-flow Gasifier
• In a cross-flow gasifier the feed moves downwards while the air is
introduced from the side, the gases being withdrawn from the
opposite side of the unit at the same level
• A hot combustion/gasification zone forms around the entrance of
the air, with the pyrolysis and drying zones being formed higher up
in the vessel

29
 • Ash is removed at the bottom and the temperature of the gas leaving
the unit is about 800–900°C
• Gives a low overall energy efficiency for the process and a gas with
high tar content

1.9 Types of Zone

1.9.1 Pyrolysis zone
Wood pyrolysis is an intricate process that is still not completely
understood. The products depend upon temperature, pressure,
residence time and heat losses. However following general remarks can
be made about them. Upto the temperature of 200°C only water is driven
off. Between 200 and 280°C carbon dioxide, acetic acid and water are
given off. The real pyrolysis, which takes place between 280 and 500°C,
produces large quantities of tar and gases containing carbon dioxide
(Tars can be easily defined as undesirable and problematic organic
products of biomass gasification). Besides light tars, some methyl
alcohol is also formed. Between 500 and 700°C the gas production is
small and contains hydrogen. Thus it is easy to see that updraft gasifier
will produce much more tar than downdraft one. In downdraft gasifier
the tars have to go through combustion and reduction zone and are
partially broken down.
1.9.2 Combustion zone

The combustible substance of a solid fuel is usually composed of

elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In complete combustion carbon
dioxide is obtained from carbon in fuel and water is obtained from the
hydrogen, usually as steam. The combustion reaction is exothermic and
yields a theoretical oxidation temperature of 1450°C
30
The main reactions, therefore, are:
C + O2 = CO2 (+ 393 MJ/kg mole) (1)
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O (- 242 MJ/kg mole) (2)

1.9.3 Reaction zone

The products of partial combustion (water, carbon dioxide and
uncombusted partially cracked pyrolysis products) now pass through a
red-hot charcoal bed where the following reduction reactions take place.
C + CO2 = 2CO (- 164.9 MJ/kg mole) (3)
C + H2O = CO + H2 (- 122.6 MJ/kg mole) (4)
CO + H2O = CO + H2 (+ 42 MJ/kg mole) (5)
C + 2H2 = CH4 (+ 75 MJ/kg mole) (6)
CO2 + H2 = CO + H2O (- 42.3 MJ/kg mole) (7)
Reactions (3) and (4) are main reduction reactions and being
endothermic have the capability of reducing gas temperature.
Consequently the temperatures in the reduction zone are normally 800-
1000°C. Lower the reduction zone temperature (~ 700-800°C), lower is
the calorific value of gas.

31
 Table 1.5 Biomass gasification chemical reactions
Gasification stage Reaction formula Reaction heat
Stage I: C+ 1 2 O2→CO Exothermal
Oxidation and other
exothermic reactions CO+ 1 2 O2→CO2

C+O2→ CO2
(C6H10O5)n→nCO2+nH2O

H2+ 1 2 O2→H2O

CO+H2O→CO2+H2
CO+3H2→CH4+H2O
Stage II: (C6H10O5)n→CxHz+nCO Endothermic
Pyrolysis (C6H10O5)n→CnHmOy
Stage III: C+H2O→CO+H2 Endothermic
Gasification C+CO2→2CO
(Reduction)
CO2+H2→CO+H2O
C+2H2→CH4 Exothermic

32
 Table 1.6 Types of Biomass and Properties

Type of Biomass Lower Heating Moisture Ash

Value (kJ/kg) Content (%) Content
(%)
Bagasse 7,700 - 8,000 40 - 60 1.7 - 3.8
Coconut shells 18,000 8 4
Coffee husks 16,000 10 0.6
Cotton residues:
stalks 16,000 10 - 20 0.1
gin trash 14,000 9 12
Maize:
cobs 13,000 - 15,000 10 - 20 2
stalks 3-7
Palm-oil residues:
fruit stems 5,000 63 5
fibers 11,000 40
shells 15,000 15
debris 15,000 15
Rice husk 14,000 9 19
Straw 12,000 10 4.4
Wood 8,400 - 17,000 10 - 60 0.25 - 1.7

Peat 9,000 - 15,000 13 - 15 1 – 20

Charcoal 25,000 - 32,000 1 - 10 0.5 - 6

33
1.10 Ethanol Fuel
Ethanol is also known as ethyl alcohol or fermentation alcohol
Ethanol provides a valuable liquid fuel alternative to a
transportation sector
Ethanol is a colorless, clear liquid that looks like water and is
completely miscible with it
It is widely used in medicines, lotions, tonics, colognes, rubbing
compounds, and solvents and also for organic synthesis
Ethanol is more volatile than water, flammable, burns with a light
blue flame, and has excellent fuel properties for spark ignition
internal combustion engines
Ethanol has a somewhat sweet flavor when diluted with water; a
more pungent, burning taste when concentrated; and an agreeable
ether-like odor
Ethanol is a member of the alcohol family and has the chemical
formula C2H5OH in which C, H, and O refer to carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen atoms, in that order
1.11 Ethanol production
1. Fermentation of sugars derived from sugar, starch, or cellulosic
materials
2. Reaction of ethylene with water
The former is favored for production of fuel. The latter has been used to
make industrial grade ethanol for solvents, cosmetics, medicines, and
so on, but purification of fermentation ethanol is displacing ethylene-
derived ethanol for these applications
1.11.1 Production of ethanol from cellulosic biomass

34
 Ethanol can be produced from biomass by the hydrolysis and sugar
fermentation processes.
Biomass wastes contain a complex mixture of carbohydrate
polymers from the plant cell walls known as cellulose, hemi
cellulose and lignin.
In order to produce sugars from the biomass, the biomass is pre-
treated with acids or enzymes in order to reduce the size of the
feedstock and to open up the plant structure.
The cellulose and the hemi cellulose portions are broken down
(hydrolyzed) by enzymes or dilute acids into sucrose sugar that is
then fermented into ethanol.
The lignin which is also present in the biomass is normally used as
a fuel for the ethanol production plants boilers
1.11.2 Production of ethanol from sugar crops
The hydrolysis process breaks down the cellulosic part of the
biomass or corn into sugar solutions that can then be fermented into
ethanol
Yeast is added to the solution, which is then heated.
The yeast contains an enzyme called invertase, which acts as a
catalyst and helps to convert the sucrose sugars into glucose and
fructose
The fermentation process takes around three days to complete and
is carried out at a temperature of between 250ºC and 300ºC

1.11.3 Production of ethanol from starch crops

Corn grain contains about 70% starch, 10 to 11% crude protein, 4.5
to 6.0% oil, 6% hemicellulose, 2 to 3% cellulose, 1% lignin, and 1%

35
ash and is the dominant choice for current fuel ethanol production
by dry or wet milling operations
In a typical dry mill, grain is milled to a powder, heated with water
addition to about 851ºC, mixed with alpha-amylase enzyme, held for
up to an hour, heated further to 110 to 1501ºC to liquefy the starch
and reduce bacteria levels, cooled back to about 85ºC, and held with
more alpha amylase for about 1 hour
the stream is cooled further, and glucoamylase enzyme added to
complete conversion to sugars known as dextrose

This overall saccharification operation occurs by the hydrolysis

reaction:
(C6H10O5) n+nH2O→nC6H12O6
C6H12O6 is a glucose sugar molecule formed when the alpha bonds
linking n units of C6H10O5 in long chains of starch are broken and
combined with n molecules of water, H2O
Yeast then ferment glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide
C6H12O6→2C2H5OH+2CO2

36
 Enzymes / acid
Cellulosic

Pretreatment
Corn wet Corn Biomass
mill

Oil
Starch Heat /
Wet Hydrolysis
CGM Chemicals
milling
CGF
Grinding Corn

Sugar

Fermenting
Cane juice Organisms
Fermentation
Cane sugar

Corn dry mill

ethanol

Sugarcane
Bagasse Sugar
Extraction

DDGS

Product
Sugarcane Recovery

Lignin and
Vinasse
Other residuals

Ethanol
Figure 1.6 Process Flow for Ethanol Production
37
The process flow for ethanol production is explained below

A simplified process flow diagram for production of ethanol from

cane sugar, corn, and cellulosic biomass. All have similar
fermentation and ethanol recovery operations but use different
approaches to release sugars and generate different co-products
Sugar can be directly extracted from sugarcane, and the residual
bagasse is used as a boiler fuel to provide much of the energy for
the extraction and ethanol production and recovery operations
In a corn dry mill, corn is ground, and enzymes and heat are added
to hydrolyze starch to sugars for conversion to ethanol, while the oil,
protein, and fiber in corn are recovered after fermentation as an
animal feed known as DDGS (Distillers Dried Grains)
Wet mills first fractionate corn to separate corn oil, corn gluten meal
(CGM), and corn gluten feed (CGF) to capture value for food and
animal feed, and the starch can then be hydrolyzed to sugars for
fermentation to ethanol
For cellulosic biomass, heat and acids or enzymes hydrolyze the
hemicellulose and cellulose portions to release sugars that can be
fermented to ethanol

38
1.12 Biodiesel
“Biodiesel is a non-toxic, biodegradable diesel fuel made from vegetable
oils, animal fats, and used or recycled oils and fats”
Biodiesel is made using the process of transesterification
Biodiesel is produced by chemically reacting a fat or oil with an
alcohol, in the presence of a catalyst (sodium hydroxide)
The product of the reaction is a mixture of methyl esters, which are
known as biodiesel and glycerol, which is a high value co-product
Transesterification is the process of using an alcohol (e.g., methanol
or ethanol) in the presence of a catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide
or potassium hydroxide, to chemically break the molecule of the raw
renewable oil into methyl or ethyl esters of the renewable oil with
glycerol as a by-product
Biodiesel can be made from various components such as; vegetable
oil, animal fats, and waste or recycled oils and fats, such as waste
fryer oil
Biodiesel is made by mixing methanol and sodium hydroxide to
make sodium methoxide
The sodium methoxide is then mixed with vegetable oil and allowed
to settle
Glycerin forms on the bottom, while the methyl esters (biodiesel)
float to the top
Biodiesel Production
Three Basic Methods to Making Biodiesel
There are three basic methods of biodiesel (methyl ester) production
from oils and fats.
They are;

39
 Base catalyst transesterification of the oil with methanol.
Directed acid catalyzed esterification of the oil with methanol.
Conversion of the oil to fatty acids, and then to methyl esters
with acid catalysis

Methanol Finished
Dryer
& Biodiesel
Catalyst
Methyl
Esters

Oil Neutralization
Reactor Separator and Water
Methanol Washing
Removal
Glycerol
(50%)
Water Wash
Acid Water
Acid Acidulation
and
FFA
Free Fatty Separation
Acid

Methanol /
Crude Methanol Water
water
Glycerol Removal rectification
(85%)

Methanol
Storage
Figure 1.7 Process flow for Biodiesel Production

40
Figure 1. 7 shows the schematic diagram of the processes involved in
biodiesel production from feedstocks containing low levels of free
fatty acids
This includes soybean oil, canola (rapeseed) oil and higher grades
of waste restaurant oils.
First the methanol and the catalyst (sodium hydroxide) are mixed.
After the methanol and catalyst are mixed, they go into a reactor,
where the oil is added to the mix and agitated for approximately one
hour at 60°C.
Glycerin and methyl esters are the two major products created after
the reaction is complete and the excess methanol has been removed
from the mixture
Gravity is used to separate the two products, since they have
different densities
After separation from the glycerol, the methyl esters enters a
neutralization step and then pass through a methanol stripper,
usually a vacuum flash process before water washing
Acid is added to biodiesel to neutralize any residual catalyst and to
split any soap that have formed during the reaction
Soaps will react with acid to form water soluble salts and free fatty
acids
The salts will be removed during the water washing step and the free
fatty acids will stay in the biodiesel
The water washing step is intended to remove any remaining
catalyst, soaps, salts methanol, or free glycerol from the biodiesel
The glycerol stream leaving the separator is only about 50% glycerol

41
 It contains some of excess methanol and most of the catalyst and
soap
In this form, the glycerol has little value and disposal may be difficult
The methanol contents requires glycerol to be treated as hazardous
waste
The first step in refining the glycerol is usually to add acid to split
soaps into free fatty acids and salts
The free fatty acids are not soluble in the glycerol and will rise to the
top where they can be removed and recycled
After acidulation and separation of the free fatty acids, the methanol
in the glycerol is removed by vacuum flash process, or another type
of evaporator
At this point the glycerol should have a purity of approximately 85%
and is typically sold to a glycerol refiner
The methanol that is removed from the methyl ester and glycerol
streams will tend to collect any water that may have entered the
process
This water should be removed in a distillation column before the
methanol is returned to the process
1.13 Energy Plantations
Cultivation of any type of plants that store enormous amount of
solar energy within and thereby posses high fuel value is termed as
Energy Plantations
Common species of plantations
• Eucalyptus
• Casuarina
• Terminalia

42
 • Leucaena Sagassum (seaweed)
• Water Hyasynth
• Acavia

Example: Design a biogas plant suitable to fulfil the cooking needs of a family
of 12 members. Estimate daily requirement of biogas, the number of animals
required and size of the digester. Make necessary assumption. Assume
350 litres of biogas is required per day per person for cooking and average
production of dung per animal per day as 10 kg. Also assume average gas
production from dung is about 40 litres/kg of fresh dung; slurry density as
1090kg/m3 and retention period is 50 days.
Step -1: Amount of gas required per day
Number of family members = 12 (adults)
(Two children may considered as equivalent to one adult for cooking energy
purpose only)
Considering 350 litres/day/person for cooking
Total amount of gas required = 12 × 350 = 4200 litres/day
(1000 litres of gas is equivalent to 1 m3 of gas)
Step – 2: Number of animals required to fulfil daily gas requirement
Amount of gas produced from a kg of fresh dung = 40litres/kg
Total amount of dung required = Total gas required / gas per kg of dung
= 4200/40 = 105kg
Thus in order to have 105 kg of dung, number of cows required
= 105/10 = 10.5 say 11 cows
Step – 3: Design of digester and gas holder
In order to make slurry, water should be added to equal amount of dung
Total mass of slurry = dung + water = 105 + 105 = 210 kg

43
Density of slurry = 1090 kg/m3
Volume of slurry per day = Total mass of slurry / density
= 210/1090 = 0.192m3
Retention period of slurry = 50 days
Total volume of the digester = per day volume of slurry × retention
period
= 0.192 × 50 = 9.63 m3

As about 90% volume is occupied by the slurry

Therefore required volume of digester = 9.63 / 0.9 = 10.7m3
Dimension of the digester
Depth to diameter ratio should between 1 and 1.3

πD 2
× 1.3D = 10.7 m3
4
Thus diameter of digester ‘D’ = 2.188 m
Depth of the digester ‘H’ = 2.844 m

44
1. A community biogas plant is used for the following needs of a village having 100 adults and
50 children. Cooking needs of the people of the village and five lamps of 100CP used for one
hour in the evening. Assume 350 litres of biogas is required for cooking per person per day;
125 litres of biogas required for lighting per lamp per hour and average production of dung
per animal per day as 10 kg. Also assume average gas production from dung is about 40
litres/kg of fresh dung; slurry density as 1090kg/m3 and retention period is 50 days.
Calculate the size, depth and dome height of the digester and the number of cows required to
feed the plant. Take dome height as 0.25D. and Depth as 1.3D, where ‘D’ is the diameter of
the digester.

Number of family members = 100+25 = 125 members

(Since two children may considered as equivalent to one adult for cooking purpose only)
Step-1:
Gas required for cooking alone = 350 × 125 = 43,750 litres/day
Gas required for lighting = 125 × 5 × 1 = 625 litres/day
Total amount of biogas required = 43,750 + 625 = 44375litres/day
Step-2:
Total amount of dung required = 44375/40 = 1109.375 kg
Number of cows required = 1109.375/10 = 110.93 = 111 say
Total mass of slurry = 1109.375 + 1109.375 = 2218.75kg
Density of slurry = 1090kg/m3
Therefore volume of slurry = 2218.75/1090 = 2.0355m3
Retention period = 50 days = 2.0355 × 50 = 101.78 m3
As about 90% volume is occupied by the slurry
Therefore required volume of the digester = 101.78/0.9 = 113.08 m3
Step-3:
Dimension of digester
Assume depth to diameter ratio as 1.3D:1.0D

πD 2
× 1.3D = 113.08m 3
4
Diameter of the digester ‘D’ = 4.80m
45
 Depth of the digester ‘H’ = 1.3 × 4.80 = 6.24 m
Digester dome height Hdome = 0.25 × 4.80 = 1.2m.

2. Design a biogas plant suitable to fulfil the cooking needs of a family of 6 adults and 4
children. Estimate daily requirement of biogas, the number of animals required and size of
the digester. Make necessary assumption. Assume average of 400 litres of biogas required
per day per person for cooking, average production of dung per animal per day as 10 kg.
Also assume average gas production from dung is about 40 litres/kg of fresh dung; slurry
density as 1090kg/m3 and retention period is 45 days.

Step-1: Number of family members = 6+2 = 8 members

(Since two children may considered as equivalent to one adult for cooking purpose only)
Gas required for cooking alone = 400 × 8 = 3,200 litres/day
Total amount of biogas required = 3,200 litres/day
Step-2: Total amount of dung required = 3200/40 = 80 kg
Number of cows required = 80/10 = 8
Total mass of slurry = 80+ 80 = 160 kg
Density of slurry = 1090kg/m3
Therefore volume of slurry = 160/1090 = 0.1467m3
Retention period = 45 days = 0.1467 × 45 = 6.6055 m3
As about 90% volume is occupied by the slurry
Therefore required volume of the digester = 6.6055/0.9 = 7.339 m3
Step-3: Dimension of digester
Assume depth to diameter ratio as 1.3D:1.0D

πD 2
× 1.3D = 7.339m3
4

Diameter of the digester ‘D’ = 1.929 m

Depth of the digester ‘H’ = 1.3 × 1.929 = 2.508 m
Digester dome height = 0.2D to 0.25D = 0.3858 m to 0.4823 m.

46
Fuel derived from organic matter (obtained directly from plants, or indirectly from
agricultural, commercial, domestic, and/or industrial wastes) instead of from fossil
products. See also fossil fuels.

any fuel derived from renewable biological sources, as plants or animal waste; esp.,
a liquid fuel for automotive engines made from corn or soybean oil

Biofuels are fuels derived from living plants, animals or their byproducts which are
not more than 20-30 years old. Biofuels contain stored solar energy and are a
renewable source of energy, since the plants can be grown again. Unlike
petroproducts, all biofuels are biodegradable and do not damage the environment
when spilled. As demand and prices of crude oil increase, more countries are
encouraging the use of biofuels by offering tax incentives.
Wood from trees and manure from cattle (cow dung) are the most widely used
biofuels used for cooking and other household applications in poor countries.
Biogas for cooking is derived from industrial and household waste by the anaerobic
digestion. Biogas contains methane. Chemical processes can also be used to
produce biogas from industrial waste. Microalgae may be used as an energy source
in future, as their yield per acre is the highest compared to other sources.
47
Pyrolysis:

• transformation of a substance produced by the action of heat

• Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of condensed substances by heating,

that occurs spontaneously at high enough temperatures. The word is coined from
the Greek-derived elements pyro "fire" and lysys "decomposition".

• The decomposition of a material or compound due to heat in the absence of

oxygen or any other reagents

• pyrolytic - Of, relating to, or produced by pyrolysis

• A thermal degradation of carbonaceous material in an oxygen-free reactor.

Pyrolytic oils, fuel gas, chars, and ash are produced in quantities that are highly
dependent on temperature, residence time, and the amount of heat applied.

• A process which involves heating biomass to drive off the volatile matter, leaving
behind the black residue we know as charcoal. More sophisticated pyrolysis
techniques have been developed recently to collect volatiles – gaseous
compounds – that are otherwise lost to the system. ...

• the heating and “cracking” of organic material to produce light hydrocarbons and
char (the same process that produces oil and conventional diesel). Pyrolysis
produces a substance called bio-oil that can be made into transportation fuels,
plastics, and other products.

• The destruction of a chemical compound by heating or burning.

• is the process where organic compounds decompose when heated without

burning.

• Pyrolysis is the decomposition of organic matter by heating without oxygen. It

can be carried out in vacuum or using water. Find out more about pyrolysis.

• The transformation of a substance into one or more other substances by heat

alone without oxidation.

• The second stage of ignition during which energy causes gas molecules given off
by a heated solid fuel to vibrate and break into pieces. Regardless of whether a
fuel was originally a liquid or solid, the overall burning process will gasify the
fuel. ...

• is the thermal decomposition of organic materials into gases, oils, and char.

• Decomposition of a chemical by extreme heat.

48
 Ratio compared
Boiling Point
to Dry Air (%) Molecular
Mass Chemical
Gas
-M- Symbol
By By (kg/kmol)
(K) (oC)
volume weight

Oxygen 20.95 23.20 32.00 O2 90.2 -182.95

Nitrogen 78.09 75.47 28.02 N2 77.4 -195.79

Carbon
0.03 0.046 44.01 CO2 194.7 -78.5
Dioxide

Hydrogen 0.00005 ~0 2.02 H2 20.3 -252.87

Argon 0.933 1.28 39.94 Ar 84.2 -186

Neon 0.0018 0.0012 20.18 Ne 27.2 -246

Helium 0.0005 0.00007 4.00 He 4.2 -269

Krypton 0.0001 0.0003 83.8 Kr 119.8 -153.4

Xenon 9 10-6 0.00004 131.29 Xe 165.1 -108.1

49
 UNIT – II
2.1 HYDROGEN

Hydrogen (H) is the simplest element on earth

Hydrogen combines readily with other elements and is
almost always found as part of some other substance, such
as water, hydrocarbons, or alcohols. It is also found in
biomass.
Hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe, has
great potential as an energy source
Hydrogen can store and deliver usable energy, but it doesn't
typically exist by itself in nature; it must be produced from
compounds that contain it
Hydrogen is an energy carrier, not an energy source
Hydrogen can be produced from
Fossil fuels (natural gas, coal)
Nuclear
Renewable energy sources (biomass, wind, solar,
geothermal, and hydro-electric power)
Necessary to focus on hydrogen production technologies
that result in near-zero net greenhouse gas emissions and
use renewable energy sources, nuclear energy, and coal
The use of hydrogen greatly reduces pollution: When hydrogen is
combined with oxygen in a fuel cell, energy in the form of
electricity is produced. This electricity can be used to power
vehicles, as a heat source and for many other uses. The
advantage of using hydrogen as an energy carrier is that when it
combines with oxygen the only byproducts are water and heat.

50
 No greenhouse gasses or other particulates are produced by the
use of hydrogen fuel cells.
Hydrogen can be produced locally from numerous sources:
Hydrogen can be produced either centrally, and then distributed,
or onsite where it will be used. Hydrogen gas can be produced
from methane, gasoline, biomass, coal or water. Each of these
sources brings with it different amounts of pollution, technical
challenges, and energy requirements.
If hydrogen is produced from water we have a sustainable
production system: Electrolysis is the method of separating water
into hydrogen and oxygen. Renewable energy can be used to
power electrolyzers to produce the hydrogen from water. Using
renewable energy provides a sustainable system that is
independent of petroleum products and is nonpolluting. Some of
the renewable sources used to power electrolyzers are wind,
hydro, solar and tidal energy. After the hydrogen is produced in
an electrolyzer it can be used in a fuel cell to produce electricity.
The by products of the fuel cell process are water and heat. If fuel
cells operate at high temperatures the system can be set up as a
co-generator, with the waste energy used for heating.
2.1.1 Basic Issues
Hydrogen production
Storage and transport
Usage of hydrogen as energy source
Safety
Economics and management.

51
2.2 Hydrogen Production Technology
¾ Thermal Processes
¾ Electrolytic Processes
¾ Photolytic Processes
¾ Chemical production

2.2.1 Thermal processes

¾ Some thermal processes use the energy in various resources,
such as natural gas, coal, or biomass, to release hydrogen, which
is part of their molecular structure
¾ In other processes, heat, in combination with closed chemical
cycles, produce hydrogen from feedstocks such as water - these
are known as thermochemical processes
1. Reforming of Natural Gas
2. Gasification of Coal
3. Gasification of Biomass
4. Reforming of Renewable Liquid Fuels
5. High-temperature Water Splitting
2.2.1.1 Reforming of Natural Gas
The process of extracting hydrogen from fossil fuels is called
‘Reforming’
• Natural gas contains methane (CH4) that can be used to
produce hydrogen via steam methane reforming
• About 95% of the hydrogen produced today is made via steam
methane reforming

52
• High-temperature steam (700 - 1000°C) reacts with methane
under 3-25 bar pressure in the presence of a catalyst
produces H2, CO and CO2
• Steam reforming is endothermic (heat must be supplied to the
process for the reaction to proceed)
Steam reforming reactions
Methane:
CH4 + H2O (+heat) → CO + 3H2
Propane:
C3H8 + 3H2O (+heat) → 3CO + 7H2
Ethanol:
C2H5OH + H2O (+heat) → 2CO + 4H2
Gasoline (using iso-octane and toluene as example
compounds from the hundred or more compounds present
in gasoline):
C8H18 + 8H2O (+heat) → 8CO + 17H2
C7H8 + 7H2O (+heat) → 7CO + 11H2
Water-Gas Shift Reaction
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (+small amount of heat)
• Steam is passed over hot sponge iron sheets at a suitable
temperature (550 - 800°C) where hot iron and steam react to
produce ferric oxide, hydrogen, CO2 and CO in small
quantities
• The gases are passed through a scrubber where dilute NaOH
absorbs CO2 and CO
3H2O + 2Fe→Fe2O3 +3H2

53
 • By water-gas shift reaction, the CO and steam are reacted
using a catalyst to produce CO2 and more hydrogen
• In the final pressure-swing adsorption process, CO2 and other
impurities are removed from the gas stream, leaving
essentially pure hydrogen
• Steam reforming can also be used to produce hydrogen from
other fuels, such as ethanol, propane, or even gasoline
2.2.1.2 Coal gasification
• Coal is converted into a gaseous mixture (syngas) of H2, CO
and CO2, and other compounds by applying heat under
pressure in the presence of steam and a controlled amount of
oxygen (steam aided gasification)
• Synthesis gas produced is a mixture of CO and CO2
• Further CO is reacted with water to form CO2 and more H2
• Adsorbers or special membranes separates hydrogen from
this gas stream
• CO2 can easily be separated and stored (sequestered, instead
of releasing into atmosphere)
• Coal gasification technology could be used to generate both
electricity and hydrogen in one integrated plant operation
2.2.1.3 Biomass gasification
• Biomass is converted into a gaseous mixture of H2, CO, and
CO2 and other compounds by applying heat under pressure in
the presence of steam and a controlled amount of oxygen
(gasification)
• CO is then reacted with water to form carbon dioxide and
more hydrogen (water-gas shift reaction)
54
 • Adsorbers or membranes separate hydrogen from this gas
stream
2.2.1.4 Renewable Liquid Fuels Reforming
• Biomass resources can be converted to ethanol, bio-oils, or
other liquid fuels that can be transported at relatively low cost
to a refueling station or other point-of-use and reformed to
produce hydrogen
• Reforming renewable liquids to hydrogen is very similar to
reforming natural gas
ƒ The liquid fuel is reacted with steam at high temperatures
in the presence of a catalyst to produce a reformate gas
composed mostly of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
ƒ Additional hydrogen and carbon dioxide are produced by
reacting the carbon monoxide (created in the first step)
with high temperature steam in the "water-gas shift
reaction"
ƒ Finally, the hydrogen is separated out and purified
ƒ Steam Reforming Reaction (Ethanol):
C2H5OH + H2O (+heat) → 2CO + 4H2
ƒ Water-Gas Shift Reaction:
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (+small amount of heat)
2.2.1.5 High-temperature Water Splitting
• High-temperature heat (500 - 2000°C) drives a series of
chemical reactions that produce hydrogen from water
• The high-temperature heat needed can be supplied by next-
generation nuclear reactors under development (up to about

55
 1000°C) or by using sunlight with solar concentrators (up to
about 2000°C)
• High-temperature water splitting is in the early stages of
development
2.2.2 Electrolytic Processes
The process of extracting hydrogen from water is called
electrolysis
Electrolysis is the process of using electricity to split water
into hydrogen and oxygen in an electrolyzer
Electrolyzers consist of an anode and a cathode separated by
an electrolyte
¾ PEM Electrolyzer
¾ Alkaline Electrolyzers
¾ Solid Oxide Electrolyzers
2.2.2.1 PEM electrolyzer
In a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, the
electrolyte is a solid plastic material.
Water reacts at the anode to form oxygen and positively
charged hydrogen ions (protons)
Anode Reaction: 2H2O → O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
The electrons flow through an external circuit and the
hydrogen ions selectively move across the PEM to the
cathode
At the cathode, hydrogen ions combine with electrons from
the external circuit to form hydrogen gas
Cathode Reaction: 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2

56
2.2.2.2 Alkaline electrolyzers
Alkaline electrolyzers are similar to PEM electrolyzers but use
an alkaline solution (NaOH / KOH) that acts as the electrolyte
These electrolyzers have been commercially available for
many years
2.2.2.3 Solid oxide electrolyzers
Solid oxide electrolyzers use a solid ceramic material as the
electrolyte that selectively transmit negatively charged
oxygen ions at elevated temperatures
Water at the cathode combines with electrons from the
external circuit to form hydrogen gas and negatively charged
oxygen ions
Oxygen ions pass through the membrane and react at the
anode to form oxygen gas and give up the electrons to the
external circuit

57
 Must operate at high temperatures (500-800°C) for the solid
oxide membranes to function properly
Can use heat from various sources (renewable, nuclear) to
decrease the amount of electrical energy needed
2.2.3 Photolytic processes
Photolytic processes use the energy in sunlight to separate
water into hydrogen and oxygen
These processes are in the very early stages of research
¾ Photobiological Water Splitting
¾ Photo electrochemical Water Splitting
2.2.3.1Photobiological Water Splitting
Hydrogen is produced from water using sunlight and
specialized microorganisms, such as green algae and
cyanobacteria
Just as plants produce oxygen during photosynthesis, these
microorganisms consume water and produce hydrogen as a
byproduct of their natural metabolic processes
Currently, the microbes split water much too slowly to be
used for efficient, commercial hydrogen production.
2.2.3.2 Photo electrochemical Water Splitting
Hydrogen is produced from water using sunlight and
specialized semiconductors called photo electrochemical
materials
The semiconductor uses light energy to directly dissociate
water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen
Different semiconductor materials work at particular
wavelengths of light and energies

58
 This technology is in the very early stages of research
2.2.4 Chemical production
By using sodium hydroxide as a catalyst, aluminum and its
alloys can react with water to generate hydrogen gas
Although other metals can perform the same reaction,
aluminum is among the most promising materials for future
development because it is safer and easier to transport than
some other hydrogen storage materials like sodium
borohydride
The initial reaction (1) consumes sodium hydroxide and
produces both hydrogen gas and an aluminate byproduct.
Upon reaching its saturation limit, the aluminate compound
decomposes (2) into sodium hydroxide and a crystalline
precipitate of aluminum hydroxide
Al + 3 H2O + NaOH → NaAl(OH)4 + 1.5 H2 (1)
NaAl(OH)4 → NaOH + Al(OH)3 (2)

The overall reaction is described by Reaction (3)

Al + 3 H2O → Al(OH)3 + 1.5 H2 (3)

In this process, aluminum acts as a compact hydrogen

storage device because 1 kg of aluminum can theoretically
produce up to 0.111 kg of hydrogen (or 11.1%). When
employed in a fuel cell, that hydrogen can also produce
electricity

59
Hydrogen production from sunflower oil
University of Leeds, England have developed an experimental
hydrogen generator which needs only sunflower, air and water
vapour along with two highly specialized nickel-based and
carbon-based catalysts
These are alternatively used to store and then release O2 or
CO2 while producing hydrogen intermittently
This process does not involve burning of fossil fuel, hence the
hydrogen fuel becomes renewable
First, the nickel-based unit catalyst absorbs oxygen from the
air and this interaction heats up the reactor bed of the device
Simultaneously, in the presence of heat another catalyst
releases CO2 previously trapped in the device
Once the reactor bed is hot and all the CO2 has been released
from the reactor, the mixture of vapourized oil and water is fed
into the reactor chamber
The heat from the reactor bed breaks down the carbon-oxygen
bonds in the vapourized oil
Water (steam) binds its oxygen to the carbon, releasing its
hydrogen and yielding carbon monoxide
Water vapour and carbon monoxide tend to form carbon
dioxide and hydrogen in the presence of each other
This overall process results in a cyclical production of
hydrogen
Hydrogen fuel thus produced is of 90% purity which is more
efficient than hydrogen producers which produce hydrogen
fuel of about 70% purity

60
 CH4 and CO2 are the byproducts of sunflower oil
transformation which are generated in equal proportions
2.4 Hydrogen delivery
A hydrogen economy requires an infrastructure to deliver
hydrogen from where it's produced to the point of end-use,
such as a refueling station or stationary power site
Infrastructure includes the pipelines, trucks, storage facilities,
compressors, and dispensers involved in the process of
delivering fuel
Pipelines
Trucks, Railcars, Ships, and Barges
Bulk Storage
Interface with Vehicles
2.4.1 Pipelines
Transporting gaseous hydrogen via existing pipelines is
currently the lowest-cost option for delivering large volumes
of hydrogen
The initial capital cost is high
Hydrogen can be transported in pipeline similar to natural gas
The oldest hydrogen pipe network is in the Ruhr area in
Germany and has operated for more than 50 years
Tubes with a typical diameter of 25-30 cm are used
The conventional pipe steel tube operate at a pressure 10 to
20 bar
In order to transport the same amount of energy the hydrogen
flux has to be 2.8 times larger than the flux of natural gas

61
 The total energy loss during transportation hydrogen is about
4% of the energy content

2.4.2 Trucks, Railcars, Ships, and Barges

Compressed Hydrogen Gas
¾ Today, compressed hydrogen can be shipped in tube
trailers at pressures up to 3,000 psi (about 200 bar)
¾ This method is expensive
Liquefied Hydrogen
¾ Currently, for longer distances, hydrogen is transported as
a liquid in super-insulated, cryogenic tank trucks
¾ Gaseous hydrogen is liquefied (cooled to below
-253°C) and stored in tanks
¾ A liquid tanker truck can hold a much larger mass of
hydrogen than a gaseous tube trailer
¾ It takes energy to liquefy hydrogen—using today's
technology, liquefaction consumes more than 30% of the
energy content of the hydrogen and is expensive
2.4.3 Bulk storage
A national hydrogen infrastructure could require geologic
(underground) bulk storage to handle variations in demand
throughout the year
Naturally occurring geologic formations, such as salt
caverns (a large cave) and aquifer (an underground bed or
layer of earth, gravel or porous stone that yields water)
structures or engineered rock caverns, might be used

62
2.5 Hydrogen Storage Challenges
Weight and Volume: The weight and volume of hydrogen
storage systems are presently too high, resulting in inadequate
vehicle range compared to conventional petroleum fueled
vehicles. Materials and components are needed that allow
compact, lightweight, hydrogen storage systems while
enabling mile range greater than 300 miles in all light-duty
vehicle platforms
Efficiency: Energy efficiency is a challenge for all hydrogen
storage approaches. The energy required to get hydrogen in
and out is an issue for reversible solid-state materials. Life-
cycle energy efficiency is a challenge for chemical hydride
storage in which the byproduct is regenerated off-board. In
addition, the energy associated with compression and
liquefaction must be considered for compressed and liquid
hydrogen technologies
Durability: Durability of hydrogen storage systems is
inadequate. Materials and components are needed that allow
hydrogen storage systems with a lifetime of 1500 cycles
Refueling Time: Refueling times are too long. There is a need
to develop hydrogen storage systems with refueling times of
less than three minutes over the lifetime of the system
Cost: The cost of on-board hydrogen storage systems is too
high, particularly in comparison with conventional storage
systems for petroleum fuels. Low-cost materials and
components for hydrogen storage systems are needed, as well
as low-cost, high-volume manufacturing methods

63
 Codes and Standards: Applicable codes and standards for
hydrogen storage systems and interface technologies, which
will facilitate implementation/commercialization and ensure
safety and public acceptance, have not been established.
Standardized hardware and operating procedures, and
applicable codes and standards, are required
Life-Cycle and Efficiency Analyses: There is a lack of analyses
of the full life-cycle cost and efficiency for hydrogen storage
systems
A gram of hydrogen gas occupies about 11 liters (2.9 gallons) of
space at atmospheric pressure, so for convenience the gas must
be intensely pressurized to several hundred atmospheres and
stored in a pressure vessel. In liquid form, hydrogen can only be
stored under cryogenic temperatures. These options are not
practical for everyday use
The solution to these difficulties is storage of hydrogen in hydride
form. This method uses an alloy that can absorb and hold large
amounts of hydrogen by bonding with hydrogen and forming
hydrides. A hydrogen storage alloy is capable of absorbing and
releasing hydrogen without compromising its own structure
2.6 Hydrogen storage technologies
On a weight basis, hydrogen has nearly three times the energy
content of gasoline (120 MJ/kg for hydrogen versus 44 MJ/kg for
gasoline)
On a volume basis the situation is reversed (8 MJ/liter for liquid
hydrogen versus 32 MJ/liter for gasoline)

64
 On-board hydrogen storage in the range of 5-13 kg H2 is
required to meet the requirement of light-duty vehicles
2.6.1 Compressed gas storage
Hydrogen can be stored in compressed gaseous state in
underground reservoirs similar to natural gas or can be stored
in high pressure cylinders
This method of storage is costly as a larger quantity of steel is
required to store a small amount of hydrogen
Energy density of gaseous hydrogen can be improved by
storing hydrogen at higher pressures
Carbon fiber-reinforced 5000-psi and 10,000-psi compressed
hydrogen gas tanks are under development
Such tanks are already in use in prototype hydrogen-powered
vehicles
2.6.2 Liquid hydrogen storage
Liquid storage of hydrogen is economically feasible for
stationary and mobile applications
Liquid hydrogen fuel is used as a rocket propellant in space
vehicles as it has the highest energy density (energy per unit
mass), almost three times more than the conventional fuels
Liquid hydrogen (LH2) tanks can store more hydrogen in a
given volume than compressed gas tanks
The volumetric capacity of liquid hydrogen is 0.070 kg/L,
compared to 0.030 kg/L for 10,000 psi gas tanks
The energy density of hydrogen can be improved by storing
hydrogen in a liquid state

65
 To store liquid hydrogen (boiling point -253°C) it is necessary
to use vacuum insulated cylinders to avoid air condensation
over its surface
2.6.3 Material based hydrogen storage (solid state storage)
Solid storage in the form of metallic hydrides is the most
attractive method of storing hydrogen
Hydrogen storage in solids may make it possible to store
larger quantities of hydrogen in smaller volumes at low
pressure and at temperatures close to room temperature
Few metals absorb hydrogen in an exothermic reaction when
treated with the gas and the absorbed gas is released when the
metal hydride is heated
Chemical equations are:
(Gas is stored) H2 + Metal → Metal Hydride + Heat
(Gas is released) Metal Hydride + Heat → Metal + H2
Reactions with three promising hydrides of alloy

Lanthanum-Nickel LaNi5 + 3H2 (LaNi5)H6 +Heat

Iron-Titanium FeTi +H2 (FeTi)H2 + Heat
Magnesium-Nickel Mg2Ni + 2H2 (Mg2Ni)H4 + Heat

Alanates can store and release hydrogen reversibly when

catalyzed with titanium dopants, according to the following
2-step displacive reaction for sodium alanate:

NaAlH4 → 1/3 Na3AlH6 +2/3Al+H2

Na3AlH6 → 3 NaH + Al + 3/2H2

66
 Hydrogen can also be stored on the surfaces of solids (by
adsorption) or within solids (by absorption)
In adsorption, hydrogen is attached to the surface of a material
either as hydrogen molecules or as hydrogen atoms. In
absorption, hydrogen is dissociated into H atoms and then the
hydrogen atoms are incorporated into the solid lattice
framework

2.6.4 Chemical hydrogen storage

The term chemical hydrogen storage is used to describe storage
technologies in which hydrogen is generated through a chemical
reaction. Common reactions involve chemical hydrides with water
or alcohols
(a) Hydrolysis Reactions
Hydrolysis reactions involve the oxidation reaction of
chemical hydrides with water to produce hydrogen. The
reaction of sodium borohydride has been the most studied to
date. This reaction is as follows.
In the first embodiment, slurry of an inert stabilizing liquid
protects the hydride from contact with moisture and makes
the hydride pumpable. At the point of use, the slurry is mixed
with water and the consequent reaction produces high purity
hydrogen.

67
 NaBH4 + 2H2O →NaBO2 + 4H2
The reaction can be controlled in an aqueous medium via pH
and the use of a catalyst. While the material hydrogen
capacity can be high and the hydrogen release kinetics fast,
the borohydride regeneration reaction must take place off-
board.

Another hydrolysis reaction that is presently being

investigated is the reaction of MgH2 with water to form
Mg(OH)2 and H2. In this case, particles of MgH2 are contained
in non-aqueous slurry to inhibit premature water reactions
when hydrogen generation is not required. Material-based
capacities for the MgH2 slurry reaction with water can be as
high as 11 wt. %. However, similar to the sodium borohydride
approach, water must also be carried on-board the vehicle in
addition to the slurry and the Mg(OH)2 must be regenerated
off board
(b) Hydrogenation/Dehydrogenation Reactions
Hydrogenation and dehydrogenation reactions have been
studied for many years as a means of hydrogen storage. For
example, the decalin-to-naphthalene reaction can release
7.3 wt. % hydrogen at 210ºC via the reaction:
C10H18 → C10H8 + 5H2
A platinum-based or noble metal supported catalyst is required to
enhance the kinetics of hydrogen evolution

68
2.7 Facts of Hydrogen Safety

Hydrogen, in vast quantities, has been used safely in chemical

and metallurgical applications, the food industry, and the
space program for many years
As hydrogen and fuel cells begin to play a greater role in
meeting the energy needs of our nation and the world,
minimizing the safety hazards related to the use of hydrogen
as a fuel is essential
Hydrogen has a long history of safe use in the chemical and
aerospace industries
An understanding of hydrogen properties, proper safety
precautions and engineering controls, and established rules,
regulations and standards are the keys to this successful track
record
With proper handling and controls, hydrogen can be as safe
as, or safer than, other fuels we use today
Safety considerations associated with handling hydrogen
include fire, explosion, and asphyxiation
Safe operating practices are established to minimize the known
hazards associated with handling hydrogen - fire, explosion,
and asphyxiation
Other hazards are minimized through operator training and
proper system design
Purging hydrogen systems with an inert gas such as nitrogen
is required to avoid the formation of flammable
hydrogen/oxygen mixtures

69
Adequate ventilation can minimize / eliminate the potential
hazard of asphyxiation and the formation of combustible
hydrogen / oxygen mixtures
Because hydrogen burns with an almost invisible blue flame,
special flame detectors are required
As the lightest and smallest element in the universe, confining
hydrogen is very difficult. Hydrogen is much lighter than air
and rises at a speed of almost 20 m/s; two times faster than
helium and six times faster than natural gas; which means that
when released, it rises and disperses quickly.
Combustion cannot occur in a tank or any contained location
that contains only hydrogen. An oxidizer, such as oxygen,
must be present.
Hydrogen is odorless, colorless, and tasteless and therefore
undetectable by human senses. For these and other reasons,
industry designs systems with ventilation and leak detection.
Natural gas is also odorless, colorless, and tasteless, but
industry adds a sulfur-containing odorant so people can detect
it.
Hydrogen burns very quickly. Under optimal combustion
conditions, the energy required to initiate hydrogen
combustion is significantly lower than that required for other
common fuels, such as natural gas or gasoline. At low
concentrations of hydrogen fuel in air, the energy required to
initiate combustion is similar to that of other fuels.

70
 Hydrogen flames have low radiant heat. A hydrogen fire has
significantly less radiant heat when compared to a hydrocarbon
fire. Since low levels of heat are emitted near a hydrogen flame
(the flame itself is just as hot), the risk of secondary fires is
lower.
Hydrogen is non-toxic and non-poisonous It will not
contaminate groundwater (it’s a gas under normal atmospheric
conditions), and a release of hydrogen is not known to
contribute to atmospheric pollution or water pollution.
2.8 Utilization of hydrogen gas

For residential uses

For industrial uses
As an alternative transport fuel
As an alternative fuel for spacecraft
For electric power generation
2.8.1 Residential Uses
Electricity for lighting and for operating domestic
appliances could be generated by means of fuel cells, with
hydrogen gas
Hydrogen can be used for domestic cooking. The burners
of domestic appliances would have to be modified if
hydrogen were to replace natural gas
Since the heating value per unit volume of hydrogen gas is
less than that of natural gas, a larger volume would have to
reach the burners to achieve the same heating effect

71
 2.8.2 Industrial Uses
There are many potential uses for hydrogen in industry, either
as a fuel or a chemical reducing agent if the economics were
favourable
2.8.3 Road vehicles
The use of hydrogen fuel in internal combustion engines for
automobiles, buses, trucks and farm machinery has attracted
interest as a means of conserving petroleum products and of
reducing atmospheric pollution
2.9 Economics of hydrogen fuel
The transition of energy economy from fossil fuel to hydrogen
is a matter of priority to reduce pollution problems
The major role is of hydrogen obtained from biomass
Hydrogen produced from biomass and supplied to the
consumers in the transport sector costs only 50% compared to
hydrogen produced electrolytically
For a fuel cell operated bus, hydrogen produced from biomass
can compete well with gasoline-operated vehicles
It is superior fuel for turbojet aircraft due to greater fuel
economy, lower noise level and little pollution

The benefits of hydrogen will help move us to a

sustainable energy economy.

To better understand hydrogen’s benefits, we can first review some

of the present concerns with the structure of the existing energy
economy.

72
 Four realities suggest that the current energy economy is not
sustainable:
1. The demand for energy is growing and the raw materials for the
fossil fuel economy are diminishing. Oil, coal, and natural gas
supplies are not replenished as it is consumed, so an alternative
must be found.
2. Most of the people who consume fossil fuels don't live where fuels
are extracted. This situation creates enormous economic
motivation for the consuming nations to try to exert control over
the regions that supply the fuels. For many people and
governments in the world, the resulting conflicts are unacceptable.
3. Emissions from fossil fuel usage significantly degrade air quality
all over the world, especially in Northeastern United States. The
resulting carbon byproducts are substantially changing the world's
climate. For many people and governments in the world the
resulting health and climate impacts are unacceptable.
4. Third world economies are especially susceptible when developing
energy systems needed to improve their economies. The fossil fuel
economy puts people and nations under the undue influence of
energy suppliers. This lack of economic independence is
unacceptable to many businesses and governments.

73
Possible thermochemcial cycles for hydrogen production

Temperature
Sl. No. Chemical reaction
(°C)
1 C + H2O →CO +H2 725
CO + 2Fe3O4 → 3Fe2O3 + C 225

3Fe2O3 → 2Fe3O4 + ½ O2 1425

Cd +H2O → CdO +H2 125

2
CdO → Cd + ½ O2 1225

3 3FeCl2 + 4H2O →Fe3O4 + 6HCl + H2 600

Fe3O4 + ¼ O2 → 3/2 Fe2O3 400
3/2Fe2O3 + 9HCl → 3FeCl3 + 9/2 H2O 100
3/2FeCl3 →3FeCl2 + 3/2Cl2 400

3/2H2O + 3/2Cl2 → 3HCl + 3/2O2 800

4 Fe3O4 +H2O + 3SO2 → 3FeSO4+2H2 125

3FeSO4 → 3/2Fe2O3 + 3/2SO2 + 3/2 SO3 725
3/2Fe2O3+ 1/2SO2 →Fe3O4 +1/2SO3 925

2SO3 → SO2 + O2 925

5 2Cu + 2HCl → 2CuCl + H2 100

4CuCl → 2CuCl2 + 2Cu 100
2CuCl2 → 2CuCl + Cl2 600
Cl2 + Mg(OH)2 → MgCl2 + H2 + 1/2O2 80

MgCl2 + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl 350

74
Possible areas of use for hydrogen in the near future

Production of electrolytic hydrogen, for full load exploitation

of nuclear power stations
Direct addition of hydrogen to the existing natural gas
distribution network
Use of hydrogen in the processing of heavy oil
Use of hydrogen for the manufacture of synthetic liquid or
gaseous fuels
Direct use of hydrogen as a motor vehicle fuel in urban
transport, particularly where air pollution problems are
already critical
Reduction of iron oxides by means of hydrogen in the steel
industry
Direct use of hydrogen as an aircraft fuel in air transport

Chemical Hydrides
CaH2 + 2 H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
MgH2 + 2 H2O Mg(OH)2 + 2H2
LiH + H2O LiOH + H2
LiBH4 + 4 H2O LiOH + H3BO3 + 4H2
NaBH4 + 4 H2O NaOH + H3BO3 + 4H2

75
 Table 2.1 Comparison of Various Properties of Hydrogen
with other Fuels

Sl.No. Properties Gasoline Natural gas Hydrogen

1 Density (kg/m3) 730 0.78 0.0837
2 Boiling Point, °C 38 to 204 -156 -253 (20.3K)
3 Lower heating value 44.5 48 125
(MJ/kg) (MJ/m3) 32 37.3 10.4 (gas),
8520 (liquid)
4 Higher heating value 50.8 55 141.90
(MJ/kg) (MJ/m3) 36.6 42.6 11.89 (gas),
10046
(liquid)
5 Flammable limit, % air 1.4-7.6 5-16 4-75
6 Flame speed, m/s 0.4 0.41 3.45
7 Flame temperature, °C 2197 1875 2045
8 Flame luminosity High Medium Low

76
 Major Hydrogen Production Processes
Thermal Steam Natural High Some emissions.
Reformation gas temperature Carbon
steam sequestration can
mitigate their effect
Thermochemical Water High No emissions
water splitting temperature
heat from
advanced
gas-cooled
nuclear
reactors
Gasification Coal, Steam and Some emissions.
Biomass oxygen at Carbon
high sequestration can
temperature mitigate their effect
steam
Pyrolysis Biomass Moderately Some emissions.
Carbon
sequestration can
mitigate their effect
Electrochemical Electrolysis Water Electricity No emissions
from wind,
solar, hydro
and nuclear
Electrolysis Water Electricity Some emissions
from coal or from electricity
natural gas production
Photoelectroche Water Direct No emissions
mical sunlight
Biological Photobiological Water Direct No emissions
and sunlight
algae
strains
Anaerobic Biomass High Some emissions
digestion temperature
heat
Fermentative biomass High Some emissions
Microorganisms temperature
heat

77
78
 UNIT - III
Solar Energy Applications
Solar water heating
Flat plate collector
Vacuum tube collector
Cylindrical parabolic collector
Compound parabolic collector
Solar air heating
Simple flat-plate air heater
Finned-plate air heater
Corrugated-plate air heater
Matrix type air heater
Box type air heater
Solar cookers
Box type solar cooker
Paraboloidal dish cooker
Solar desalinations
Single slope solar still
Double slope solar still
Solar passive heating and cooling of buildings
Solar refrigeration and air conditioning
Solar furnaces
Solar pumping
Solar photovoltaics
Solar ponds
Solar production of hydrogen
Solar green houses

79
 Availability of Solar Radiation

The Sun
1.39×106 km
Sun
1.27×104 km
Earth

32`

1.5×108 km ± 1.7 %

Figure 3.1 Sun-Earth relationships

Size : Medium sized, yellow star

Distance : (149.7 million km) 149,680,000 km or
1 Astronomical Unit (AU)
Rotates on its axis : once in 4 weeks (27-30 days)
Radius : 0.7 million km
30
Mass : 2 x 10 kg
Density : 100 times of water
Temperature : 8 – 40 million °C
Equivalent Blackbody
Temperature : 5777 K
Energy radiated from
23
Sun’s surface : 3.8 x 10 kW

Thermal radiation with wavelength from zero to infinity

80
Visible spectrum : 0.38 – 0.78 microns
Solar radiation spectrum of our interest 0.3 – 3.0 microns

The Earth

Distance from Sun : 150 million km

Radius : 6360 km
2
Surface area : 510 million m
Land area : 21%
Orbit of rotation : Elliptical orbit
Orbit speed : 30 km/s
Revolving speed : 0.5 km/s
Atmosphere : Upto 100 km
(By volume) N2 : 78.08%
O2 : 20.95%
Ar : 0.93%
CO2 : 0.0033%
Water vapour : 0.1 – 2.8%
Traces of CO, SO , Ozone (depending on location)
2

Orbit of rotation tilted at 23.45° degree with respect to its orbit about
the sun
Tilt, orbital rotation, daily revolution accounts for the distribution of
solar radiation on earth’s surface and its change in daylength

81
 SUN

Reflected back
Sun rays Into space

Extraterrestrial
region

O2, O3, CO, CO2, H2O,

dust etc.
Atmosphere
(Porous media)

Beam
Radiation Diffuse
Radiation
Terrestrial
region
Long wave length Earth’s
radiation emitted from surface
the earth surface

Figure 3.2 Solar radiation atmospheric mechanisms

82
Measurement of solar radiation

Extraterrestrial radiation: Solar radiation incident outside the

earth's atmosphere is called extraterrestrial radiation
Solar constant: The rate at which solar energy reaches at the top of
the atmosphere is called the solar constant. This is the rate at
which energy is received from the sun on a unit area perpendicular
to the rays of the sun, at the mean distance of earth from the sun
Beam radiation: Solar radiation received on the earth’s surface
without change in direction is called beam or direct radiation (It is
the portion of solar radiation that reaches the surface of earth from
the sun without any scattering)
Diffuse radiation: The radiation received on a terrestrial surface
(scattered by aerosol and dust) from all parts of the sky dome is

83
 known as diffuse radiation (Diffuse radiation is created with the
scattering of direct and reflected radiation by molecules, aerosol
and crystals in the air)
Total radiation: The sum of beam and diffuse radiations is referred
to as total radiation. When measured at a location on the earth’s
surface, it is called solar insolation at the place. When measured
on a horizontal surface, it is called global radiation (Global solar
radiation is the sum of direct, diffuse and (ground) reflected solar
radiation. Diffuse and reflected radiation during clear weather are
less than direct, but become important in cloudy weather, when
there is no direct radiation)
Irradiance: It is the rate at which solar radiant energy is incident on
a surface, per unit area of the surface
Sun at zenith: It is the position of the sun directly overhead
Solar radiation measuring instruments
Pyranometer: This is the most
widely-used equipment to measure
global solar radiation. There are
different types of pyranometers, the
most common being those in which
sensors are composed of
thermopiles or photovoltaic cells.
The photovoltaic sensors are in
general much less precise than the
thermopiles due to the fact that the
spectral response is not the same in the entire solar radiation spectrum
Shaded Pyranometer: It is used to measure diffuse solar radiation. It
needs a shading device so that the sensor cannot see the sun, thus not

84
allowing the radiation which comes directly from the sun to be
measured. Pyranometer with shading
ring is relatively an inexpensive
solution for diffuse solar radiation
measurement. However, the data
need to be corrected, because the
ring partially obstructs the passage
of diffuse radiation. The
Pyrheliometer with a shading disc is
a more expensive solution for diffuse
solar radiation measurement. The
measured data does not require correction, because the disc obstructs
only the path of direct radiation. On the other hand, this requires a sun-
tracking device which can be of one or two axis
Pyrheliometer: This equipment is used to measure direct solar
radiation. It works in a similar way as to the pyranometer, but a tube
allows only the direct solar radiation to
reach the sensor. Since the position of the
sun changes along the day, it is necessary
to have a device which does the sun-
tracking. The pyrheliometer is also utilized
as a calibration reference of solar radiation
sensors. Angtröm compensation
Pyrheliometer was the first instrument developed at the end of
th
19 century for the precise direct solar radiation measurement. The
Absolute cavity Pyrheliometer was developed since the mid 60s. This is
the current world reference for calibration of solar radiation sensors.
The Field Pyrheliometer is used at solarimetric stations for direct solar

85
radiation measurements. This uses thermopile sensors to measure
solar radiation
Albedometer: Albedo is the measurement which quantifies how much
the medium (vegetation, buildings, mountains, soil, snow, etc.) reflects
solar radiation which falls onto it. Its value is calculated by dividing the
total solar radiation reflected by the medium by the global solar
radiation incident at the location. The
Albedometer measures both the global
solar radiation as well as the reflected
radiation. To assure a more precise
measurement, it is generally installed
several meters above the surface.
The output from most of these devices will
be typically in millivolts. Correct radiation values can be read using
calibration charts. However, these devices need periodic calibration
Pirgeometer: It is used to measure long-wave radiation. It is utilized
with or without shading to block the direct solar radiation. The
protecting dome has filters to avoid the entrance of radiation of other
wavelengths

86
 North Pole

March 21
Vernal Equinox

23.5° Tilt

SUN

June 21
Summer Solstice December 21
Winter Solstice

September 21
Autumnal Equinox

Figure 3.3 Positions of the earth with respect to

the sun at solstices and equinoxes

The Tropics
Seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth's axis of rotation - the
23.4° offset of the axis from a direction perpendicular to the Earth's
orbital plane. The direction of the rotational axis stays nearly fixed in
space, even as the Earth revolves around the Sun once each year.
As a result, when the Earth is at a certain place in its orbit, the
northern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun and experiences
summer. Six months later, when the Earth is on the opposite side of
87
the Sun, the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun and
experiences winter. The seasons are reversed for the southern
hemisphere.
The solstices mark the two dates during the year on which the
Earth's position in its orbit is such that its axis is most directly tilted
either toward or away from the Sun. These are the dates when the
days are longest for the hemisphere tilted toward the Sun (where it
is summer) and shortest for the opposite hemisphere (where it is
winter). The solstices are days when the Sun reaches its farthest
northern and southern declinations. The winter solstice occurs on
December 21 or 22 and marks the beginning of winter (this is the
shortest day of the year). The summer solstice occurs on June 21
and marks the beginning of summer (this is the longest day of the
year).
Equinoxes are days in which day and night are of equal duration.
The two yearly equinoxes occur when the Sun crosses the celestial
equator. The vernal equinox occurs in late March (this is the
beginning of spring in the Northern hemisphere and the beginning of
fall in the Southern hemisphere). The autumnal equinox occurs in
late September (this is the beginning of fall in the Northern
hemisphere and the beginning of spring in the Southern
hemisphere). During the spring and fall equinoxes, the earth's axis is
perpendicular to an imaginary line drawn between the earth and the
sun

88
The solar radiation on the earth surface varies
During the day (from morning to noon and from noon to evening,
with the maximum usually at noon). This is called hourly variation.
This is due to the motion of the sun from east to west during the
course of the day and is true for all locations.
monthly (or seasonal variation) due to earth tilt
due to the presence of clouds
orientation of the surface, i.e., whether the surface receiving the
radiation is placed horizontally or is tilted from the horizontal
Figure 3.4 shows the position of the earth relative to the sun’s rays
at the time of the winter solstice and the summer solstice
At the winter (December 21), the north pole is inclined 23.5° away
from the sun
All points on the earth’s surface north of 66.5° north latitude are in
total darkness for 24 hours while all regions within 23.5° of the south
pole receive continuous sunlight
At the time of summer solstice (June 21), the situation is reversed
At the time of the two equinoxes (March 21 and September 21
approximately), both the poles are equidistance from the sun and all
points on the earth’s surface have 12 hours of daylight and
12 hours of darkness
Tilt of the earth causes the movement of sun of 23.45 degree above
& below Equator

89
 Axis
perpendicular to
orbit plane
N
N 23½° Equator
66½°
Equator

23½°
SUN
23½°

Tropic of Tropic of
Capricorn 23½° S Cancer 23½° N
S S
21st December 21st June
Winter solstice Summer solstice

Figure 3.4 Tropics and northern hemisphere

Three of the most significant imaginary lines running across the

surface of the earth are the equator, the Tropic of Cancer, and the
Tropic of Capricorn. While the equator is the longest line of latitude on
the earth (the line where the earth is widest in an east-west direction),
the tropics are based on the sun's position in relation to the earth at
two points of the year.

The equator is located at zero degrees latitude. The equator divides the
planet into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The equator runs
through Indonesia, Ecuador, northern Brazil, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, and Kenya, among other countries. It is 24,901.55 miles
(40,075.16 kilometers) long. On the equator, the sun is directly
overhead at noon on the two equinoxes - near March and
September 21.
90
The Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn each lie at 23.5°
latitude. The Tropic of Cancer is located at 23.5° north of the equator
and runs through Mexico, the Bahamas, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, India, and
southern China. The Tropic of Capricorn lies at 23.5° South of the
equator and runs through Australia, Chile, southern Brazil (Brazil is the
only country that passes through both the equator and a tropic), and
northern South Africa.
The tropics are the two lines where the sun is directly overhead at noon
on the two solstices - near June and December 21. The sun is directly
overhead at noon on the Tropic of Cancer on June 21 (the beginning of
summer in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of winter in the
Southern Hemisphere) and the sun is directly overhead at noon on the
Tropic of Capricorn on December 21 (the beginning of winter in the
Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of summer in the Southern
Hemisphere).
The area bounded by the Tropic of Cancer on the north and Tropic of
Capricorn on the south is known as the "tropics." This area does not
experience seasons because the sun is always high in the sky. Only
higher latitudes, north of the Tropic of Cancer and south of the Tropic
of Capricorn, experience significant seasonal variation in climate.
While the equator divides the earth into Northern and Southern
Hemispheres, it is the Prime Meridian at zero degrees longitude and the
line of longitude opposite the Prime Meridian (near the International
Date Line) at 180 degrees longitude that divides the earth into the
Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The Eastern Hemisphere consists
of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia while the Western Hemisphere
includes North and South America. Some geographers place the

91
 boundaries between the hemispheres at 20° West and 160° East so as
to not run through Europe and Africa.
Solar Thermal Energy Collectors
A solar thermal energy collector is equipment in which solar energy is
collected by absorbing radiation in an absorber and then transferring to
a fluid
Flat-plate solar collector
The flat-plate solar collector is the heart of any solar energy
collection system designed for operation in the low temperature
range or in the medium temperature range
It is used to absorb solar energy, convert it into heat and then to
transfer that heat to a stream of liquid or gas
It absorbs both the beam and the diffuse radiation and is usually
planted on the top of a building or other structures
It does not require tracking of the sun and requires little
maintenance
Here the collector area and the absorber area are numerically the
same, the efficiency is low and temperatures of the working fluid can
be raised only up to 100°C

92
 SUN

Diffuse
Beam
radiation
radiation

Transparent
cover

Absorber
plate

Thermal
Insulation
Pipe for fluid
Figure 3.5 Cross section of a liquid
passage
flat-plate solar collector

A metallic flat absorber plate: The absorber plate is of high thermal

conductivity made of copper, steel, or aluminium and having black
surface. The thickness of the metal sheet ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 mm.
Tubes or channels: Tubes or channels are soldered to the absorber
plate. Water flowing through these tubes takes away the heat from the
absorber plate. The diameter of tubes is around 1.25 cm while that of
the header pipe which leads water in and out of the collector and
distributes it to absorber tubes is 2.5 cm
Transparent glass cover: A transparent toughened sheet of 5 mm
thickness is provided as the cover plate. It reduces convection losses
through a stagnant air layer between the absorber plate and the glass.
Radiation losses are also reduced as the spectral transmissivity of
glass is such that it is transparent to short wave radiation and nearly

93
opaque to long wave thermal radiation emitted by interior collector
walls and absorbing plate
Insulation: Fibre glass insulation of thickness 2.5 to 8.0 cm is provided
at the bottom and on the sides in order to minimize heat loss
Enclosure: A container encloses the whole assembly in a box made of
metallic sheet or fibre glass. It can be tilted at a suitable angle.

94
 Water passage

Water passage

Water passage

Bond Tie Clamp

Copper tube

Aluminium tin

Figure 3.6 Configuration of heat transfer fluid

Passages and their bondings
Figure 3.6 shows the various types configuration of heat transfer fluid
passage and their method of bonding which are widely used
throughout the world. The method of bonding or clamping of tubes to
flat or corrugated sheet is also shown.

95
Concentrating solar collectors
Here the area receiving the solar radiation is several times greater
than the absorber area and the efficiency is high
Mirrors and lens are used to concentrate sun rays on the absorber,
and the fluid temperature can be raised up to 500°C
For better performance, the collector is mounted on a tracking
equipment to always face the sun with its changing position
The concentrating collectors are classified in two groups
(i) Focussing type and
(ii) Non-focussing type
In the focussing type collector, optical system focuses the solar
radiation onto the absorber, while non-focussing type collector, the
solar radiation is allowed to fall on the absorber after using reflection in
the mirror.
Focussing collectors may be of line focussing type or point focussing
type. In the line focussing, the collector pipe, through which working
fluid flows, may be considered as a line, while in the case of point
focussing, the point to be considered will be a small volume through
which fluid flows. The line focussing collectors usually offer
temperatures between 150 and 400°C with concentration ratios
between 10 and 80.

96
Mirror-strip reflectors
This is a line focussing collector in which a plane or slightly curved
(concave) mirror strips are mounted on a flat base. The individual
mirrors are placed in such angles that the reflected solar radiation can
fall on to the same focal line where the collector pipe is placed
With respect to the changes in the sun’s elevation in viewing of
focussing of the reflected radiation onto a focal line, either collector
pipe is to be moved continuously keeping mirror strips in fixed
condition, or the angles of the mirrors are allowed to be adjusted
continuously keeping collector pipe in fixed position

Sun rays

Focus

Mirror
Strips

Figure 3.7 Mirror-strip solar collector

97
Parabolic trough collector
This type of collector collects the solar radiation coming from the
particular direction over the area of the reflecting surface and
concentrates at the focus of parabola. When the reflector is
manufactured in the form of a trough with parabolic cross section, the
solar radiation gets focused along a line. Parabolic trough reflectors
are usually made of highly polished aluminium or silvered glass or of a
film of aluminized plastic on a firm base. The reflector may be of
continuous form or a number of line flat mirror strips can be placed on
a parabolic base. Cylindrical parabolic concentrators are mostly used
in practice. Here, the collector pipe is used as absorber preferably with
a selective coating and it is placed along the focus axis.
In focussing the solar radiation on a line, with respect to changes in
suns elevation by the parabolic trough reflector, either the trough or
collector pipe is to be rotated continuously

Sun rays

Absorber
Tube

Parabolic
Reflector
Vertex

98
Figure 3.8 Parabolic trough collector
 Parabolic
Reflective
surface

L
Absorber tube

Glass tube
Absorber tube (Do)

Tracking
Mechanism

φRim

Figure 3.9 cylindrical parabolic trough collector

99
Paraboloid dish collector
The earlier mentioned collectors are considered under line focussing
type. The paraboloid dish collector is of point focussing type. In the line
focussing type, the receiver is placed at the focus, i.e. along the focal line.
But for point focussing type, the receiver is placed at the focus point of
concentrator. A dish of 6 m in diameter is made from about 200 curved
mirror segments forming a Paraboloidal surface. The absorber is a cavity
made of a Zirconium-copper alloy. Black chrome is used as selective
coating. The absorber is placed at the focus. In this case, the tracking
system is provided to track the sun automatically for all times. These
collectors can have concentration ratios ranging from 100 to a few 1000.
About 2000°C temperature can be achieved by this collector

Sun rays

Absorber Paraboloid dish

Support

Figure 3.10 Paraboloid dish collector

100
Fresnel lens collector
It is also a line focussing type collector. In this type, the focussing is
achieved by using a Fresnel lens where refraction takes place. The
Fresnel lens is made flat on one side and on the other side, fine
longitudinal grooves are kept. The angles of these grooves are made in
such a manner that solar radiation can be focused on a line. A typical
Fresnel lens which is usually used is having overall length of about
4.7 m and width of about 0.05m. It is usually made of extruded acrylic
plastic sheets

Sun’s rays

Fresnel lens

Absorber tube

Figure 3.11 Fresnel lens collector

101
Compound parabolic collector
It is a non-focussing type collector. The concentrators are of curved
segments which are parts of two parabolas. Solar radiation from many
directions gets reflected onto the absorber. It collects both direct and
diffuse radiations on a small area. The concentration ratio for these types
of collectors generally ranges from 3 to 10. This collector is having high
acceptance angle and it requires occasional tracking.

Sun rays

Parabola

Absorber

Axis
Figure 3.12 Compound parabolic collector

102
Solar air heaters
Air is generally used as a heat transfer fluid in many types of energy
conversion system
In drying applications and for heating of buildings, solar energy can
play a significant role because the warm air is also the final receiver
of the energy
Flat-plate collectors are, therefore the best for heat air, but in contrast
to liquid solar collectors, the technology and applications of solar air
collectors have not been widely developed
Advantages of solar air heater
The need to transfer heat from the working fluid to another fluid is
eliminated as air is being used directly as the working substance
The system is compact and less complicated Corrosion, which can
cause serious problems in solar water, is completely eliminated
Leakage of air from the ducts does not pose any major problem
Freezing of working fluid virtually doest not exit
The pressure inside the collector does not become very high
Description
A conventional solar heater is essentially a flat-plate collector with an
absorber plate, a transparent cover system at the top and insulation
at the bottom and on the sides
The working fluid is air
The whole assembly is encased in a sheet metal container
Materials for construction of air heaters are similar to those of liquid
flat plate collectors
Depending on the type of the absorber plate, the air heater can be
non-porous and porous

103
Non-porous type solar air heater

In non-porous type, air stream does not flow through the absorber plate
but air may flow above or below the absorber plate
Simple flat-plate solar air heater
This is the simplest and most commonly used type of collector. In its
simplest form it is composed of one or two glazings over a flat plate
backed by insulation. The path of air flow may be either above or below or
both above and below the absorber plate.
In this type, no separate passage is required and the air flows between the
transparent cover system and the absorber plate. In this heater, as the hot
air flows above the absorber, the glass cover receives much of the heat
and in turn, looses it to the ambient. Thus a substantial amount of heat is
lost to the ambient and hence this air heater is not recommended

SUN
Absorber plate
A Glass cover

Air in Air out

Insulation

A Casing

Glass
Air passage

Insulation

Casing

Section A – A

Figure 3.13 Simple flat plate air heater

104
The non-porous type with air passage below the absorber is most
commonly used. A plate parallel to the absorber plate is provided in
between the absorber and the insulation, thus forming a passage of high
aspect ratio for the air flow

SUN
Glass cover
A Absorber plate

Air in Air out

Insulation

A Casing
Bottom
plate

Absorber plate
Glass cover
Air passage

Insulation

Casing

Section A – A

Figure 3.14 Non-porous type with air passage

below the absorber

In another variety of non-porous type of air heater, the absorber plate is

cooled by air stream flowing on both sides of the plate

105
 SUN
Absorber plate
Glass cover

Air in Air out

Insulation

Casing

Figure 3.15 Non-porous air heater with air stream

flowing on both sides

It may be noted that the heat transfer between the absorber plate and the
flowing air being low, the efficiency of air heaters is less. The
performance, however, can be improved by roughening the absorber
surface or by using a vee-corrugated plate as the absorber. The heat
transfer can also be increased by adding fins to the absorber plate.
Turbulence induced to the air flow helps increase the convective heat
transfer
The radiative losses from the absorber plate are significant, unless
selective coatings are used, decreasing the collection efficiency. Also, the
use of fins may result in a prohibitive pressure drop, thus limiting the
applicability of non-porous type

Finned-plate solar air heater

In this type the heat transfer coefficient is increased by using fins on the
flat plate absorber, and in certain designs the surface is made
directionally selective. The fins are usually located in the air flow passage.

106
 Absorber
SUN plate

Glass
Air passage

Fins
Insulation

Casing

Figure 3.16 Non-porous finned type

solar air heater

Corrugated-plate solar air heater

This is another variation of simple flat-plate design, in which the absorber

is corrugated either in rounded troughs or V-troughs. This increases the
heat transfer area and may make the surface directionally selective.

SUN Vee corrugated

absorber
Glass
Air passage

Insulation

Casing

Figure 3.17 Vee-corrugated type

solar air heater

107
Porous type solar air heater
The second type of air heaters has porous absorber which may include
slit and expanded metal, over lapped glass plate absorber and transpired
honeycomb
Solar radiation penetrates to a greater depth and is absorbed along it’s
path. Thus the radiation loss decreases. Air stream heats up as it passes
through the matrix
The pressure drop is usually lower than the non-porous type
Matrix-type solar air heater
In this design an absorbing matrix is placed in the air-flow path between
the glazing and an absorbing back plate. The matrix material may be an
expanded metal plate, cotton gauze or loosely packed porous material.
This type of air heater offers a high heat transfer to volume ratio; it may
also offer low friction losses depending on the design

SUN

Glass cover

Matrix absorber
Air in

Air out
Insulation

Bottom
plate Casing

Figure 3.18 Schematic of matrix solar air heater

108
Solar pond power plant

The concept of a solar pond was first proposed in 1902. The solar pond is
simple and consists of water with a very high saline content. The heated
salty water can boil gases such as Freon or propane. Afterwards, the
heated gas can turn the blades of a turbine next to the solar pond and the
turbine can then drive a generator to produce electricity. Before the
electricity generation process, the following set-up is required:
There must be a large body of water. This can be an inland sea, a lake
or a big dam. If a dam is built for the purpose of electricity generation,
the bottom of the dam is usually lined with black plastic. This black
plastic lining will act as an efficient absorber of solar radiation.
The water must be two to three meters deep over its entire area.
The depth must be constant for most of the year.
There must be a minimum of movement in the water. This means that
there must be a limited movement of wind across the surface and
minimal currents within the body of water.
The water in the solar pond must be very salty, at least three times
saltier than the sea. If a dam is built especially for a solar pond project,
then salt must be brought to the dam to make the water salty enough.
This adds to the cost of the solar pond. In Australia, salt for this
purpose can be obtained from the waste products of solar salt
production.
Water in the solar pond is saltier at the bottom than at the top. The
heavier, dense salt water sinks while the fresh water floats to the top. If
the body of water is still, with no movement within the water and little
or no wind blowing over the surface, there will be very little mixing.
This makes sure that the water will stay saltier at the bottom. The
bottom layers will be hotter while the surface layer remains cool.

109
 Concentrated salt water can reach temperatures of 80°C to 100 °C,
using only the sun as the heat source. In some places in the world,
temperatures close to boiling can be found at the bottom of natural salt
water lakes and ponds. Such places with natural salt water lakes
include Central Australia, California, Israel, the Soviet Union and Africa.
There are two gradients that are important in understanding the solar
pond:
First, a salt pond gets saltier as the water deepens but it is almost fresh
at the surface – a salt gradient.
Second, the salt water is hotter at the bottom, where the salt
concentration is greatest, and cooler at the top – a thermal (heat)
gradient.
A solar pond has three zones with following salinity with depth:
Surface convective zone or upper convective zone
(0.3 – 0.5 m), salinity <5%
Non-convective zone 1 to 1.5 m, salinity increases with depth
Storage zone or lower convective zone (1.5 to 2 m, salinity ≅20%
The pond is filled by mixing salt water in batches next to the site. The
bottom layer (which has the heaviest salt concentration) is made up first
and pumped onto the dam floor. Then the next layer is mixed and
carefully poured onto the layer already in the dam. Slowly, the rest of the
layers are mixed and poured until the pond is filled. The result is a giant,
salty layer cake made of water.

Now, the solar pond must be heated by the sun and this could take
months. Evaporation has the effect of keeping the surface water cool. And
convection (the movement of water from one heat zone to another heat
zone) brings warmer water to the surface, where it cools. The heating of

110
the pond depends on wind speed, humidity and temperature. To some
extent, these influences can be controlled and the solar pond will reach a
high-enough temperature in the bottom layers.
Then the engineers get to work to produce electricity from the solar pond.
This is known as a Rankine cycle. The generating plant that does this
work on a solar pond has three cycles:
There is a hot water cycle. The hot water is drawn from the hottest layer
of the salt water at the bottom of the solar pond. This water goes into a
boiler. Remember it has been made hot by the sun, so it does not need
any other fuel to make it hotter.
There is an organic working cycle, where the gas is boiled by contact
with the hot water. Freon or propane gas is generally used because it
will boil at a much lower temperature than the temperature of boiling
water (which is 100°C). The gas then evaporates quickly and it is sent
to a turbine. The pressure of the gas turns the blades of the turbine.
The turbine is connected to a generator, which produces electricity.
There is a cold water cycle. Water is drawn from the surface of the
pond where it is cool. This cool water is pumped into a condenser,
where it is used to cool the hot gas that has been used to turn the
turbine. By cooling the gas, it is being restored to its original state. It is
then ready to be used again. The water in the condenser is then
returned to the surface of the solar pond.

111
 Organic fluid Turbine
Cycle Generator Cold water
Cycle

HE
Circulating
pump
Condenser

Fresh water barrier

(20°C – 32°C)

Circulating Salty
pump

Feed Dense salt water

Hot water
Cycle pump (70°C – 80°C)

Figure 3.19 Schematic of a solar pond power plant

These three cycles are in continuous motion. The hot water, gas and cool
water never come into direct contact, but circulate in pipes. They do not
need to be replaced. Once they have started working together, their
motion is constant and there is no need for any other fuel. The heating
“fuel” is free, renewable sunlight.

It takes several months of steady sunlight to make solar pond water hot
enough to boil the gas, Freon. Once the pond has reached its maximum
temperature, the system will continue working for up to two weeks
112
without any sunlight at all. But this depends on the thickness of the hot
salt water layer in the pond. Even under cloudy conditions, the solar pond
continues to absorb some energy (heat) from the sun.

It is necessary to restrict the flow of wind across the surface of the solar
pond. The wind can create waves that set up water currents in the pond.
These currents can carry cold water down to warmer levels, cooling the
hottest water on the bottom. This would reduce the efficiency of the solar
pond system. Chain mesh wire fences around the pond area, and nets on
the surface, is usually used to prevent wind disturbance. When there is no
disturbance, then the heaviness of the salt layers on the bottom prevents
rapid movements along the heat and salt gradients or variations.

There are other problems of control. The salt and heat gradients must be
monitored to prevent the salt layers from mixing together. If the salt layers
mix together, then the solar pond becomes just another pond and it is
highly unlikely that electricity can be generated.
Solar pumping systems
The solar pumping system utilizes the power generated by solar energy
for pumping of water in assisting irrigation and drinking water facility.
Solar thermal energy conversion system or photovoltaic system an be
used for solar pumps
Solar thermal energy conversion system can be used for water pumping
with cost effectiveness for large scale application. In this system, the
water or thermic fluid is heated by solar energy and the heated fluid is
used to drive a pump or turbine. Figure 3.20 shows the simplified view of
a flat plate collector based pump. Water / thermic (heat transport) fluid is
heated by a flat plate collector or the concentrating collector depending
on the required temperature to be achieved for the working fluid. By flat
113
plate collector, the temperature of the fluid can be attained upto about
93°C. By concentrating collector, the fluid is heated upto 215°C. The hot
fluid is allowed to flow to the mixing tank / storage tank and then to the
boiler or heat exchanger of a heat engine to convert the state of the
working fluid of the heat engine from liquid to vapour. The vapour then
drives a turbine which in turn operates a pump set. The working fluids of
the heat engine may be refrigerant – 113, refrigerant – 11, toluene
(CP – 25), more – chlorobenzene (MCB), trifluoroethanol (TPE – 100 and
85), hexafluoro benzene (HFB), pyridine (CP – 32) and thiopene. Among
them, R – 115 is considered to be working fluid it yields high cycle
efficiency and it is non-toxic in nature having low cost. The water or heat
transport fluid is again fed to the collector by a circulating pump. In the
heat engine cycle, the vapour coming out from the turbine is passed
through the condenser where the vapour gets condensed. The liquid
working fluid of the cycle is then sent to boiler or heat exchanger with the
help of a feed pump to complete the cycle. The water which is pumped
from the ground or irrigation well is used as the coolant for the
condenser.
The overall efficiency of the system, ηo, is assessed as ηo = ηe × ηc
Where, ηe is the efficiency of the engine
ηc is the efficiency of the collector
A higher temperature in the boiler, offers higher engine efficiency. But for
this, higher collector temperature is needed. This decreases the collector
efficiency. Therefore, there should be an optimum range of operating
temperatures for the solar pumping system, using solar thermal energy
conversion technology, to achieve the maximum efficiency of the whole
system. The energy efficiency, i.e., percentage of energy collected that is
converted into useful work, is about 13 to 14 %.

114
In a solar PV-based water pumping system, PV modules convert sunlight
directly into electricity and this energy is used to run an electric motor
pump set for pumping water. In this system, the solar photovoltaic
modules feed electricity into storage batteries which operates a pump.
The pumps may be of positive displacement reciprocating type or
centrifugal type. Any pump requires a minimum power input to start it. For
a positive displacement reciprocating pump, a higher input power is
required in order to overcome peak starting torque of the pump. In case of
a centrifugal pump, water will not be lifted until a threshold power level
inspite of it’s a much lower level as input power requirement. For water
depths upto eight meters, started centrifugal pumps are used. In case of
higher depths, positive displacement pumps are preferred. Centrifugal

Organic
Heat Engine
fluid
Solar Water pump
radiation

Collector
Array Condenser

Heat
Exchanger Feed
pump

Circulating
Ground water
pump

Figure 3.20 Schematic of a solar water pump

pumps achieve a close natural match with photovoltaic array over a broad
range of operating conditions.

115
Solar cooling
One of the thermal applications of solar energy is for the purpose of
cooling. The cooling with the help of solar energy can be utilized for air
conditioning or refrigeration systems. The objective of the systems is to
provide comfortable living conditions or to preserve the food products.
The common techniques used for refrigeration systems are vapour
compression and vapour absorption. In both the systems, the solar
energy is used to obtain heated water or any liquid which finally
vapourizes the refrigerant. Among the two systems, the absorption
cooling systems are considered to be more practical because cooling is
needed mostly in summer and the availability of heat from sun is easy.
Figure 3.21 shows a diagram of simple solar operated NH3-H2O vapour
absorption refrigeration system. In this system, the water is heated
with the help of array of solar collectors
The hot water is passed through a heat exchanger which is called as
generator
In the generator, the hot water transfers heat to a solution mixture of
the absorbent and refrigerant and the solution is rich in the refrigerant
A rectifying section is added at the top of the generator to reduce the
water vapour content in the vapour stream going to the condenser
The generator temperatures for this system is in the ranges of 120°C to
150°C
This temperature range is higher than the temperatures which can be
achieved flat plate collectors
Concentrating collectors, compound parabolic collectors, evacuated
tubular collectors and other focusing collectors and well designed flat
plate collectors can be used to maintain the required higher
temperature for the generator

116
 The refrigerant vapour at high pressure is generated in the generator
and the vapour is fed to the condenser
The vapour is condensed here to high pressure liquid
With the help of expansion valve, the high pressure liquid is throttled to
a low pressure and low temperature vapour
This vapour is passed through the evaporator coil, where the vapour
absorbs heat from the space surrounding the coil to maintain the
cooling effect in the space
The refrigerant vapour is then absorbed into a solution mixture in the
absorber
The solution mixture is taken from the generator and it is weak in
refrigerant concentration
After absorption a rich in refrigerant concentration solution is
produced and it is then pumped back to the generator with the help of a
liquid pump and the cycle completes here
Usually, the rich solution flowing from the absorber to the generator is
heated in a heat exchanger by the weak solution withdrawn from the
generator to achieve the better performance of the cycle
For food preservation purpose, NH3-H2O system is chosen
The common types of vapour absorption coolers are the lithium-bromide
water system (LiBr-H2O) system and ammonia-water (NH3-H2O) system.
Lithium-bromide-water systems require the lower generator temperature
of the order of 85°C to 95°C. This can be achieved by using flat plate
collector. In this system, water is refrigerant but it is known that the water
can not exist in liquid form below the triple point temperature. It means
that practically, it cannot operate much below the 4°C. So for air
conditioning purposes, LiBr-H2O system is equally chosen. The COP is
often in the range of 0.6 to 0.8.

117
 Refrigerant
load Heat output

Refrigerant Condenser
Liquid Refrigerant
Receiver
Vapour
Reflux
Condenser
Evaporator Heat Input
Refrigerant vapour from solar
collector
Subcooler

Weak solution
Rectifier
Heat
Output
Generator
Absorber
Receiver Solution
• • Heat exchanger

Strong solution

Pump

Figure 3.21 Solar Absorption Refrigeration System

118
Solar central receiver systems
The central receiver concept was first proposed by scientists in the USSR
in the mid 1950s. The first experiment was established in Sant’ Ilario near
Genova, Italy, in 1965 by Professor Giovanni Francia. He installed
120 round mirrors each the size of a “tea-table,” focusing on a small
steam generator on top of a steel frame. The product was superheated
steam (500°C, 10 MPa).
Central receivers have the advantage that all the energy conversion takes
place at a single fixed point. This avoids the need for energy transport
networks and allows investment to improve the efficiency and
sophistication of the energy conversion process to be made more cost
effectively. Associated disadvantages are that they must be built as single
large systems, without the modularity benefits of distributed systems like
troughs or dishes. The fixed position of the receiver also means that
heliostats do not point directly at the sun, so that the amount of collected
solar radiation per unit area of mirror is less than with the other
technologies.
Major investigations during the past 20 years have focused on four heat
transfer fluid systems: water/steam, sodium, molten salt, and air.
To date, power generation has been via conventional steam Rankine
cycles at the base of the tower. In early systems, receivers were built to
produce superheated steam directly; however, thermal problems
associated with the unsteady boundary between liquid water and steam in
the tubes motivated a move to secondary heat transfer fluids. Liquid
sodium provides good heat transfer behavior, but carries the
disadvantage that all the transport piping must be heated above sodium’s
melting point (slightly below 100°C). The possibility of leaks also provides
a significant fire risk. Use of molten salt avoids the fire risk and is thus

119
also well suited to storage in tanks to allow power generation when there
is no sun. The nitrate salts used have a melting point of 260°C. They do,
however, lead to corrosion problems if leaks occur. Air is also suggested
as a heat transfer fluid; a 3 MWth system has been demonstrated at the
Plataforma Solar test facility in southern Spain.
Heliostat fields can either surround the tower or be spread out on one
side. For a surround field, externally radiated circular cross section
receivers are employed; for one-sided fields, cavity receivers can be used.
System designers have developed optimization strategies which
determine the best arrangement for a given number of heliostats. These
take into account the effects of shading between heliostats, the spread of
the field, and the optical inefficiency that increases as heliostats are
farther from the tower.
Two general approaches to heliostat design have been used. The most
obvious is a plane structure with rigid mirror facets mounted on it. The
structure sits on top of a pedestal with a gearbox arrangement that allows
for two-axis tracking of the sun. The other alternative is the stretched
membrane approach. As the name implies, a membrane is stretched
across a circular frame in a manner similar to a drum skin. The membrane
is then covered with mirrors. Thin stainless steel membranes with glass
mirrors glued to the surface have been tried, as have polymer films which
are mirrored themselves. The stretched membrane approach allows the
mirrored surface to be curved slightly by the application of a small
internal vacuum. In this way, heliostats can actually focus their own sun
image on the tower receiver rather than just directing a plane beam at it.
Development trends have suggested that larger heliostats are more cost
effective; heliostat modules up to 200 m2 have been tested.

120
The largest central receiver solar thermal power plant demonstrated to
date is the Solar Two plant in southern California. This plant is actually an
updated version of the previously operated Solar One system. Extra
heliostats were added and the receiver converted from direct steam
generation to molten salt.
Figure 3.22 is a schematic illustrating the operating principles. When the
solar field is operating, the molten nitrate salt moves from cold (288°C)
storage tank via the receiver at the top of the tower, where it is heated, to
the hot storage tank (566°C). Independently of the solar energy collection
process, salt from the hot tank is passed through a heat exchanger where
heat is transferred to produce superheated steam, with the salt passing
back to the cold storage tank. The steam is used in a conventional steam
turbine power plant for electricity generation.
The Solar Two plant has 1018 heliostats of 39.1m2 plus a further 108 95 m2
heliostats. Under nominal conditions, 48MWth is concentrated onto the
receiver which sits at the top of a 91-m-high tower. Steam is produced in
the heat exchangers at 10 MPa and 538°C, and the net electrical output is
10.4 MWe.
One of the most recent developments in the central receiver area is the
“beam down” concept proposed by the Weizmann Institute in Israel.
Rather than converting the energy at the top of the tower, a hyperbolically
shaped secondary mirror directs it vertically downward. At the bottom, a
nonimaging concentrator concentrates it further before it is captured by a
volumetric receiver capable of heating air to very high temperatures
needed for a Brayton cycle.

121
 SUN

Central tower
Receiver

Salt loop

High temperature
Salt 566°C

Heliostat
Field

Low temperature
Salt 288°C

Super heated
Feed
Cold water steam
Water
Generator
Steam generator

Condenser
Steam turbine

Feed pump

Hot water

Figure 3.22 Solar central receiver power plant

122
 Table I Summary of Solar Central Receiver Demonstration Power Plants
Eurelios Sunshine IEA-CRS Solar One Solar Two
Description
(Italy) (Japan) (Spain) (USA) (USA)
Net electric
1 MWe 1 MWe 0.5 MWe 10 MWe 10 MWe
power
Total
reflector 6260 m2 12912 m2 3655 m2 71095 m2 81344 m2
area
Heat
transfer Water / Water / Water /
Sodium Molten salt
steam steam steam
fluid
Storage
0.06 MWhe 3 MWhe 1.0 MWhe 28.0 MWhe 107 MWhth
capacity
Period of
1980 - 1984 1981 - 1984 1981 - 1985 1982 - 1988 1996 - 1999
service

Table II Summary of Solar Central Receiver Demonstration Power Plants

CESA 1 Themis MSEE SES 5 Weizman
Description
(Spain) (France) (USA) (CIS-USSR) (Israel)
Net electric
1.2 MWe 2.5 MWe 0.75 MWe 5 MWe 0.5 MWe
power
Total
reflector 11880 m2 10740 m2 7845 m2 40584 m2 3500 m2
area
Heat
Water / Water /
transfer Molten salt Molten salt Beam down
steam steam
fluid
Storage
3 MWhe 15 MWhe 2.5 MWhe 1.5 MWhe ------
capacity
Period of
1983 - 1984 1983 - 1986 1984 - 1985 1985 - 2001 -
service

123
Figure 3.23 (a) Solar central receiver power plant in operation

124
Figure 3.23 (b) Central receiver farm

125
Solar Distillation
Introduction
Solar distillation is the process in which solar heat is used to purify
water from an impure water source by evaporation and condensation
When solar energy is used to purify water from saline water, the
process is also called solar desalination
Desalination converts saline water with high salt content, about 3.5%
by weight in seawater and about 0.6% in brackish water, into fresh
water suitable for drinking and other purposes
Solar energy can be used for desalination, either as thermal energy
through the use of solar thermal collectors or solar ponds, or as
electricity mainly through the use of photovoltaic cells
A device used for converting brackish water into potable water using
solar energy is called solar still
There are many methods of converting brackish water into potable water
Desalination: In this method, the brackish or saline water is evaporated
using thermal energy and the resulting stream is collected and condensed
as final product
Vapour compression: In this process of distillation water vapour from
boiling water is compressed adiabatically and vapour gets superheated.
The super heated vapour is first cooled to saturation temperature and
then condensed at constant pressure. This process is driven by
mechanical energy
Reverse osmosis: In this process saline water is pushed at high pressure
through special membranes allowing water molecules selectively to pass
and not the dissolved salts

126
Electrodialysis: In this method water is passed through a pair of special
membranes, perpendicular to which, there is an electric field. Water does
not pass through the membranes while dissolved salts pass selectively

Solar desalination processes can be classified into two categories:

Indirect systems: These are usually of small or medium capacity and
involve two separate subsystems, a solar energy system and a
conventional plant for using the collected solar energy to produce fresh
water.
Direct systems: Here the heat collection and distillation processes take
place in the same equipment. In such systems, solar energy is used to
produce the distillate directly in the solar still. The still acts as a trap for
solar radiation (the greenhouse effect). As solar radiation passes through
the transparent cover, it gets absorbed by the water and the absorber
surface. As a result the water temperature, thus the vapor pressure,
increases and becomes greater than that of the cover and the water
evaporates. The vapor rises to the cover by natural convection where it is
condensed on the inner side of the cover. A gravity feed funnels the
condensate into the collection tank.
Basin: Saline water is kept for distillation in the basin. The basin may be
insulated from the bottom to minimize heat loss to the ambient. It is
painted black or lined with a black sheet to maximize its absorptivity. The
basin may range from 10 to 20mm deep (shallow basin) to 100mm or more
(deep basin). The basin floor must be inclined slightly, around 1°, to allow
for easy drainage of the concentrated brine. The materials needed to
construct a still must be resistant to saline water corrosion, and
preferably be inexpensive, durable, and available locally. Aluminum,
concrete, wood impregnated with a resin, iron painted to resist corrosion,
or plastic may be used.
127
Transparent cover: The cover acts as the condenser, so that the vapor
condenses on its inside surface and collects at the bottom. It also
reduces heat losses from the hot water by keeping the wind away from it.
The slope of the cover must be steep enough to allow the water to flow all
the way down to the collection troughs, without falling back into the
basin. The cover is usually made of glass or plastic, though glass is
preferred because of its high transparency, rigidity, and comparatively
low cost. One disadvantage of glass is that it breaks on impact. Plastics,
on the other hand, are lightweight, inexpensive, less likely to break, and
easy to handle. Their main disadvantages are discoloration and
deterioration due to ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the sunlight
Collection trough: The collection troughs are placed at the lower edges of
the cover to collect the distillate. Troughs are pitched along its length so
that the distillate flows to the lower end of the still, from where it is
collected.
The design of a solar still requires optimization of many factors: brine
depth, thermal insulation, cover slope, shape, and material for the still. A
well designed still must also have adequate provision to collect the
rainwater that falls on it, so that the surrounding ground is not eroded or
flooded.
A variety of basin type solar still designs are used in practice. They differ
from each other in the type of materials used, geometry, the method of
supporting the transparent cover, and the arrangements for supply and
discharge water
The incident solar radiation on the still can be increased by using a
reflector, which focuses it, so that the still receives both the reflected as
well as incident radiation. The temperature of the saline water inside the
still may be increased by connecting the still to a solar collector, or the
saline water may be preheated in the collector before entering the still.
128
 Glass Plate 1000 mm square shape

Water in 15°
Water
Channel
(One Side)
Brine 0.5 mm Thick
G. I. Sheet

Drain

30 mm Thick Glass
Wool Insulation

Vertical Stand
(Four Corners)

Figure 3.24 Single Slope Solar Still

The latent heat of condensation may be partially utilized by means of a

multieffect solar still. As the vapor from one stage condenses at the lower
surface of the next stage, it gives up its latent heat at that stage thus
evaporating a part of the water there. The condensate flows toward the
trough and is collected as the output. Thin film evaporation creates a
higher output than pool evaporation. This idea may be used in a tilted
solar still. The still is tilted to face the sun and the feed water flows from
the top inlet toward the bottom. The flow rate needs to be properly
controlled to generate the optimum output. Other designs include a tilted
wick, which looks like a tilted solar still, an inflated solar still where a
plastic sheet is used as the transparent cover, and a still with an internal
condenser to enhance the condensation process and to preheat the feed

129
 Glass Plate Glass Plate 1000 mm
Water Square shape
Passage

Water
Channel
(Two Side)

Water in Brine 0.5 mm Thick Water out

G. I. Sheet

Drain

30 mm Thick Glass
Wool Insulation

Vertical Stand
(Four Corners)

Figure 3.25 Double Slope Solar Still

water. Stills based on the humidification-dehumidification principle have
also been developed. In a humidification-dehumidification still, saline
water is heated in a collection system and pumped to the top of a
humidification column. Air is circulated in the opposite direction and
becomes humid. The humid air goes to the condenser, where the
condensing vapor creates fresh water. In humid areas where there is no
fresh or saline water available, fresh water can be obtained from the
atmosphere. This can be done by using desiccant materials, which absorb
water vapor from the atmosphere. The cooling coil of an air conditioner
may be used to produce fresh water, but its temperature must be lower
than the dew point of the humid air. As the humid air comes in contact

130
with the coil, the water vapor temperature reduces below the dew point,
which condenses as fresh water. For locations with very low humidity and
no water resources, fresh water may be obtained from the soil moisture.
At a certain depth below the earth surface, the soil remains moist. If that
layer of moist soil is heated, vapor will be formed that can be condensed
and collected as fresh water.
Operation and Maintenance
As the water inside the still is almost stagnant, suspended solids in the
feed water may settle inside the still. To prevent this, suspended material
should be removed from the feed before it enters the still. Growth of algae
and other organisms may occur in the still. This can be minimized
through the addition of algicides such as copper sulfate to the supply.
The presence of scale leads to operating difficulties or loss of efficiency
by reducing the heat transfer through the affected surfaces. Therefore,
scale prevention is an integral part of the design, operation, and cost of
the process. The scale is formed by the dissolved solids in raw water and
from corrosion products. Scale usually contains chemical compounds of
magnesium oxide, calcium carbonate, and calcium sulfate. The formation
of scale can occur where the solubility limits of these compounds are
exceeded. When pure water is separated from saline water, the
concentration of dissolved solids increases and eventually reaches the
saturation limit of one or more salts. Although supersaturated solutions
are unstable, solid salts do not necessarily deposit immediately from
these solutions. When these solutions come into contact with a solid
crystal, the excess dissolved solid in the supersaturated solution
precipitates. Crystals of the salt in supersaturated solution and other
solids particles can act as centers of crystallization. Therefore, the best
way to eliminate the scale formation problem is to flush the still before it
reaches saturation.
131
Stills are designed to operate with water in them, if they are left dry for a
period of time they may suffer serious damage. It is also necessary to
clean the transparent cover periodically to maintain high transmittance of
solar radiation.
Passive Solar House Heating and Cooling
For solar heating of space, solar energy is to be collected, stored and
distributed properly in the space to be heated. In active solar space
heating system, the solar energy is collected using some kind of solar
energy collectors. Solar energy may stored in sensible heat storage
materials, in latent heat storage materials or in chemical reactions; and
the energy is redistributed in the space using electrically operated pumps
and fans using radiators, etc.
On the other hand in passive solar heating systems all the three functions
of solar energy collection, storage and distribution are done by natural
means and generally, no electrical or mechanical power and electronic
controls are used. In the passive heating system, various elements of the
buildings like walls, roof, windows, partitions, etc. are so selected and so
architecturally integrated that they participate in the collection, storage,
transportation and distribution of thermal energy. Thus in passive solar
house heating system the building becomes an ‘energy machine’ and its
structural and architectural details become integral parts of the
components of the energy system. Passive heating of buildings are
classified as follows:
Direct gain
Thermal storage wall
Attached sunspace
Thermal storage roof

132
Direct gain
Figure 3.26 shows the simplest passive solar heating concept where the
following concepts are employed.

Summer sun
Overhang roof line

Winter
Sun
Double Glazed
Window

Direct access to
winter radiation

Storage mass in
floor, walls and
roof

Figure 3.26 Direct gain passive solar heating system

A double glazed window facing south or the entire south facing wall is
double glazed through which direct radiation in winter enters and
strikes the floor, walls or other objects in the room. Almost, all the
solar radiation entering the room is converted into useful heat. The
heat loss from the room is reduced by using a double glazed window.
An appropriate overhang above the windows or at the roof level for the
case where south wall is glazed shades the window or the wall during
133
 summer when the elevation of the sun is high. Adequate movable
insulation may be used to reduce heat losses during night.
The floor and / or wall are made massive to increase the thermal mass
which helps in storing the heat during daytime when sufficient heat is
available and releasing the same during night time, thereby reducing
the large variations in the room air temperature. To avoid overheating,
the size of the storage is fairly large.
If some kind of thermal insulation is used to cover the windows during
periods (night) for which heat loss is more than heat gain, then the
performance can be further improved.
Thermal storage wall
In spite of heavy thermal mass provided in the direct gain type passive
heated rooms, there are still large variations in the room air temperature.
A more effective way of heating the rooms and reducing the large
oscillations in the room air temperature is the use of a thermal storage
wall between the double glazing (facing south) and the room. Figure 3.27
shows the thermal storage wall passive solar heating system. In this
category the following concepts are employed.
The entire south facing wall is covered by one or two sheets of glass or
plastic with some air gap between the wall and the inner glazing. In this
air gap, hot air moves from bottom to top generally due to natural
convection.
A south facing thermal storage wall made of masonry or concrete with
the outer side facing the sun is blackened. The solar radiation after
penetration through the glazing and wall gets heated, rises and enters
the room through the upper vent while the cool air from the room
enters in this gap through the bottom vent. This circulation continues
till the wall goes on heating the air. The flow of heat in the room can be
changed by adjusting the air flow through dampers provided at the
134
 inlet and outlet vents. The room is also heated by convection and
radiation from the inner surface of the wall facing the room. Thus, this
thermal storage wall collects stores and transfers the heat to the room.
This wall is also known as Trombe wall. By suitably designing the
glazing and the thermal storage wall, it is possible to get air
temperature difference between glazing and absorber upto 60°C.
In some cases the thermal storage wall is made up of drums or barrels
or other suitable containers full of water, stacked over each other
instead of masonry or concrete to collect, store and distribute the heat
and is termed as water wall or drum wall

Overhang roof line

Summer sun
Damper to be opened in summer
to remove excess heat

Warm air to house

Winter
sun
Convection
Double Radiation
Glazing

Air Masonry wall

space

Return cold air

Figure 3.27 Trombe wall or Thermal mass wall

135
Attached greenhouse (Sunspace)

Solar
radiation

Storage wall

Convection

Double
Glazed Radiation
enclosure
Zone I Zone II

Sunspace Living room

Figure 3.28 Attached green house (Sunspace)

passive solar heating

In this passive solar heating approach the concepts of direct and indirect
gain (thermal storage wall) are combined as shown in Figure 3.28.
There is sunspace (zone I) on the extreme south facing side of the
house covered with single or double layers of glass or plastic sheets
which functions like a green house and can be used either for growing
vegetables or flowers and as a sunny space for living. In the attached
green house there is a large air temperature swing. In summers, the air
temperature in the greenhouse may be very high and therefore, large
vents for air circulation may be used. In some cases heat storage
materials and movable insulation are used in this sunspace or
greenhouse.
136
 There is a thermal storage wall facing south in between the room (living
space, zone II) and greenhouse (sunspace zone I). The thermal storage
wall gets heated by direct absorption of solar radiation coming through
the greenhouse transparent cover. The living room gets heated through
convection and radiation heat transfers from the thermal wall. The heat
loss from the thermal wall to the outside in this case is low because of
the presence of a greenhouse which is further reduced by using a
movable insulation over the walls of the sunspace.
The attached greenhouse or glass house can be integrated into a
building in several ways such as: as an attached green house; as one,
two or three sided integrated lobby; as two storied solarium, as a
climatic envelope such as glass covered courtyard or as a stair case.
Thermal storage roof
The thermal storage roof concept for passive solar heating was developed
by Hay and Yellot in Arizona and is similar to the thermal storage wall
except that the interposed thermal storage mass is on the building roof
instead of a wall. This concept uses the following components:
A metal roof which conducts the heat effectively
Water bags made of transparent or black plastic sheet and filled with
water or any other massive material are put over the metal roof. In
winters, during day time when sun is shining, the water in the bags
gets heated, stores the heat and heats the room below during day time
as well as night time when sun is not shining
Movable insulating shutters are used over the water bags. In winters,
during off sunshine hours these insulating shutters are slid over the
bags, reducing heat loss from the water bags to the outside. During
daytime when sun is shining the insulating shutters are pulled back
allowing the solar radiation to fall on the water bags. Thus, the water
bags keep the room warm in winter during day and night.
137
 Movable insulation
cover during night
SUN
No insulation
cover during day

Night
Day

Roof thermal pond

Metal roof

Hot water
heats building Masonry wall

Figure 3.29 Thermal storage roof (Heating during winter)

The same thermal storage roof system can be used for cooling the room
in summer as shown in Figure 3.30 by simply reversing the process. In
this case the insulating shutters are pulled back during night time
allowing the cooling of water bags and roof by thermal radiation heat
loss to the outside resulting in cooling the room. During daytime, the
shutters are slid over the water bags avoiding the heating of water bags
from direct sunshine. The cool water mass keeps the room below cool
during day and at night
138
 Movable insulation
cover during day
SUN No insulation
Reflected cover at night
heat
Day
Night

Roof thermal pond

Metal roof

Chilled water
cools building Masonry wall

Figure 3.30 Thermal storage roof (Cooling during summer)

Similar to the water bag on the roof, roof pond system in which water is
stored on the roof known as skytherm system can be employed. Here
also, movable insulation plays a significant role and its thermal
resistance is kept as 2 m°C/W. The depth of water is kept as 20 cm.
There are several configurations of roof pond system such as: glazed
or unglazed ponds with water in bags, glazed or unglazed ponds with
reflectors, flooded ponds, etc.

139
Solar Drying: Definition and Background
Drying is one of the most important post harvest steps. It enhances the
storage life of the crop products, minimizes losses during storage, and
saves shipping costs. The drying process is the removal of water from the
wet surface of the food. In this process, heat is transferred by convection
and radiation to the surface of the products. This heat raises the
temperature and evaporates the moisture from the exterior of the
agricultural products, diffusing the interior moisture to the surface and
replenishing the evaporated surface moisture. Vapor in the surrounding
air is removed by diffusion and movement of air. This process continues
until the required drying ratio is reached. So the drying process requires a
mechanism for heating the ambient air, a drying unit where moisture
removal takes place, and an air handling unit (in some dryers).
The ability of the air to evaporate water from the produce is known as the
drying potential. The drying potential depends on both air temperature
and relative humidity. Besides the air drying potential, the airflow rate is
another major factor determining the drying time. To reduce the drying
time, the airflow rate and temperature need to be increased while and air’s
relative humidity needs to be decreased.
The main objective of drying is to supply the required heat in the most
effective way to yield the best result with a minimum overall expenditure
of energy. For industrial drying hot combustion gases may be allowed to
pass directly through the agricultural products, but this method is not
preferred because of possible contamination by the unburned fuel.
Electrical air heating is preferred, but expensive. In many cases, solar
energy may be the most promising source for drying, as some agricultural
products, like rice, may be better suited to drying by solar than by fossil
fuel systems because case hardening and other damage are less likely at
low temperatures.
140
High moisture content is one of the reasons for its spoilage during course
of storage at the time of harvesting. High moisture crops are prone to
fungus infection, attacks by insects, pests and the increased respiration
of agricultural products.
Types of drying
Open solar drying
Direct solar drying
Indirect solar drying
Open solar drying
Figure 3.31 shows working principle of open solar drying by using solar
energy. The short wavelength solar energy falls on the uneven crop
surface area. A part of this energy is reflected back and the remaining part
is absorbed by the surface depending upon the colour of crops. The
absorbed radiation is converted into thermal energy and the temperature
of crop starts increasing. This results in long wavelength radiation loss
from the surface of crop to ambient air through moist air.
In addition to long wavelength radiation loss there is convective heat loss
too due to the blowing wind through moist air over the crop surface.
Evaporation of moisture takes place in the form of evaporative losses and
so the crop is dried. Further a part of absorbed thermal energy is
conducted into the interior of the product. This causes a rise in
temperature and formation of water vapour inside the crop and diffuses
towards the surface of the crop and finally losses the thermal energy in
the form of evaporation. In the initial stages, the moisture removal is rapid
since the excess moisture on the surface of the product presents a wet
surface to the drying air. Subsequently, drying depends upon the rate at
which the moisture within the products moves to the surface by a
diffusion process depending upon the type of the product.

141
 SUN Long wavelength radiation
loss to ambient
Reflected
Short wavelength High convective
solar radiation +
Evaporative heat losses
Eva

Crop
Heat
absorbed

Conductive
losses

Figure 3.31 Working principle of open sun drying

In open sun drying, there is considerable loss due to various

reasons such as rodents, birds,
unexpected rain or storm further
drying, insufficient drying,
like dust, dirt, insects and micro-
by UV radiation are characteristic
open sun drying does not fulfill the
therefore it can not be sold in the
insects and micro-organisms. The
worsens the situation. Further, over
contamination by foreign materials
organisms as well as discolouring
for open sun drying. In general,
international standards and
international market.

142
Direct solar drying
Solar energy is effectively utilized for controlled drying of agricultural
products to avoid losses between harvesting and consumption. The
principle of direct solar crop drying is shown is shown in Figure 3.32. This
is also called Cabinet dryer. A cabinet dryer consists of an enclosure with
a transparent glass cover. Openings are provided at the bottom and top of

SUN
Short wavelength Low convective
Solar radiation heat losses
Transparent
cover
Reflected
Long wavelength
Radiation
Air out Crop

Air in
Figure 3.32 Working principle of direct solar drying

the enclosure for natural circulation. A part of the incidence solar

radiation on the glass cover is reflected back to atmosphere and
remaining is transmitted inside cabinet dryer. Further, a part of
transmitted radiation is reflected back from the surface of the crop. The
remaining part is absorbed by the surface of the crop. Due to the
absorption of the solar radiation, crop temperature increases and the crop
starts emitting long wavelength radiation which is not allowed to escape
to atmosphere due to presence of glass cover unlike open sun drying.
Thus the temperature above the crop inside chamber becomes higher.
143
The glass cover serves one more purpose of reducing direct losses to the
ambient which further becomes beneficial for rise in crop and chamber
temperature respectively. However, convective evaporative losses occur
inside the chamber from the heated crop. The moisture (the vapour
formed due to evaporation) is taken away by the air entering into the
chamber from below and escaping through another opening provided at
the top from heated crop.
Indirect solar drying
Figure 3.33 shows the schematic view of indirect solar drying. In this
case, the crop is not directly exposed to solar radiation to minimize
discolouration and cracking on the surface of the crop. A separate unit

Warm Warm
Air out Air out

SUN Crop Shelves

Glass
Cover

Air in

Insulation
Absorber
Plate

Figure 3.33 Schematic view of indirect solar drying

144 t
termed as solar air heater is used for solar energy collection for heating of
entering air into this unit. The air is allowed to flow through wet crop.
Here, the heat from moisture evaporation is provided by convective heat
transfer between the hot air and the wet crop. The drying is basically
achieved by the difference in moisture concentration between the drying
air and the air in the vicinity of crop surface. A better control over drying
is achieved in indirect type solar drying systems and the product obtained
is of good quality.

145
Solar thermal energy storage
Solar energy is available only during the sunshine hours. Consumer
energy demands follow their own time pattern and the solar energy does
not fully match the demand. As a result, energy storage is a must to meet
the consumer requirement. There are three important methods for storing
solar thermal energy.
Sensible heat energy
Heating a liquid or a solid which does not change phase comes under this
category. The quantity of heat stored is proportional to the temperature
rise of the material. If T1 and T2 represents lower and higher temperature,
V the volume and ρ the density of the storage material, and cp the specific
heat, the energy stored Q is given by
T2
Q = Vρ ∫cpdT
T1

For a sensible heat storage system, energy is stored by heating a liquid or

a solid. Materials that are used in such a system include liquids like water,
inorganic molten slats and solids like rock, gravel and refractories. The
choice of the material used depends on the temperature level of its
utilization. Water is used for temperatures below 100°C whereas refractory
bricks can be used for temperatures upto 1000°C.
Liquids
The ability to store heat depends upon the product ρ cp and water has the
highest value. Largely the solar water-heating and space-heating systems
utilize hot water storage tanks. An optimum tank size for a flat-plate
collector system is about 100 liters of storage per square meter of
collector area.
A molten inorganic salt may also be used for high temperature
applications of 300°C. A mixture of 40% NaNO2, 7% NaNO3 and 53% KNO3
146
(by weight) is marketed under the trade name of Hitec. Its melting
temperature is 145°C and can be utilized upto a temperature of 400°C.
Liquid sodium is also in use as storage fluid for a solar thermal power
plant in Spain.
Solids
For sensible heat storage, rocks or gravel packed in an insulated vessel
are used with solar heaters and it provides a large and inexpensive heat
transfer surface. A typical size of rock piece varies from 1 to 5 cm. This
system operates efficiently as the heat transfer coefficient between the air
and the solid is high. As a thumb rule, 300 to 500 kg of rock per square
metre of collector area is sufficient for space heating applications.
Refractory materials like magnesium oxide bricks, silicon oxide and
aluminium oxide are used in storage devices to operate upto 600°C.
Latent heat storage (Phase change heat storage)
In this system, heat is stored in a material when it melts, and heat is
extracted from the material when it freezes. Heat can also be stored when
a liquid changes to gaseous state, but as the volume change is large,
such a system is not economical. A few such materials which melt on
heating have been experimented for their suitability for solar energy
applications. These are organic materials like paraffin wax and fatty acids;
hydrated salts such as calcium chloride hexo hydrate (CaCl2.6H2O) and
sodium sulphate deca hydrate (Na2SO4 . 10H2O); and inorganic materials
like ice (H2O), sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
Phase change materials such as sodium sulphate decahydrate (Glauber’s
salt) melt at 32°C, with a heat of fusion of 241 kJ per kg.

Energy Storage
Na2SO4. 10H2O Na2SO4+10H2O

Energy Release

147
Paraffin wax possesses a high heat of fusion (209 kJ/kg), and is known to
freeze without super cooling. The inorganic material ice is quite suitable if
energy is to be stored / extracted at 0°C. Sodium nitrate having a melting
point of 310°C is suitable for high-temperature applications
Thermochemical Storage
With a thermochemical storage system, solar heat energy can start an
endothermic chemical reaction and new products of reactions remain
intact. To extract energy, a reverse exothermic reaction is allowed to take
place. Actually, the thermochemical thermal energy is the binding energy
of reversible chemical reactions.
A schematic representation of thermochemcial storage reaction is shown
in Figure 3.34. Chemicals A and B react with solar heat and through
forward reaction are converted into products C and D. The new products
are stored at ambient temperature.

Heat from solar collector

Forward reaction

[A + B] Reactor [C + D] Storage Vessel

Storage Vessel [C + D] Reactor [A + B]

Reverse reaction

Heat liberated for utilization

Figure 3.34 Schematic representation of thermochemical storage reaction

When energy is required the reverse reaction is allowed to take place at a

lower temperature where products C and D react to form A and B. During
the reaction, heat is released and utilized. Like the latent heat storage
system, chemical storage has the advantage of releasing heat at constant
temperature.
148
Solar cookers
In most of the developing countries, atleast 80 to 90% of the total energy
consumption in a village can be attributed to cooking only. Variety of
fuels like coal, kerosene, cooking gas, firewood, dung cakes and
agricultural wastes are used in cooking. Out of these, firewood and
cowdung cakes are the two important sources for cooking food. It is well
known that the present, pattern of consumption of fuels is largely oriented
around the preservation of environment. This is why harnessing and
utilization of solar energy has been naturally promoted for cooking
purposes.
Simplest solar cookers have been designed more than fifty years back.
But these have not been accepted due to the cheap availability of cooking
fuels and little concern for the surrounding environment. Different design
of solar cookers developed so far includes
Flat plate box type solar cookers
Multi reflector solar cookers
Parabolic dish concentrator solar cookers
Figure 3.35 shows the flat plate box type solar cooker. In this type, a
rectangular box enclosure insulated on the bottom and sides contains
one or two glass covers on the top. Solar radiation enters through the top
glass cover and heats up the enclosure in which the food to be cooked is
placed in separate shallow vessels. The solar radiation entering the box is
of short wave length. Use of two glass covers is to minimize heat losses
through reflected path from the absorber black metal tray. Thus, direct,
reflected and re-reflected solar radiation striking the cooking containers
simultaneously is responsible for the rise in temperature of the
containers. The loss due to convection is minimized by providing a rubber
strip all round the periphery between the upper lid and the box.

149
 SUN
Rubber
Packing Glass
Cover

Wooden
Frame

Blackened
Insulation Cooking Metal Tray
Utensils
Figure 3.35 Box type solar cooker

Insulating materials like paddy husk, glasswool or saw dust are employed
in between the blackened tray and the outer cover of the box to minimize
heat loss due to convection. The temperature attained by the cooking
pots depends on (i) intensity of solar radiation and (ii) material of
insulation provided. Temperature inside the solar cooker with single
reflector is usually 80 to 120°C above the ambient temperature. This is
sufficient to cook food slowly and surely with delicious taste and
preservation of all nutrients.
Hybrid energy systems (www.HybridEnergySystems.com)
A hybrid energy system usually consists of two or more energy sources
used together to provide increased system efficiency as well as greater
balance in energy supply.

150
For example, combining solar thermal with solar photovoltaic may
provide 100% of the power and energy requirements for a home or
business.
Another example could be combining solar thermal with a trigeneration
system. The solar thermal would provide 100% of the facility's (building
or home) HVAC (cooling and heating) requirements, while the
trigeneration system would provide for the electrical requirements.
Yet another example of a hybrid energy system might include a solar
electric (PV) array could be coupled with a wind turbine, which would
create more output from the wind turbine during the winter, whereas
during the summer the solar panels would produce their peak output.
Hybrid energy systems oftentimes yield greater economic and
environmental returns than wind, solar, geothermal or trigeneration stand-
alone systems by themselves.
SPV + WECS
SPV + WECS + Diesel Generator set
SPV + Bio-gas Generator
SPV + Diesel Generator
Solar thermal + Bio-mass gasifier

151
Sensible Heat

When an object is heated, its temperature rises as heat is added. The

increase in heat is called sensible heat. Similarly, when heat is removed
from an object and its temperature falls, the heat removed is also called
sensible heat. Heat that causes a change in temperature in an object is
called sensible heat.

Latent Heat

All pure substances in nature are able to change their state. Solids can
become liquids (ice to water) and liquids can become gases (water to
vapor) but changes such as these require the addition or removal of heat.
The heat that causes these changes is called latent heat.

152
Solar Photovoltaics
Introduction: Photovoltaic power generation is a method of producing
electricity using solar cells. A solar cell converts solar optical energy
directly into electrical energy. A solar cell is essentially a semiconductor
device fabricated in a manner which generates a voltage when solar
radiation falls on it.
The photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive
force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation
In semiconductors, atoms carry four electrons in the outer valence shell,
some of which can be dislodged to move freely in the materials if extra
energy is supplied. Then a semiconductor attains the property to conduct
the current. This is the basic principle on which the solar cell works and
generates power.
Depending on the ability of the material to carry the current, the materials
are grouped into three categories:
Conductor: In a conductor, the electrons in the outer shell are free to
move and are not bound to specific site thus readily conduct electricity.
The conductivity of a metal (conductor) is of the order of 106 mho/cm.
Insulator: In an insulator, the outer shell of the atom contains six or seven
electrons and therefore, the electrons are tightly bound and are unable to
carry electric current. The conductivity of an insulator is of the order of
10-10 mho/cm.
Semiconductor: In a semi conductor which lies between these two
extremes, the atoms may have three, four or five electrons in the outer
shell, and these electrons can be freed only if some additional energy is
supplied. These semiconductor conduct the current slightly.
Semiconductor materials and doping

153
A few semi conductor materials such as silicon (Si), cadmium sulphide
(CdS) and gallium arsenide (GaAs) can be used to fabricate solar cells.
Semiconductors are divided into intrinsic (pure) and extrinsic.
An intrinsic semiconductor has negligible conductivity, which is of little
use. To increase the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor, a
controlled quantity of selected impurity atoms is added to it to obtain an
extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding the impurity atoms is
called doping.
Advantages of solar cells
Solar cells convert the solar radiation directly into electricity using
photovoltaic effect without going through a thermal process
Solar cells are reliable, modular, durable, and generally maintenance
free and therefore, suitable even in isolated and remote area
Solar cells are quiet, benign, compatible with almost all environments,
respond instantaneously to solar radiation and have an expected
lifetime of 20 or more years
Solar cells can be located at the place of use and hence no distribution
network is required
Disadvantages of solar cells
At present the costs of solar cells are high, making them economically
uncompetitive with other conventional power sources.
The efficiency of solar cell is low.
As solar radiation density is also, a large area of solar cell modules are
required to generate sufficient useful power
As solar energy is intermittent, some kind of electrical energy storage
is required, which makes the whole system more expensive.
Application of Photovoltaic System
Solar street light
Home lighting system
154
 SPV water pumping system
SPV cell for communication equipment in snow-bound areas
Limits to solar cell efficiency
Photovoltaic cells have low efficiency of 15% only about 1/6th of the
sunlight striking the cell generates electricity. The low efficiency is due to
the following major losses:
When photons of light energy from the sun strike the cell, some of
them (30%) are reflected (since reflectance from semiconductor is
high). However, reflectance can be reduced to nearly 3% by surface
texturing and anti-reflection coating
Photon of quantum energy hν < Eg cannot contribute to photoelectric
current production (h is the Planck’s constant and ν the frequency).
This energy is converted into thermal energy and lost.
Excess energy of active photons (hν > Eg) given to the electrons
beyond the required amount to cross the band gap cannot be
recovered as useful electric power. It appears as heat (about 33%) and
is lost
Photovoltaic cells are exposed directly to the sun. As the temperature
rises, leakage across the cell increases. Consequently, there is
reduction in power output relative to input of solar energy. For silicon,
the output decrease by 0.5% per °C
Incident active photons produce electron-hole pairs with quantum
efficiency. Better cell design is required to ensure 95% absorption
Generated electric current flows out of the top surface by a mesh of
metal contacts provided to reduce series resistance losses. These
contacts cover a definite area which reduces the active surface and
prove an obstacle to incident radiation

155
 For higher efficiency, the p-n junction should be located near to the top
surface (within 0.15μm)
The semi conductor with optimum band gap should be used for
maximum efficiency
p-n Junction
A semi conductor when doped by a donor impurity increases electrons in
the conduction band and become n-type material. When a semiconductor
is doped by an acceptor impurity, it becomes the p-type material with
excess holes. When these n-type and p-type materials are joined, a
junction is formed known as p-n junction.
The number of electrons in the n-type material is large; so when an n-type
material is brought into contact with a p-type material, electrons on the n-
side flow into holes of the p-material. Thus, in the vicinity of the junction,
the n-material becomes positively charged and the p-type material
negatively charged.
Power Ratings of PV modules
3w, 5W, 7W, 12W, 20W, 40W, 75W, 90W, 120W, 300W

156
SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
The following angles are used in analyzing the solar radiation:
φ = latitude of location
δ = declination
ω = hour angle
β = slope
α = altitude angle
θz = zenith angle
γ = surface azimuth angle
γs = solar azimuth angle
Latitude (angle of latitude) (φ):
The latitude of a location on the earth’s surface is the angle made by a
radial line joining the given location to the centre of the earth with its
projection on the equator plane. The latitude is positive for northern
hemisphere and negative for southern hemisphere
Declination (δ):
Declination is the angular displacement of the sun’s rays north (or south)
of equator. It is the angle made by the sun and the earth with its
projection on the equatorial plane. This arises by virtue of the fact of tilt
and it varies from a maximum value of +23.45° on June 21 to a minimum
value of -23.45° on December 21. Declination is zero on the two equinox
days of March 21 and September 21. “Equinox means equal nights. The
nights are equal when the declination of the sun is zero. The declination
can be calculated from the following simple relationship given by Cooper
(1969)
⎡⎛ 360 ⎞ ⎤
δ (in deg rees) = 23.45 sin ⎢⎜ ⎟(284 + n )⎥
⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦
157
where ‘n’ is the day of the year
(Example: June 21, 1996, n = 31+29+31+30+31+21= 173
Hour angle, (ω):
Hour angle is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring the
meridian at a point directly in line with the sun’s rays. It is equivalent to
15° per hour. It also varies from -180° to +180°. It is measured from noon
based on the local solar time (LST) or local apparent time (LAT), being
positive in the morning and negative in the afternoon.
Altitude angle, (α):
Altitude angle or solar altitude is the vertical angle between the projection
of the sun’s rays on the horizontal plane and direction of sun’s rays
(passing through the point).
Zenith angle, (θz):
Zenith angle is a vertical angle between sun’s rays and a line
perpendicular to the horizontal plane through the point
θz = (π/2) – α

Solar azimuth angle, (γs):

It is the horizontal angle measured from north to the horizontal projection
of the sun’s rays. The angle is positive when measured from south
towards west.
Surface azimuth angle, (γ):
The surface azimuth angle is the angle made in the horizontal plane
between the line due south and the projection of normal to the surface on
the horizontal plane. It can vary from -180° to +180°. The angle is
considered to be positive if the normal is east of south and negative if
normal is west of south.

158
Slope, (β):
Slope is the angle made by the plane surface with the horizontal. It is
considered to be positive for sloping towards the south and negative for
sloping towards the north.
N

Position of
observer
•

Sun ray
φ δ
O S
ω S′

Equatorial
plane S
Fig. 3.36 Latitude and declination angle

SUN W

θz
S′ α
γs
S N

E
Fig. 3.37 Sun’s Zenith, Altitude
159 and Azimuth Angles
 SUN

θz
W N

γs
γ E
S

Fig. 3.38 Zenith angle, slope, surface azimuth angle and

solar azimuth angle for a tilted surface

160
 SUN
Normal to
Horizontal Plane
N

θZ
Horizontal
Plane
α
W E
P

γS
Q

‘QP’ Horizontal
projection of sun’s ray
S
Fig. 3.39 Solar altitude angle, solar
azimuth angle and zenith angle

161
 Horizontal
plane
Inclined
Normal to
surface
inclined
surface N
β
Sun’s ray
θi

Equatorial
plane
φ

Earth
(cross section in
vertical plane)

S
Fig. 3.40 Angle of latitude, tilt angle, angle of incidence

162
 30
+23.5°
20
Declination δ in degrees

10

-10

-20
-23.5°
-30
Sep. 22 Dec. 22 Mar. 22 Jun. 22 Sep. 22
Time of the year
Fgi.3.41 Variation of sun’s declination

20
Equation of time, E (min)

15

10

-5

-10

-15

-20
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Fig.3.42Equation of time as a function of day of the year

163
Problem: Estimate the time required for cooking 2 kg of rice using box type
solar cooker. Use the following data:
Direct solar radiation at a given instant = 600 W/m2
Ambient temperature = 30°C
Size of the solar cooker = 0.5 m × 0.5 m
Size of the reflector = 0.5 m × 0.5 m
Efficiency of the solar cooker = 30%
Specific heat of vessel (made of copper) = 0.386 kJ/kg°C
Specific heat of water and rice = 4.18 kJ/kg°C
Mass of vessel = 0.5 kg.
Step-1:
Total mass needs to be heated, (mT) = m1 + m2 + m3
i.e. Mass of vessel + Mass of water + Mass of rice
Energy required to heat vessel (m1) per degree = mv ×Cpv × ΔTv
rise in temperature = 0.5 × 0.386 × 1
= 0.193 kJ / °C
Water used for cooking rice is 2 kg
Energy required for heating water per degree
rise of water temperature (m2) = mw ×Cpw × ΔTw
= 2 × 4.18 = 8.36 kJ/°C

2 kg of rice is to be cooked, considering the

heat capacity of the rice same as water
Energy required for per degree rise of rice temperature (m3)
= mr ×Cpr × ΔTr
= 2 × 4.18 = 8.36 kJ/°C
Total energy required per degree rise of whole mass (mT) = m1+m2+m3
= 0.193+8.36 +8.36
= 16.913 kJ/°C

164
Total heat energy required to heat the whole mass to the boiling point
QTv= mT × (Tfinal – Tinitial) = 16.913 × (100-30) = 1183.91kJ.

After reaching the boiling temperature, heat is needed to maintain the

temperature against heat losses, till the food is cooked.
This energy requirement is not much and can be within 10 to 30% of heat
supplied for raising the temperature of whole mass to boiling temperature.
Consider 25% energy required against heat losses
Total energy required = 1183.91 + 1183.91 × 0.25 = 1479.88 kJ
Step-2
Time required for cooking:
Solar radiation at a given instant = 600W/m2
Area of cooker + area of reflector = 0.25 + 0.25 = 0.5m2.
Efficiency of solar cooker = 0.30
Actual wattage available inside cooker for cooking
= Intensity of radiation per unit area × cooker area × cooker efficiency
= 600 × 0.5 × 0.30 = 90 Watts
Thus a box type solar cooker will work as if there is 90W electrical heating coil
is kept inside the box
Total time required for cooking = (Total energy required for cooking) /
(Actual wattage available)
(1Wh = 3600 J) = (1479.88 × 103) / (90 × 3600)
∴Total time required for cooking = 4.567 hours

165
 Problem: Determine the time required for cooking 2 kg of potatoes using a dish
type concentrating solar cooker. Take the following data:
Direct solar radiation at a given instant = 700 W/m2
Ambient temperature = 30°C
Diameter of pot area = 0.3m
Diameter of collector aperture = 1.5m
Optical efficiency of the collector = 80%
Efficiency of the solar cooker = 30%
Specific heat of vessel (made of aluminium) = 0.90 kJ/kg°C
Specific heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg°C
Specific heat of potatoes = 3.43 kJ/kg°C
Mass of vessel = 0.5 kg.
Step – 1:
Total mass needs to be heated, (mT) = m1 + m2 + m3
i.e. Mass of vessel + Mass of water + Mass of potatoes
Energy required to heat vessel (m1) per degree = mv ×Cpv × ΔTv
rise in temperature = 0.5 × 0.9 × 1
= 0.45 kJ / °C
Water used for cooking potatoes is 2 kg
Energy required for heating water per degree
rise of water temperature (m2) = mw ×Cpw × ΔTw
= 2 × 4.18 = 8.36 kJ/°C
2 kg of potatoes is to be cooked
Energy required for per degree rise of potatoes temperature (m3)
= mr ×Cpr × ΔTr
= 2 × 3.43 = 6.86 kJ/°C
Total energy required per degree rise of whole mass (mT) = m1+m2+m3
= 0.45+8.36 +6.86 = = 15.67 kJ/°C
Total heat energy required to heat the whole mass to the boiling point

166
 QTv= mT × (Tfinal – Tinitial) = 15.67 × (100-30) = 1096.9 kJ
After reaching the boiling temperature, heat is needed to maintain the
temperature against heat losses, till the food is cooked.
This energy requirement is not much and can be within 10 to 30% of heat
supplied for raising the temperature of whole mass to boiling temperature.
Consider 25% energy required against heat losses
Total energy required = 1096.9 + 1096.9 × 0.25 = 1371.125 kJ
Step-2:
Pot area = πd2 = π × 0.32 = 0.283 m2
Collector aperture area = πD2 = π × 1.52 = 7.068 m2
Concentration ratio = Collector aperture area / (Pot area)
= 7.068 / 0.283 = 25
Density of solar radiation at the focus point
= Concentration ratio × direct solar radiation × efficiency of collector
= 25 × 700 × 0.8 = 14000 W/m2
Actual solar radiation at pot area (cooker area)
= density of radiation × focus point area
= 14000 × 0.283 = 3962 W
Actual wattage available at the focus point
= Actual solar radiation at pot area × efficiency of cooker
= 3962 × 0.35 = 1386.7 W
Thus dish type cooker will work as if there is about 1386 W electrical heating
coil kept at focus point
Step – 3:
Total time required for cooking = (Total energy required for cooking) /
(Actual wattage available)
(1Wh = 3600 J) = (1096.9 × 103) / (1386.7 × 3600)

∴Total time required for cooking = 0.219 hours = 13.18 mins.

167
Problem: A boy’s hostel in a school needs 5000 litres hot water. Solar radiation
available on the location is 6.2 kWh/m2-day. Temperature of feed water is 27°C
and it is to be heated upto 60°C. Efficiency of solar water heater is 40%. Specific
heat of water is 4.18 kJ/kg °C. Typical price of a collector is about Rs. 5000 per
square metre. Storage tank and other installation cost is about 50% of the
collector’s cost. Determine the collector area required and cost of the system
Step-1: Useful solar heat energy
Daily available solar radiation = 6.2 kWh/m2-day
Useful solar heat energy (which is actually used in raising temperature of water)
= Daily solar radiation × efficiency of solar water heater
= 6.2 × 0.4 = 2.48 kWh/m2-day
= 8928 kJ/m2-day (1Wh = 3600 J)
Step-2: Heat energy required to raise water temperature
= mw × Cpw × (Tfinal - Tinitial)
= 5000 × 4.18 × (60-27)
= 689700 kJ/day
Step-3: Total area of the collector required
= (required heat energy) / (useful solar heat energy)
= (689700 / 8928) = 77.25 m2.
= 78 m2 (Say)
Step-4: Cost of the collector = Rs. 5000 per square metre area
Total area required = 78 m2
Cost of the collector = 78 × 5000 = Rs. 3,90,000
Tank Installation cost = 50% of collector’s cost
= 0.5 × 3,90,000 = Rs. 1,95,000
Total cost of the system = Rs. 5,85,000

168
Problem: Design a solar PV system to pump 15000litres of water everyday
using the following data:
Total vertical lift = 15 m. (Elevation = 6m, standing water level = 6 m, drawdown
=3m
Frictional losses = 5% of the total vertical lift
Density of water = 1000kg/m3
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2
No. of hours of peak sunshine / day = 6 hours/day
Solar PV module used = 75W
Operating factor = 0.75 (PV panel mostly does not operate at peak rated power)
Pump efficiency = 35%
Mismatch factor = 0.80 (PV panel does not operate at maximum power point)
Step: 1 daily water requirement
Daily water requirement = 15000 litres = 15m3
Step: 2 Total dynamic head
Total vertical lift = 15 m
Frictional losses = 5% of the total vertical lift
= 15 × 0.05 = 0.75m
∴Total dynamic head (TDH) = 15 + 0.75 = 15.75m
Step: 3 Hydraulic energy required
Hydraulic energy required to raise water level
= mass × g × TDH
= Volume × density × g × TDH
= 15 × 1000 × 9.81 × 15.75
= multiply by 1/3600 to convert second in hours
= 643.78 Watt-hr/day
Note: potential energy of water is raised due to pumping, which must be
supplied to the pump

169
Step: 4 Determine solar radiation data
Solar radiation data in terms of equivalent peak sunshine radiation (1000W/m2)
varies about 4 and 7 hours. For exact hours meteorological data should be
used
Step: 5 Determine the number of PV panels and pump size
Total wattage of PV panel = (Total hydraulic energy / no. of hrs of peak
sunshine)
= (643.78 / 6) = 107.30 Watt
Considering system losses
= (Total PV panel wattage) / (pump efficiency × Mismatch factor)
= (107.30) / (0.35 × 0.8) = 383.20 Watt
Considering operating factor for PV panel
= (Total PV panel wattage after losses) / (operating factor)
= (383.20 / 0.75) = 510.93 Watt
No. of 75 W solar PV panels required
= 510.93 / 75 = 6.81 ≈ 7 (round figure)
Power rating of the motor = (510.93 / 746) = 0.68 HP ≈ 0.75 HP motor
In this way, a solar PV water pumping system can be designed. The above
design has been done assuming the use of a DC motor. A system can also be
designed for an AC motor but one must consider inverter and its efficiency in
the calculations.

170
Angle of incidence: It is the angle between the sun’s ray incident on the plane
surface and normal to that surface
Hour angle: It is the angular displacement of the sun towards east or west of
local meridian. The earth completes one rotation in 24 hours. Therefore one hour
corresponds to 15° of rotation. At solar noon sun’s ray are in line with local
meridian. Hence hour angle is zero. It is negative in the forenoon and positive in
the afternoon. At 6.00 hr it is -90° and 18:00 hour it is +90°.
Hour angleω: = [solar time – 12:00] in degrees × 15°
Solar time: standard time ± 4 × (standard time longitude – longitude of location)
+ Equation of time correction
E = equation of line due to variation in the length of the solar day due to
variations in the earth’s rotation and orbital revolution
E = 9.87 sin2B – 7.53 cosB – 1.5 sinB min.
B = (360/364) (n-81) where n is the day of the year starting from 1st January.
Solar time is measured with reference to solar noon which is the time when the
sun is crossing the observer’s meridian. At solar noon, the sun is the highest
position in the sky. The sun traverses each degree of longitude in 4 minutes. The
standard time is the converted to solar time in incorporating two corrections.
Sun rise or sunset angle: the hour angle corresponding to sunrise or sunset on
a horizontal surface is called sunrise or sunset angle. At the time sunrise or
sunset, the zenith angle θz is zero.
Cosωs = - tanφ tanδ
Positive or negative value may be obtained. Positive for sunrise and negative for
sunset. Since 15° of hour angle is = 1 hour, the corresponding day length in
hours
td = (2/15) cos-1[- tanφ tanδ]
td is a function of declination and latitude
for tilted surface
Cosωs = cos-1[- tan(φ-β) tanδ]

171
 And td,tilt= (2/15) cos-1[- tan(φ-β) tanδ]
Problem: Calculate the local apparent time (LAT) corresponding to 13:30 (IST) on
May 21, 1998 at Delhi (28°35′ N, 77°12′E). The equation of time correction on
May 21 is +3 minutes. Indian standard time (IST) is the local civil time
corresponding to 82.50°E longitude. Also calculate the declination.
Step-1: Local apparent time
LAT = IST – 4(standard time longitude – longitude of location) + Equation of time
correction
= 13:30h – 4 (82°30′ – 77°12′) minutes + 3 minutes
= 13:30h – 4 (82.5 – 77.2) + 3
= 13:30h – 24.2 minutes = 13:30h - 24′12′′
= 13h5′48′′
Step-2: Declination angle
⎡⎛ 360 ⎞ ⎤
δ = 23.45 sin⎢⎜ ⎟ × (284 + n)⎥
⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦

n = 31+28+31+30+21 = 141 days

⎡⎛ 360 ⎞ ⎤
⎟ × (284 + 141)⎥ = 20.13
δ = 23.45 sin⎢⎜ o
⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦

Problem: Find the solar altitude angle at 3 hours after local solar noon on June
21, 1996 for a city located at 26.75°N latitude. Also find the sunrise and sunset
hour angle and the day length.
Step-1: On June 21, 1996, n = 31+28+31+30+31+21 = 152 days
⎡⎛ 360 ⎞ ⎤
δ = 23.45 sin⎢⎜ ⎟ × (284 + n)⎥
⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦

⎡⎛ 360 ⎞ ⎤
⎟ × (284 + 152 )⎥ = 22.03
δ = 23.45 sin⎢⎜ o
⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦

Step-2: hour angle at 3 hours after local solar noon

ω = (solar time – 12.00h) × 15°
= (15 – 12) × 15° = 45°
Step-3: solar altitude angle
172
 sinα = (sinφ × sinδ + cosφ × cosδ × cosω)
= (sin 26.75 × sin 22.03 + cos 26.75 × cos 22.03 × cos 45)
= 0.754
Therefore altitude angle, α = sin-1(0.754) = 48.97°
Step-4: sunrise or sunset hour angle
Cosωs = [- tanφ tanδ]
Cosωs = [- tan 26.75 × tan 22.03]
= -2039
ωs = cos-1(-2039)
= 101.76°
2
Step-5: day length = cos− 1(− tan φ × tan δ )
15
2
= cos − 1(− tan 26.75 × tan 22.03 )
15
= 13.56 hours

173
Monthly average, daily global radiation on a horizontal surface
The correlation for estimating the monthly average daily global (total) radiation
on a surface is given as

Hg ⎛n⎞
= a + b⎜ ⎟
H0 ⎝N⎠

Where Hg = monthly average, daily total radiation on a surface at a location

H0 = monthly average, daily extraterrestrial radiation that would fall at the

location on a horizontal surface (in the absence of an atmosphere)

n = monthly average, daily hours of bright sunshine obtained from
actual
records at the location (bright sunshine hours)
N = monthly average of maximum possible daily hours of sunshine

(i.e., the day length of the average day of the month)

a, b = regression parameters are constants for a particular location and
obtained by fitting data
24 ⎡ ⎛ 360n ⎞ ⎤
H0 = 3600 × × I sc ⎢1.0 + 0.033 cos⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (cos φ cos δ sin ϖ s + ϖ s sin φ sin δ )
π ⎣ ⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦

The calculation of H0 can be simplified from the fact that in each month,
there is a particular day on which H0 is nearly equal to the monthly mean
value of H0 . The dates on which the value of Ho equal to H0 are January 17,
February 16, March 16, April15, May 15, June 11, July 17, August 16,
September 15, October 15, November 14 and December 10. As expected
these dates are close to the middle of the month. The values of sunshine
hours for these dates are used as N for that month.

174
Monthly average, daily diffused radiation on a horizontal surface
Based on a study of data for a few countries, it has been found that the
correlation is not same throughout the globe. A number of correlations have
been developed. For Indian conditions where the diffuse component is
relatively larger, the following correlation is found to predict diffused radiation
with an accuracy of about 10%
Hd
= 1.354 − 1.570KT
Hg

Where Hd = monthly average, daily diffused radiation on a surface at a location

Hg
KT = , monthly average, daily clearness index
H0

The correlation is valid in the range 0.3 < KT <0.7

175
Problem: Calculate the monthly average of daily global radiation on the surface
at Gulmarg (34.05°N, 74.38°E), during the month of October 15 if the average
sunshine hour per day is 5 hours. Take solar constant as 1367W/m2and value of
a = 0.35 and b = 0.40. Also estimate the monthly average of daily diffused and
beam radiations on a horizontal surface.

Step-1: Day of the year ‘n’ = 31+28+31+30+31+30+31+31+30+15=288days

Average sunshine hours, n = 5 hours
⎡⎛ 360 ⎞ ⎤
δ = 23.45 sin⎢⎜ ⎟ × (284 + n)⎥
⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦

⎡⎛ 360 ⎞ ⎤
⎟ × (284 + 288 )⎥ = −9.60
δ = 23.45 sin⎢⎜ o
⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦

Step-2: Hour angle at sunrise

Cosωs = [- tanφ tanδ]
Cosωs = [- tan (34.05) × tan (-9.60)]
= 0.1142
ωs = cos-1(0.1142)
= 83.44° = (83.44×π) / 180
= 1.456 radians
2
Step-3: day length N = cos− 1(− tan φ × tan δ )
15
2
= cos − 1[ (− tan 34.05 × tan(−9.60))]
15
2
= cos −1 (0.1142)
15
= 11.12 hours

Step-4: Monthly average, daily extraterrestrial radiation

176
 24 ⎡ ⎛ 360n ⎞ ⎤
H0 = 3600 × × I sc ⎢1.0 + 0.033 cos⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (cos φ cos δ sin ϖ s + ϖ s sin φ sin δ )
π ⎣ ⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦
24 ⎡ ⎛ 360 × 288 ⎞ ⎤
H0 = 3600 × × 1.367 ⎢1.0 + 0.033 cos⎜ ⎟⎥ ×
π ⎣ ⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦
(cos 34.05 cos(−9.60) sin(83.44) + 1.456 × sin 34.05 sin(−9.60))
= 27722.37 × (0.8116 – 0.1359)
∴ H0 = 18732.00 kJ/m2-day
Step-5: Monthly average, daily global radiation
Hg ⎛n⎞
= a + b⎜ ⎟
H0 ⎝N⎠

Hg ⎛ 5 ⎞
= 0.35 + 0.40 × ⎜ ⎟
18732 .00 ⎝ 11.12 ⎠

∴Monthly average, daily global radiation Hg = 9925.26 kJ/m2-day

Step-6: Monthly average, daily diffused and beam radiations

Hd
= 1.354 − 1.570KT
Hg

Where Hd = monthly average, daily diffused radiation on a surface at a location

Hg
KT = , monthly average, daily clearness index
H0

The correlation is valid in the range 0.3 < KT <0.7

2
H0 = 18732.00 kJ/m -day
2
Hg = 9925.26 kJ/m -day

Hg 9925.26
∴ KT = = = 0.529
H0 18732 .00

Hd
= 1.354 − 1.570KT = 1.354 − 1.570 × 0.529 = 0.522
Hg

∴ Hd = 0.522×9925.26 = 5180.98 kJ/m2-day

Beam radiation Hb = Hg - Hd = 9925.26 – 5180.98 = 4744.27 kJ/m2-day

177
Monthly average, hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface
Ig ⎛ I ⎞
= (a + b cos ϖ ) ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
Hg ⎝ H0 ⎠

Where I0 and H0 are monthly average, hourly and daily extraterrestrial

radiation, respectively that would fall at the location on a horizontal surface (in
the absence of atmosphere)
Ig = monthly average, hourly radiation on a surface at a location

⎡ ⎛ 360n ⎞ ⎤
I0 = 3600 × I sc ⎢1.0 + 0.033 cos⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (cos φ cos δ sin ϖ + sin φ sin δ )
⎣ ⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦

The values of a and b may be obtained as follows

a = 0.409 + 0.5016 sin(ϖ s − 60o )

b = 0.6609 − 0.4767 sin(ϖ s − 60o )

ω = hour angle at a particular time

It should be noted that I0 is expressed in kJ/m2-h, which can be calculated by
obtaining the instantaneous value (in kW/m2) at the midpoint of the hour under
consideration and multiplying by 3600
Monthly average, hourly diffused radiation on a horizontal surface
Id ⎛ I ⎞
= (a'+b' cos ϖ ) ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
Hd ⎝ H0 ⎠

⎡ 0.27 ⎤
a' = 0.4922 + ⎢ ⎥ for 0.1 ≤ ( Hd / Hg ) ≤ 0.7
⎢⎣ Hd / Hg ⎥⎦

⎡ 0.113 ⎤
Also a' = 0.76 + ⎢ ⎥ for 0.7 ≤ ( Hd / Hg ) ≤ 0.9
⎢⎣ Hd / Hg ⎥⎦

b' = 2(1 − a' ) (sin ϖ s − ϖ s cos ϖ s ) / (ϖ s − 0.5 sin 2ϖ s )

178
Problem: Calculate the monthly average of the hourly global and hourly
diffused radiation on the horizontal surface during 13:00 to 14:00 hours (LAT)
at Gulmarg
(34.05°N, 74.38°E), during the month of January 15 if the average sunshine hour
per day is 5 hours. Take solar constant as 1.367kW/m2.

Step-1: Day of the year ‘n’ = 17 days

Average sunshine hours, n = 5 hours
⎡⎛ 360 ⎞ ⎤
δ = 23.45 sin⎢⎜ ⎟ × (284 + n)⎥
⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦

⎡⎛ 360 ⎞ ⎤
⎟ × (284 + 17 )⎥ = −20.92
δ = 23.45 sin⎢⎜ o
⎣⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦

Step-2: Hour angle ω is calculated at the middle of the hour i.e., at 13.30
ω = [solar time – 12.00] × 15°
= [13.30 – 12.00] × 15° = 22.5°
Step-3: Hour angle at sunrise
Cosωs = [- tanφ tanδ]
Cosωs = [- tan (34.05) × tan (-20.92)]
= 0.2583
ωs = cos-1(0.2583)
= 75.02° = (75.02×π) / 180
= 1.309 radians
2
Step-4: day length N = cos− 1(− tan φ × tan δ )
15
2
= cos − 1[ (− tan(34.05) × tan(−20.92))]
15
2
= cos −1 (0.2583)
15
= 10.00 hours

179
Step-5: The hourly extraterrestrial radiation, I0 on a horizontal surface at the
location at a particular hour may be obtained in kJ / m2-h by multiplying the
instantaneous radiation (in kW/m2) by 3600.

⎡ ⎛ 360n ⎞ ⎤
I0 = 3600 × I sc ⎢1.0 + 0.033 cos⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (cos φ cos δ sin ϖ + sin φ sin δ )
⎣ ⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦

⎡ ⎛ 360 × 17 ⎞⎤
I0 = 3600 × 1.367⎢1.0 + 0.033 cos⎜ ⎟⎥(cos 34.05 cos(−20.92) sin22.5 + sin34.05 sin(−20.92)
⎣ ⎝ 365 ⎠⎦

2
I0 = 488.736 kJ/m -hr

Step-6: Monthly average, daily extraterrestrial radiation

24 ⎡ ⎛ 360n ⎞ ⎤
H0 = 3600 × × I sc ⎢1.0 + 0.033 cos⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (cos φ cos δ sin ϖ s + ϖ s sin φ sin δ )
π ⎣ ⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦
24 ⎡ ⎛ 360 × 17 ⎞ ⎤
H0 = 3600 × × 1.367 ⎢1.0 + 0.033 cos⎜ ⎟⎥ ×
π ⎣ ⎝ 365 ⎠ ⎦
(cos 34.05 cos(−20.92) sin(75.02) + 1.309 × sin 34.05 sin(−20.92))
= 38783.094 × (0.7476-0.2605)
∴ H0 = 18844.58 kJ/m2-day
Step-7: The values of a and b may be obtained as follows

a = 0.409 + 0.5016 sin(ϖ s − 60o )

a = 0.409 + 0.5016 sin(75.02 o − 60 o ) = 0.5389

Similarly

b = 0.6609 − 0.4767 sin(ϖ s − 60o )

b = 0.6609 − 0.4767 sin(75.02 o − 60 o ) = 0.5373

Step-8: Monthly average, daily global radiation

Hg ⎛n⎞
= a + b⎜ ⎟
H0 ⎝N⎠

Hg ⎛ 5 ⎞
= 0.5389 + 0.5373 × ⎜ ⎟
18844 .58 ⎝ 10.00 ⎠

∴Monthly average, daily global radiation Hg = 15217.94 kJ/m2-day

180
 Step-9: Monthly average, daily diffused and beam radiations
Hd
= 1.354 − 1.570KT
Hg

Where Hd = monthly average, daily diffused radiation on a surface at a location

Hg
KT = , monthly average, daily clearness index
H0

The correlation is valid in the range 0.3 < KT <0.7

2
H0 = 18844.58.52 kJ/m -day
2
Hg = 15217.94 kJ/m -day

Hg 15217.94
∴ KT = = = 0.8075
H0 18844 .58

Hd
= 1.354 − 1.570KT = 1.354 − 1.570 × 0.8075 = 0.0862
Hg

∴ Hd = 0.0862 × 15217.94 = 1311.78 kJ/m2-day

Step-10: Monthly average, hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface
Ig ⎛ I ⎞
= (a + b cos ϖ ) ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
Hg ⎝ H0 ⎠

Ig ⎛ 488.736 ⎞
= (0.5389 + 0.5373 × cos(22.5)) × ⎜ ⎟
15217 .94 ⎝ 18844 .58 ⎠

∴ Ig = 408.611 kJ/m2-hr

Step-11: Monthly average, hourly diffused radiation on a horizontal surface

Id ⎛ I ⎞
= (a'+b' cos ϖ ) ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
Hd ⎝ H0 ⎠

⎡ 0.27 ⎤
a' = 0.4922 + ⎢ ⎥ for 0.1 ≤ ( Hd / Hg ) ≤ 0.7
⎢⎣ Hd / Hg ⎥⎦

⎡ 0.113 ⎤
Also a' = 0.76 + ⎢ ⎥ for 0.7 ≤ ( Hd / Hg ) ≤ 0.9
⎢⎣ Hd / Hg ⎥⎦

181
b' = 2(1 − a' ) (sin ϖ s − ϖ s cos ϖ s ) / (ϖ s − 0.5 sin 2ϖ s )

⎡ 0.27 ⎤
a' = 0.4922 + ⎢ ⎥ = 3.624
⎣ 0.0862 ⎦
b' = 2(1 − 3.624) (sin 75.02 − 1.309 cos 75.02) / (1.309 − 0.5 sin 2 × 75.02) = −3.13

I ⎛ I ⎞
∴ d = (a'+b' cos ϖ ) ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ becomes
Hd ⎝ H0 ⎠

Id ⎛ 488.736 ⎞
= (3.624 − 3.13 cos 22.5 ) ⎜ ⎟
1311.70 ⎝ 18844 .58 ⎠

Id = 24.91kJ / m2 − hr

182
Problem: A house uses 4 bulbs each of 40W (8 hours a day), 1 fan of 200W (12
hours a day) and an electric heater 1500 W ( 1 hour a day). The house is to be
electrified with solar panels. Calculate the monthly energy requirement for that
house and also estimate the number of solar panels required for electrification.

Sl. Name of Power Number of Usage Per day energy

No. appliances rating appliances (hours consumption
(Watt) per day) (Watt-hour)
1 Bulb 40 4 8 1280
2 Fan 200 1 12 2400
3 Electric 1500 1 1 1500
heater
4 Total daily energy requirement 5180
5 Monthly energy requirement = Total daily 155400
energy requirement × 30

Connected load = Appliance rating × number of appliances

= 40 × 4 + 200 × 1 + 1500 × 1 = 1860 Watts
Solar module output for 40 W panel = 30 W (apprx.)
Number of modules required = Connected load / module output
= 1860 / 36 = 51.66 = 57 say

183
 UNIT-IV
Tidal Energy
• Tide is a periodic rise and fall of water level of sea
• Tide occurs due to attraction of sea water by moon
• Tides can be used to produce electrical power
• Tides are caused by the combined attraction of sun and moon on the
waters of revolving globe
• When the water is above the mean sea level-Flood tide
• Below the mean sea level-Ebb tide
• World’s first tidal power plant at Rance in France (240 MW)
Tidal Range
The tidal range is expressed as the difference in water levels between two
consecutive high tides and low tides. The rise and fall of water level in the sea
during tides can be represented by a sine curve as shown in Figure 4.1. The
figure shows the point A, a position of high tide, while the point B represents a
position of low tide. One tidal day is of 24 hours and 50 minutes and there are
two tidal cycles in one tidal day. The normal tide is a semi-diurnal tide with a
period of 12 hours and 25 minutes.
Diurnal means daily, i.e. activities of tide pattern during
24 hours. Diurnal tides indicate two high and two low tides created by moon
during one rotation of the earth on its axis. The daily tidal cycle follows a
sinusoidal pattern.

184
New First Full Third New
Moon quarter Moon quarter Moon

Spring Neap Spring Neap Spring

Tides Tides Tides Tides Tides
Nature of Tides
Tidal variations in a lunar month

Low Tide

Earth Moon

High Tide
(Bulge)
Bulge on near and far sides of the earth

185
 Earth SUN
Full noon New noon

Spring Tides

First quarter

Earth SUN

Third quarter

Neap Tides
A C
+6
+5
+4
+3
+2 Tidal Range
+1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5 B
-6
12 h. 25 min

Figure 4.1 Tides of sea water

186
Classification of tidal power plants
Single basin system
• One-way system
• Two-way system
• Two-way with pump storage
Double basin system
• Simple double basin
• Double basin with pumping
Advantages
• It is free from pollution and inexhaustible
• Superior to hydro-power plants as it is totally independent of rain which
always fluctuates year to year
• Tidal power plants do not require large area of valuable land because they
are located on sea shore
• Tidal power has a unique capacity to meet peak power demand effectively
when it works in combination with hydro power plant or thermal power
plant
• It does not produce any unhealthy waste like gases, ash, atomic refuse
Disadvantages
• These power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available
• As the sites are available on the bay which will be always far away from
the load centres, the power generated must transported to long distance
and increases the transportation cost
• Capital cost is very high compared with conventional power plants
• Sea water is corrosive and it was feared that the machinery may get
corroded. Stainless steel with high chromium content and a small amount
of molybdenum and the aluminium bronzes proved to be good corrosion
resistant at La Rance project.
• Construction in sea or estuaries is found difficult

187
 • The navigation is obstructed
• Utilization of tidal energy on small scale has not yet proved economical
Site selection for tidal power plant
For a favourable tidal power plant, a site must have a large tidal range and must
be capable of storing a large quantity of water for energy production with
minimum dam and dyke construction. For achieving a high storage capacity,
the site should be located in an estuary or a creek. The site should be near to a
load centre to minimize the transmission requirements. The suggested
approach to the development of a tidal power scheme leading to the
construction of a tidal power plant is as follows:
Pre-feasibility study: Acquisition of data such as tides, local topography,
infrastructure, etc. is the first requirement
Feasibility study: It comprises mathematical modeling, preliminary energy
computation, foundation investigations, hydraulic model studies, detailed
analysis of various modes of operation
Design: Detailed design, preparation of specifications and tender documents
Construction: Construction of the plant
Components of Tidal power plants:
There are three main components of a tidal power plant
The power house
The dam or barrage (low wall) to form pool or basin
Sluice-ways from the basins to the sea and vice versa
Power House
The turbines, electric generators and other auxiliary equipment are the main
equipment of a power house. The function of the dam is to form a barrier
between the sea and the basin or between one basin and the other in case of
multiple basins.
The sluice ways are used either to fill the basin during the high tide or empty
the basin during the low tide, as per the operational requirement. These are

188
gate controlled devices. It is generally convenient to have the power house as
well as the sluice-ways in alignment with the dam.
Dam (Barrage)
Dam and barrage are synonymous terms. Barrage has been suggested as a
more accurate term for tidal power schemes, because it has only to withstand
heads a fraction of the structure’s height, and stability problems are far more
modest. Tidal power barrages have to resist waves whose shock can be severe
and where pressure changes sides continuously.
Gates and locks
Tidal power basins have to filled and emptied. Gates are opened regularly and
frequently but heads very in height and on the side where they occur, which is
not the case with conventional river projects.
Single basin arrangement
In a single basin arrangement there is only one basin interacting with the sea.
The two separated by dam (or barrage) and the flow between them is through
sluice ways located conveniently along the dam. Potential head is provided by
rise and fall of tidal water levels, this is usually accomplished by blocking the
mouth of a long narrow estuary with a dam across it, thereby creating
reservoir. The dam or barrage embodies a number of sluice gates and low head
turbine sets. The generation of power can be achieved in a single basin
arrangement as follows:
Single ebb-cycle system
Single tide-cycle system
Double cycle system

189
Single ebb-cycle system
When the flood
tide (high tide)
comes in, the
Sluice sluice gates are
opened to
permit sea-
Sea Basin
Or water to enter
Estuary
the basin or
Turbine
reservoir, while
the turbine sets
are shut. The
reservoir thus
High
tide Tidal basin starts filling
Tidal basin Low while its level
Sea tide rises, till the
Sea maximum tide
level is reached.
Turbine Generator
At the
Figure 4.2 Principle of Tidal Power Generation beginning of the
ebb tide sluice gates are closed. Then the generation of power takes place
when the sea is ebbing (flowing back of tide) and the water from the basin
flows over the turbines into the lower level sea water. After two or three hours
when there is sufficient difference between the full reservoir level and the
falling tide level, to run the turbines, they are started and keep working until the
rising level of the next flood tide and the falling reservoir level together reduce
the effective head on the turbines to the extent where it can no longer work
safely and efficiently. The turbines are then closed and the sluice gates opened
again; to repeat the cycle of operations. Since in an estuary, the ebb tide has

190
along duration than the flood tide, the ebb operation provides an increased
period of actual work.
Single tide-cycle system
In single tide cycle system, the generation is affected when the sea is at flood
tide. The water of the sea is admitted into the basin over the turbines. As the
flood tide period is over and the sea level starts falling basin, the generation is
stopped. The basin is drained into the sea through the sluice ways.
The tide-cycle requires a deeper reservoir so as to locate the sills of the sluice
gates deeper and, thus requires greater construction costs. It has been
estimated that the energy produced by an ebb tide cycle system can be as
much as 1.5 times that by a tide cycle system.
The main disadvantage in both the ebb-cycle as well as the tide cycle systems
is the intermittent nature of their operation. However, since the intermissions
occur at regular intervals, there is possibility of connecting another
supplementary system, so as to balance the discontinuity. Such possibilities
can regulate the output. The system can be so geared as to generate power,
both during the ebb and flood tides with the help of single basin only. This
system is known as double cycle system.
Double cycle system
As stated above in double cycle system, the power generation is affected
during the ebb as well as in flood tides. The direction of flow through the
turbines during the ebb and flood tides alternates, but the machine acts as a
turbine for either direction of flow. In this method, the generation of power is
accomplished both during emptying and filling cycles. Both filling and
emptying processes take place during short periods of time, the filling when
the ocean is at high tide while the water in the basin is at low tide level, the
emptying when the ocean is at low tide and the basin at high-tide level.
The flow of water in both directions is used to drive a number of reversible
water turbines, each driving an electrical generator. Electric power would thus

191
be generated during two short periods during each tidal period of 12h, 25 min.
or once every 6h, 12.5 min.
Though the double cycle system has only short duration interruptions in the
turbine operations, yet a continuous generation of power is still not possible.
Furthermore the periods of power generation coincide only occasionally with
periods of peak demand. These problems are solved to some extent in the two-
basin scheme.
Double basin arrangement
It requires two separate but adjacent basins. In one basin called upper basin or
high basin, the water level is maintained above that in the other, the low basin
or low pool. Because there is always a head between upper and lower basins,
electricity can be generated continuously although at a variable rate.
In this system the turbines are located in between the two adjacent basins,
while the sluice gates are as usual embodied in the dam across the mouths of
the two estuaries. At the beginning of the flood tide, the turbines are shut
down, the gates of upper basin are opened and those of the lower basin are
closed. The upper basin is thus filled up while the lower basin remains empty.
As soon as the rising water level in upper basin provides sufficient difference
of head between the two basins, the turbines are started. The water flows from
upper to lower through the turbines, generating power. The power generation
thus continues simultaneously with the filling up the basin A. At the end of the
flood tide when A is full and the water level in it is the maximum, its sluice
gates are closed. When the ebb tide level gets lower than the water level in B,
its sluice gates are opened whereby the water level in B, which was arising and

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 Sluice gate Upper Basin
‘A’

Turbine

Lower Basin
Sluice gate
‘B’

Figure 4.3 Double basin systems

reducing operating head, starts falling with the ebb. This continues until the
head and water level in A is sufficient to run the turbines. With the next flood
tide the cycle repeats itself. With this twin basin system, a longer and more
continuous period of generation per day is possible. The small gaps in the
operation of such stations can be filled up by thermal power.
The operation of the two basin scheme can be controlled so that there is a
continuous water flow from upper to lower basin. However since the water
head between the basins varies during each tidal cycle, as well as from day to
day, so also does the power generated. As in the case with single basin
193
scheme, the peak power generation does not often correspond in time with the
peak demand. One way of improving the situation is to use off-peak power from
the tidal power generators or from an alternative system to pump water from
the low basin to the high basin. An increased head would then be available for
tidal power generation at times of peak demand. This is very similar to pumped
storage system in hydro-electric power stations.

Average theoretical power for a tidal power project

Consider a basin of surface area A m2 at the maximum basin level. Let R be the
range of the tide and V the volume of water stored from the low level to high
tide level as shown in the figure.
The volume of water contained in an elemental strip of thickness dz, at surface
area of Az at a depth z above the low tide in the basin = Azdz

Barrage

R dz Az
z
Datum

Turbine &
Generator

Ocean Basin

Figure 4.4 Ocean with single basin tidal project

Assume that the basin is empty with its water level at z = 0 and the ocean is at
high tide level, i.e. z = R. By instantaneously filling the basin, the energy
potential available is Ef. Then

194
 z=R
E f = ρg ∫zA z dz
z=0

Where ρ = sea water density in kg/m3 = 1025 kg/m3

g = gravitational constant = 9.81 m/s2
For the particular case where Az is constant and independent of z,
z=R
E f = A z ρg ∫z dz = Aρg R2/2 (i)
z=0

The above equation provides energy conversion from a single basin type with
single effect, i.e. either filling the basin or emptying the basin. The duration of
time for single effect is
6 hours and 12.5 minutes which is equal to 22350 seconds.
The average theoretical power P generated by the water is W in watts during a
semi-diural tide of 6 hours and 12.5 minutes (22350 seconds)

W AρgR 2
Average power, P = =
Time in sec onds 2 × 22350
P 1
Or = × 1025 × 9.81R 2 W/m2
A 44700
Average power generated during one filling or emptying process = 225AR2 kW,
Where A is the area of the basin in m2 and R is the range of the tide in meters.
The average power generated is calculated based on average operating head of
R/2 which is available only for a limited period under a single basin emptying
operation. There are friction losses, conversion coefficients of turbine and
generator that reduce the power output. Tidal engineering practice based on
studies at various tidal sites has revealed that the optimal annual energy
production is only 30% of the average theoretical power calculated above.

195
 Existing Tidal Plants
Sl. Site Mean Basin Installed Year of
No. Tidal area capacity Installation
range (km2) (MWe)
(m)
1 La Rance (France) 8 17 240 1966
2 Kislaya Guba, 2.4 2 0.4 1968
Russia
3 Jiangxia, (China) 7.1 2 3.2 1980
4 Annapolis (in Novo 6.4 6 17.8 1984
Scotia, Bay of Fundy,
Canada)

Problem-2: A single basin type tidal power plant has a basin area of 3 km2. The
tide has an average range of 10m. Power is generated during flood cycle only.
The turbine stops operating when the head on it falls below 3m.Assume density
of sea water as 1025kg/m3. Calculate the average power generated by the plant in
a single filling process of the basin if the turbine-generator efficiency is 0.65.
Estimate the average annual energy generation of the plant in kWh.

Step – 1:
Amplitude R = 10m
Head r=3m
Basin area A = 3 km2
Turbine generator efficiency η = 0.65
Density of sea water ρ = 1025 kg/m3
Average power potential available = 0.225 × A × (R2 – r2)
= 0.225 × 3 × 106 × (102 – 32) = 61.425 MW
Average power generated = Average power potential available × Turbine
generator efficiency
= 61.425 × 0.65 = 39.92 MW
Step – 2:
Energy available in single emptying = ½ ×ρ×A×g× (R2 – r2)
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 = ½ ×1025×3 × 106 × 9.81 × (102 – 32)
= 1372541.625MJ
One ebb cycle duration = 12h 25 min = 12.42 h
Number of ebb cycles in a year
= 365 × 24/12.42 = 705.5 ≈ 706

Average annual energy generation

= 1372541.625 × 706 × 0.65 = 6.298 × 108 kWh

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Geothermal Energy

Geothermal power (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and therme,
meaning heat) is energy generated by heat stored in the earth, or the collection
of absorbed heat derived from underground, in the atmosphere and oceans.
Prince Piero Ginori Conti tested the first geothermal generator on 4 July 1904,
at the Larderello dry steam field in Italy. The largest group of geothermal power
plants in the world is located in The Geysers, a geothermal field in California.
As of 2008, geothermal power supplies less than 1% of the world's energy.

The Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Plant in Iceland

Nesjavellir is the largest geothermal power plant in Iceland. It is located 177
metres above sea level in the south-western part of the country, near Þingvellir
and the Hengill volcano.
Plans for utilizing the Nesjavellir area for geothermal power and water heating
began in 1947. Some boreholes were drilled to evaluate the area's potential for
power generation. Research continued from 1965 to 1986. In 1987, the
construction of the plant began, and the cornerstone was laid in May 1990. The
station produces approximately 120 megawatts (MW) of electrical power, and

198
delivers around 1800 litres of hot water per second, servicing the Greater
Reykjavík Area's hot water needs.
Geothermal Sources
1. Hydrothermal convective systems
Liquid-dominated system or wet steam fields
Vapour dominated or dry steam fields
Hot-water fields
2. Geopressure resources
3. Petro-thermal or Hot dry rocks (HDR)
4. Magma resources
5. Valcanoes
1. Hydrothermal convective systems
Hydrothermal convective systems are best resources for geothermal energy
exploitation at present. Hot dry rock is also being considered. Hydrothermal
systems are those in which water is heated by contact with the hot-rock.
Liquid-dominated system or wet steam fields
Flashed steam system
The choice of geothermal power plant is influenced by brine characteristics
and its temperature. For brine temperatures more than 180°C, the geothermal
fluid is used. This flashed steam system is suitable for power generation as
shown in Figure 4.5. Geothermal fluid is a mixture of steam and brine; it
passes through a flash chamber where a large part of the fluid is converted to
steam. Dry saturated steam passes through the turbine coupled with the
generator to produce electric power. Hot brine from the flash chamber and the
turbine discharge from the condenser are reinjected into the ground.
Reinjection of the spent brine ensures a continuous supply of geothermal fluid
from the well.
Commercially available turbo-generator units in the range of
5-20 MWe are in use. To improve the total efficiency of the system hot water is
utilized for poultry farming in cold regions.
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 Binary cycle system
A binary cycle is used where geothermal fluid is hot water with temperature
less than 100°C. This plant operates with a low boiling working fluid (Isobutane,
Freon) in a thermodynamic closed Rankine cycle as shown in Figure 4.6. The
working fluid is vapourized by geothermal heat in a heat exchanger. Vapour
expands as it passes through the turbine couple with the generator. Exhaust
vapour is condensed in a water-cooled condenser and recycled through a heat
exchanger. Power plants of 11 MW in California and 10 MW at Raft River Idaho
USA operate on binary cycle.

Cooling
tower
Steam Steam turbine
Generator

Condenser

Cooling water
Pump
Condensate
Flash Pump Reinjection
Chamber well
Pump
Hot brine

Production Well Reinjection

Well

Geothermal Fluid Blow down

Figure 4.5 Flashed steam geothermal power plant

200
 Cooling
tower
Isobutane
Vapour Turbine
Generator

Geothermal
fluid
Condenser
Cooling water
Pump
Condensate
Pump

Heat
Exchanger
Hot brine Working fluid
Pump

Injection well

Brine Reinjected
Figure 4.6 Binary cycle geothermal power plant

Vapour dominated or dry steam fields

In these systems the water is vapourized into steam that reaches the surface in
a relatively dry condition at about 200°C and rarely above 8 bar. This steam is
the most suitable for use in turbo electric power plants, with the least cost. It
does, however, suffer problems similar those encountered by all geothermal
systems, namely, the presence of corrosive gases and erosive material and
environmental problems. These types of systems are very less in numbers;
they are only five known sites in the world. The Geysers plant in the United
201
States, the largest in the world today, and Larderello in Italy, are both vapour-
dominated systems.
Cooling
tower

Turbine Generator
Steam

Condenser

Separator
Cooling water
Pump

Hot brine Condensate Injection well

Pump

Production well

Geothermal fluid

Figure 4.7 Vapour dominated geothermal power plant

In a vapour-dominated plant, steam is extracted from geothermal wells, passed

through a separator to remove particulate contents and flows directly to a
steam turbine. Steam that operates the turbine couple with the generator is at a
temperature of about 245°C and pressure 7 bar which are less than those in
202
conventional steam cycle plants (540°C and 130 bar). Thus, the efficiency of
geothermal plants is low, I.e. about 20%. Exhaust steam from the turbine
passes through a condenser and the water so formed circulates through the
cooling tower. It improves the efficiency of the turbine and controls
environmental pollution associated with the direct release of steam into the
atmosphere. Waste water from the cooling tower sump is reinjected into the
geothermal well to ensure continuous supply. At present such a system is
being operated to generate power at Larderallo Italy, and at the Geysers in
California.
Advantages of Geothermal Energy
It is available 24 hours per day
It is a reliable and cheap source of energy
Its availability is independent of weather
It has inherent storage feature so no extra storage facility is required
It requires little land area
Feasibility of modular approach represents a lot of opportunities for
development t of relatively quick, cost effective geothermal projects.
Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy
It is site specific
Energy is available as low-grade heat
Continuous extraction of heated ground water may lead to subsidence of
land
Geothermal fluid brings with it dissolved gases and solute leads to air and
land pollution
Drilling operation leads to noise pollution
Available thermal energy cannot be distributed easily over long distance
Corrosive and abrasive geothermal fluid reduces the life of the plant

203
 Status of geothermal energy in India: In India nearly 350 potential hot springs, distributed in seven
geothermal provinces, have been identified throughout the country. These springs are perennial and their
surface temperatures range from 37 to 90°C with a cumulative surface discharge of over 1000l/m.
Sl. Geothermal Main locations Heat flow Thermal
No. provinces (MW/m2) gradient
(°C/km)
1 Himalayas Puga valley (J and K) 468 234
Manikaran (HP)
2 Sohana 76-96
3 West coast Unai (Maharashtra) 129 59
4 Cambay Tuwa (Gujarat) 93 70
5 Son-Narmada- Jalgaon 120-260 60-90
Tapi (SONATA) (Maharashtra),
Tattapani
(Chattisgarh)
Bakreswar (Bihar)
6 Godavari 104 60
7 Mahanadi 200 90

Geopressured resources
Geopressured resources contain moderate temperature brines (160°C)
containing dissolved methane. These are trapped under high pressure (nearly
1000 bar or 987 atmospheres) in a deep sedimentary formation sealed between
impermeable layers of shale and clay at depths of 2000-10,000 meters. When
tapped by boring wells, three sources of energy are available as thermal,
mechanical (pressure) and chemical (methane).
Technologies are available to tap geopressured brines as investigated in off-
shore wells in Texas and Louisiana at the US Gulf Coast zone up to a depth of
nearly 6570 m but have not proved economically competitive. Extensive
research is yet to confirm the long-term use of this resource.

204
Petro-thermal or Hot dry rocks (HDR)
These are very hot solid rocks occurring at moderate depths but to which water
does not have access, either because of the absence of ground water or low
permeability of the rock (or both). In order to utilize this resource, impermeable
rock is fractured and water is injected to create artificial reservoir. The known
temperature of HDR vary between – 150 to 290°C. This energy is called
petrothermal energy. Water circulates and hot fluid returns to the surface
through the other drilled well as steam and hot water which are used to
generate electricity.
Magma resources
Magma consists of partially or completely molten rock at temperatures ranging
from 700 to 1600°C. This hot viscous liquid comes out at active volcanic vents
and solidifies. It may form reservoirs at some depth from the earth’s surface.
Magma chambers represent a huge energy source, but the existing technology
does not allow recovery of heat from these resources.
Figure 4.8 shows a typical high temperature hot water geothermal field. The hot
magma (molten mass) near the surface (A) solidifies into igneous rock (B).
Such igneous rocks are formed by volcanic action or great heat (igneous rock
found at the surface is called volcanic action rock). The heat of magma is
conducted upward to this igneous rock. Ground water that finds its way down
to this rock through fissures in it will be heated by the heat of the rock or
mixing with hot gases and steam emanating from the magma. The heated water
will then rise convectively upward and into a porous and permeable reservoir
(C) above the igneous rock. The reservoir is capped by a layer of impermeable
solid rock (D) that traps the hot water in the reservoir. The solid rock, however,
has fissures (E) that act as vents of the giant underground boiler. The vents
show up at the surface as geysers fumarols (steam is continuously vented
through fissures in the ground, these vents are called fumarols) or hot springs.
A well taps steam from the fissures for use in geothermal plant. It can be seen
that geothermal steam is of two kinds-that originating from the magma itself,
205
called
d magnetic steam, and that from ground water heated by the magma called
meteoritic steam. The latter is the largest source of geothermal steam. Not all
the geothermal sources produce steam as described above. Some are lower in
tempe rature so that there is only hot water. Some receive no ground water at all
mperature
and contain only hot rock.

Hot spring or
10°C at surface geyser

Cold water
Low density
Boiling Regions
Hot water

High density
D D
Rocks of low
Permeability
E
Permeable Rock C

Igneous Rock
B
Heat

Convecting magma
A

Figure 4.8 High temperature hot water geothermal field

206
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
Oceans and seas which cover about 70% of earth are constantly receiving solar
radiation and act as the largest natural solar collector. An ocean as a collector
has an enormous storage capacity. Energy from the ocean is available in
several forms, such as ocean thermal energy, wave energy and tidal energy.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a new technology, needed to be
harnessed especially in India where the coastline is about 6000km. Basically,
the OTEC converts the thermal energy, available due to temperature difference
between warm surface water and the cold deep water, into electricity. Power
from the OTEC is renewable and eco-friendly. An OTEC plant can operate in
remote islands and sea-shore continuously. It is very low grade solar thermal
energy, so the efficiency of energy recovery is quite low. However, since the
ocean thermal energy is dispersed over a large ocean surface area, it has a big
potential. According to MNRE, the overall potential of ocean energy in the
country may be in excess of 50,000MW. There is an enormous opportunity to
tap this renewable source of energy.
Working principle
There exists a temperature difference of about 20°C between the warm surface
water of the sea (receiving and absorbing solar radiation) and the cold deep
water (which flows from the Arctic regions in deep layers) in equatorial areas
between latitude 30°S and 30°N. Solar heat energy is absorbed by ocean water.
It can be explained by ‘Lambert law of absorption’. The law states that “each
water layer of identical thickness absorbs an equal fraction of light that passes
through it”. Thus the intensity of heat decreases with the increase in water
depth. Due to large heat transfer at the ocean surface water, the highest
temperature is attained just below the top surface.

207
 Ammonia
Separator Vapour Turbine Generator
9 bar 20°C

6 bar
Cold water
8°C
discharge
Evaporator

Condenser

Pressure
Pump

Pump
Cold water
Pump
Warm water
pump

Ammonia
sump Cold water
(5°C)
Warm water Ammonia
(26°C) storage

Figure 4.9 Closed Rankine cycle OTEC plant

208
Closed Rankine cycle OTEC power plant
The closed cycle system using a low boiling point working fluid like ammonia
or propane is shown in Figure 4.9. It may be seen that warm water from the
surface which is at a temperature of about 26°C is brought in one pipe, and
cold water at a temperature of around 5°C is brought in another pipe from a
depth of about 1000 meters. In OTEC plants two water pipes are used in
conjunction with a working fluid to generate electric power. Different
operational activities of the plant are explained below:
The warm sea water evaporates the liquid ammonia into vapour in a unit
called an evaporator. This can be done because ammonia exists in the form
of gas at the temperature corresponding to the surface sea water
The liquid ammonia which is not evaporated collects in a unit known as
separator, which again recirculates through the evaporator
The evaporated ammonia in the form of high pressure vapour is made to
pass through a turbine where its pressure and temperature make the
turbine to rotate, thus converting thermal energy into mechanical energy.
The rotating turbine is coupled to an electric generator produces electric
power
The ammonia vapour coming out of the turbine, which is now at the lower
pressure entered the turbine is condensed back into liquid ammonia by
cooling it with the colder sea water brought up from the deep part
The liquified ammonia collects in an ammonia sump. After a few hours of
operation, the make-up quantity of ammonia is added from the ammonia
storage to make up for the operational loss
The liquified ammonia is then pumped back to the evaporator, thus
completing the cycle. The cycle repeats to run the plant continuously

209
Non-Condensable Turbine Generator
gas

Low
pressure
steam Direct contact
Condenser
Deaerator

Cold water
Flash Pump
Evaporator

Pump Cold water Cold deep

discharge Water
Warm water
discharge

Warm
Surface
water

Figure 4.10 Schematic of open cycle OTEC plant

210
Open cycle OTEC power plant
A schematic diagram of the open cycle OTEC plant is shown in Figure 4.10.
‘Open cycle’ refers to the utilization of sea water as the working fluid, wherein
sea water is flash evaporated under partial vacuum. The low pressure steam is
passed through a turbine, which extracts energy from it, and then the spent
vapour is cooled in a condenser. This cycle drives the name ‘open’ from the
fact that the condensate need not returned to the evaporator, as in the case of
the ‘closed cycle’. Instead, the condensate, can be utilized as desalinated water
if a surface condenser is used, or if a spray (direct-contact) condenser is used,
the condensate is mixed with the cooling water and the mixture is discharged
back into the ocean.
Environmental impacts OTEC
It is feared that biota including eggs, larvae and fish could be entrained and
destroyed due to intake and expulsion of large volumes of water.
Appropriate siting of intake may reduce the problem
Changes in local temperature and salinity might also affect the local
ecosystem, impact coral and influence ocean currents and climate
In an open-cycle OTEC system, CO2 dissolved in warm water is released to
the atmosphere. However, the quantity of CO2 released is very small and
under worst conditions would be only 1/15 that of oil or 1/25 that of coal-
based generation of same power. It could be reinjected into warm water
discharge
Release of large quantities of cold water into the warmer surface
environment will also have biological effects, which are yet to be known.
Actual environmental impacts will have to be estimated from small-scale
trials
Wave Energy Conversion
Ocean and sea waves are caused indirectly by solar energy. The wind, caused
by the uneven solar heating and subsequent cooling of earth’s crust, generates
the waves. The wave energy conversion devices produce much higher
211
densities than solar conversion devices due to higher concentration of the
wave energy than the incident solar energy at the latter’s speak. The wave
energy is free and renewable energy source. Wave energy conversion device
do not use up large land masses. These are relatively pollution free and they
leave the water in a relatively placid state in their wakes.
The ocean is a big collector of energy transferred by wind over a large surface
area which is stored as wave energy. Wave energy is more concentrated
compared to wind energy, which is thinly distributed. Wave energy is available
in coastal areas, islands and its potential depends upon its geographic
location. Energy available in ocean waves varies in different months and
seasons. Wave energy, if harnessed with improved technology, can prove o be
a large dependable source of renewable energy.
Factors affecting wave energy
There are three major factors which govern the quantum of wave energy. The
first is wind speed, i.e. the higher the wind speed, the higher is the wave
energy. The amplitude of the waves depends on the wind speed. During gusts
and storms big ocean waves occur, which prove dangerous even to ships. The
second factor is the ‘effective fetch value’, i.e. the uninterrupted distance on
the ocean over which the wind can blow before reaching the point of reference.
The larger the distance, higher the wave energy. This distance may vary from
5km to 45 km. The third factor is the depth of the sea water. The greater the
depth of ocean water, the higher the wave velocity. Very large energy fluxes are
available in deep ocean waves. Wave energy is abundantly available on the
Indian sea coast touching Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea in high wind belts.
The entire three factors described above are available along India’s long
coastline of 6000km.
Ocean wave parameters
The periodic up and down, to and fro motion of water in seas and oceans is
known as ‘ocean wave’ as shown in Figure 4.11. The important wave
parameters with their notations are given below:
212
 H = Wave height. It is the distance from the trough to the crest
(not to the height above sea level). It mainly depends on wind speed and the
fetch. The value varies from 0.2 m to 3 m.
a = amplitude of the wave = H/2
λ = wave length
T = wave period which usually ranges from 4 s to 12 s.
f = frequency expressed as the number of periods per second.

y Celerity or wave
velocity, C C
Crest
P2
Mean sea
a
Wave height, H

water level
λ/2 λ x
P1 P3 P1
Direction of
wave travel
a

P4
Trough
Wave length, λ

Figure 4.11 Representative ocean wave

P2
ω

a
P1 P3

P4
213
As a progressive wave moves,
the crest line travels in a horizontal plane with a wave velocity or celerity C
(wave velocity) in the direction of the x axis, which
also represents the mean sea-water level.
The frequency (f) is defined as the number of troughs or crests passing per
second through a given point in the direction of wave motion.
The wave length (λ) is the horizontal distance between two successive troughs
or crests
The wave velocity or celerity C = λ/T m/s
and T = 1/f s-1
The relation between wavelength λ and period T is given by the equation λ =
1.56T2 metre.
Advantages of wave energy
The wave energy has the advantage over wind or solar that the energy has
been naturally concentrated by accumulation overtime and space and
transported from the point at which it was originally present in the winds
It is free and renewable energy source
Wave power device do not use up large land masses unlike solar or wind
These devices are relatively pollution free and because they remove from
the waves, leave the water in a relatively placid (calm) state in their wakes
The degree of power of concentration effected by waves is quite substantial
whereas the power density in wind may, at a good site, average some
hundreds of watts per square meter, wave from being transported across a
plane perpendicular to the wave propagation direction at a good site is from
10 to 100 times at large
Disadvantages
The major disadvantage of wave energy, as compared to wind, is that the
energy is available on the ocean. The extraction equipment must be
operated in a marine environment with all that implies in terms of

214
 maintenance, construction cost, life time and reliability. The energy may
have to be transported a greater distance to shore
Wave energy converters must be capable of withstanding very severe peak
stresses in storms
There is relatively scarcity of accessible sites of large wave activity
Wave energy conversion devices that have been proposed are relatively
complicated
Economic factors such as the capital investment, costs of the maintenance,
repair and replacement, as well as problems of biological growth of marine
organisms are all relatively unknown and seem to be on the large side
Wave energy conversion systems
Wave energy conversion by floats
High-pressure accumulator wave machines
High level reservoir wave machines
The Dolphin-type wave power machines

Wave energy conversion by floats

Wave motion is primarily horizontal, but the motion of the water is primarily
vertical. Mechanical power is obtained by floats making use of the motion of
water. The concept visualizes a large float that is driven up and down by the
water within relatively stationary guides. This reciprocating motion is
converted to mechanical and then electrical power is generated
A system based on this principle is shown Figure in which a square float
moves up and down with the water. It is guided by four vertical manifolds that
are part of a platform. There are four large under water floatation tanks which
stabilize the platform. Platform is supported by buoyancy forces and no vertical
or horizontal displacement occurs due to wave motion. Thus the platform is
made stationary in space. A piston which is attached to float is shown in figure
moves up and down inside a cylinder. The cylinder is attached to platform and
is therefore relatively stationary. The piston and cylinder arrangement is used
215
as a reciprocating compressor. The downward motion of the piston draws air
into the cylinder via an inlet check valve. This air is compressed by upward
motion of the piston and is supplied to the four under-water floatation tanks,
through an outlet check valve via the four manifolds. In this way, the four
floatation tanks serve the dual purpose of buoyancy and air storage, and also
the four vertical manifolds and float guides. An air turbine is run by the
compressed air which is stored in the buoyancy-storage tanks, which in turn
drives an electrical generator, producing electricity which is then transmitted to
the shore via an under water cable.
High-pressure accumulator wave machines
A typical hydraulic accumulator wave machine is shown in the Figure. In this
machine, the water itself is pressurized and stored in a high pressure
accumulator or pumped to a high level reservoir. Then it flows through a water
turbine to produce work output. A composite piston is used to transform large
volumes of low-pressure water at wave crest into small volumes of high
pressure water. The composite piston is composed of a large diameter main
piston and a small diameter piston at its center. The main piston is allowed to
move up and down with the entering of the wave water through the opening.
Above the small piston, there exists a closed water loop. During upstroke, the
pressure on the main piston is magnified on the small piston. Then the high
pressure water passes through a one-way valve to a hydraulic accumulator at
the top of the generator. Two air (or other gas) volumes counter balance and
act as cushions in a chamber above the main piston and in a sealed
compartment in the hydraulic accumulator. The later also maintains the high
water pressure. Part of pressurized water is allowed to flow through a Pelton
wheel or Francis hydraulic turbine that drives an electrical generator and is
then discharged to a storage chamber below the turbine.
A 500 W prototype hydraulic accumulator generator was constructed in
Germany by Harold Kayser in 1975 for powering a navigation buoy. A liquid,
other than water, may be chosen for the closed loop to eliminate corrosion and
216
freezing. Alcohol is an example for such liquid. Attention must be paid to the
seals between pistons and cylinders that must be gas tight and have low
friction. The piston and cylinders are to be constructed of glass fiber-reinforced
plastic, ferro-concrete, aluminium or steel.
High level reservoir wave machines
In this concept, the pressurized water is elevated to a natural reservoir above
the generator, which would have to be near a shoreline, or to an artificial water
reservoir. The hydraulic accumulator is a free-floating device but the high level
reservoir machine is stationary. The water in the reservoir passes through a
turbine back to sea level. Typically a 20 m diameter generator of this type can
produce 1 MW power.

The Dolphin-type wave power machines

The Dolphin-type wave energy generator was designed by a research
laboratory in Japan. This system consists of (i) a Dolphin, (ii) a float; (iii) a
connecting rod and (iv) two electrical generators. The float has two motions.
One of them is rolling motion about its own fulcrum with the connecting rod.
This creates relative revolving movements between the float and the
connecting rod. The movement is amplified and converted into continuous
rotary motions which drive the corresponding electrical generator. The other
motion of the float is nearly vertical and heaving motion about the connecting
rod fulcrum. It produces relative revolving movements between the connecting
rod and the stationary dolphin.
Brief description:
A supporting structure is built in the sea bed to provide a firm position for the
equipment. The structure is erected on pile foundations. One generator is
installed on the top of the structure which collects wave energy from the
connecting shaft with rolling motion. The gear arrangement with the stationary
generator rotates the rotor to generate electric power. The buoy is at the other
end of the connecting rod floats and has two motions, namely rolling motions
217
and oscillatory motions represented by N and M respectively. The floating
generator collects wave energy from the buoy through a gear arrangement and
continuously generates power.
Power density, P/B = 1740a2T, in W/m
Where B = width of the wave, in meters
a = amplitude of the wave, in meters
T = wave periods, in seconds
Normally one dolphin type wave energy generator is of 100kW capacity. Several
such wave energy generating systems are installed; say 50 numbers, along a
width of 500 meters to have an installed capacity of 5 MW.
Status of wave energy research in India:
Wave energy programme was started in India in 1983 with preliminary studies
at IIT Madras, Chennai. Initial research concluded that oscillating water column
(OWC) was the most suitable for Indian conditions. A 150 kW pilot OWC plant
was built onto the breakwater of the Vizhingam Fisheries Harbour, near
Tiruvandrum in 1991. The schema operated successfully, producing data that
were used for the design of a superior generator and turbine. This has led to
the installation of improved power module in 1996. A plant of total capacity of
1.1 MWe comprised of 10caissons is being developed at the same site.

Classification of Wave devices with respect to sea level:

(i) floating, (ii) submerged and (iii) partly submerged.
Heaving Float type: A float (buoy) placed on the surface of water heaves up and
down with waves due to the rise and fall of the water level. The resulting
vertical motion is used to operate the piston of an air pump through linkage.
The pump may be anchored or moored to the sea bed. Several float-operated
air pumps are used to store energy in compressed air storage. The compressed
air pumps are used to store energy in compressed air storage. The compressed
air is sued to generate electricity through an air turbine coupled to a generator.

218
Power may also be extracted from a buoy by means of an internally suspended
weight, with high inertia but free to swing. Energy is extracted from the
differential motion of buoy and pendulum.
Air in Float (buoy)

Air pump
in out

Check
valve

Compressed
Anchor air storage

Sea Bed
Schematic view of float with air pump

Well’s turbine

Air column
Wave

Water column

Sea bed
Oscillating water column device

219
Surge devices: When a moving wave is constricted, a surge is produced rising
its amplitude. Such a device is known as tapered channel device (TAPCHAN).
The TAPCHAN comprises a gradually narrowing channel with wall heights
typically 3 to 5 m above sea level. The water is forced to rise up a ramp and
spill over a wall into a reservoir. The potential energy of water trapped in the
reservoir is then extracted by draining the water back to the sea through a low
head Kaplan turbine. Besides the turbine, there are no moving parts and there
is easy access for repairs and connections to the electricity grid.

Tapered
Channel

Reservoir

Cliff Face

Wave
Direction

Turbine
house

Tapered Channel Wave Device

220
Problem: A deep ocean wave of 3 m peak to peak appears at a period of 10s.
Find the wave length, phase velocity and power associated with the wave. At
this power rate, what is the average annual wave energy in MWh/m?
Step-1: H = 3 m, i.e., 2a = 3m ∴a = (3/2) = 1.5m
ρ = 1025 kg/m3 and T = 10secs
2π 2π
Angular velocity ϖ = = = 0.6283 rad / s
T 10
2πg 2π × 9.81
Step-2: Wave length λ = = = 156.13m
ϖ 2 (0.6283)2
g 9.81
Step-3: Phase velocity of the wave C = = = 15.61m / s
ϖ 0.6283
Step-4: Power in waves

ρg 2 2 1025 × 9.812
P= a T= × 1.5 2 × 10 = 88.308kW / m
8π 8× π

221
 UNIT-V
WIND ENERGY
Basic Principle
Flow of wind originates from two natural factors
(i) the absorption of solar energy on the earth’s surface and in the
atmosphere
(ii) the rotation of the earth about its axis and its motion around the sun.
As the incident radiation from the sun strikes the different atmospheric layers
of air, these layers get heated. As a result, there is expansion and upward
movement of air. These layers are replaced by colder layers and mechanism
continues so long as solar radiation continues to heat the various layers in an
uneven way. At night the process is reversed because the air cools down more
rapidly over the land surface resulting in breezes (off-shore) in the reverse
direction.

SUN

Warmer land Cooler land

Cooler Ocean Warmer Ocean

Figure 5.1 Wind from ocean to land during the daytime and
Wind from land to ocean during the night time
Air in motion relative to a surface possesses energy. The well known example
is that of a wind mill which operates either by slowing down the wind velocity
or capturing some of its energy when it converts wind energy to mechanical
energy. The average wind speed at a particular site and height varies from time
to time, place to place and season to season. Obviously, the power extracted
from the wind machines depends on time of the day, place and the season of
the year.
222
Wind energy conversion
A windmill works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind to
mechanical energy. We know that power is equal to energy per unit time. The
energy available is kinetic energy of the wind (From the concept of kinetic, it is
known that a flowing cross-section of air possesses energy by virtue of its
velocity). The kinetic energy of any particle is equal to one half its mass times
the square of its velocity or 1/2mV2. The amount of air passing in unit time,
through an area A, with velocity V, is AV, and its mass m is equal to its volume
multiplied its density of air, or m=ρAV (m is the mass of air transversing the
area A swept by the rotating blades of a wind mill type generator).
Therefore kinetic energy, Ptot = 1/2ρAV3 Watts.
It is clear that total power of a wind stream is directly proportional to the cube
of its flowing velocity, wind density and the intercepted cross sectional area.
Thus small increase in wind speeds can register a significant increase in the
power extracted. But, the situation is not that simple. Power available also
varies depending on the density of air which can be assumed as equal to 1.225
kg/m3 at sea level.
Classification of Wind Energy Conversion
Axis of rotation
Horizontal axis machines: The axis of rotation is horizontal and the aero-
turbine plane is vertical facing the wind
Vertical axis machines: The axis of rotation is vertical. The sails or blades
may also be vertical, as on the ancient Persian windmills, or nearly so, as on
the modern Darrievs rotor machines
According to size
Small scale (upto 2 kW): These might be used on farms, remote applications
and other places requiring relatively low power
Medium size machines (2-100kW): These wind turbines may be used to
supply less than 100kW rated capacity, to several residences or local use

223
 Large scale or large size machines (100kW and up): Large scale or large size
machines (100kW and up). Large wind turbines are those of 100 kW rated
capacity or greater. They are used to generate power for distribution in
central power grids. There are two sub classes
(a) Single generator at a single site and
(b) Multiple generators sited at several places over an area.
According to output power
DC output: (i) DC generator and (ii) Alternator rectifier
AC output: (i) variable frequency, variable or constant voltage AC
(ii) Constant frequency, variable or constant voltage AC
According to Rotational Speed
Constant speed: with variable pitch blades. This mode implies use of a
synchronous generator with its constant frequency output.
Nearly constant speed: Variable speed with fixed pitch blades. This mode
could imply, for constant frequency output: (i) field modulated system (ii)
AC-DC-AC link (iii) Double output induction generator (iv) AC Commutator
generators (v) other variable speed constant frequency generating systems
Utilization of output
(i) Battery storage
(ii) Direct connection to an electromagnetic energy converter
(iii) Other forms (thermal potential) of storage
(iv) Interconnection with conventional electric utility grids.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Energy Conversion systems
It is renewable source of energy
Like all forms of solar energy, wind power systems are non-polluting, so it
has no adverse influence on the environment
Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and transport
Public opinion is in favour of WTGs rather than fossil fuel and nuclear
power generation. People do accept a wind turbine closer to their homes (2

224
 to 5 kms). In contrast, the minimal acceptable distance to a nuclear power
plant is 60 km.
Wind power generation is cost effective
It is economically competitive with other modes of power generation
Wind energy development is dynamic and an exciting addition to the
landscape which increases public awareness of energy generation
It is reliable and has been used for ages
Disadvantages
Wind energy has low energy density and normally available at only
selected geographical locations away from cities and load centres
Wind speed being variable, wind energy is irregular, unsteady and erratic
Wind turbine design is complex and needs more research and development
work due to widely varying atmospheric conditions where these are made
to operate
Large units have less capital cost per kWh, but require capital intensive
technology. In contrast, small units are more reliable but have higher
capital cost per kWh
Wind energy systems require storage batteries which contribute to
environmental pollution
Wind farms are established in locations of favourable wind. These
locations are in open areas away from load centres. Consequently, the
connection to state grid is necessary
Wind energy systems are capital intensive and need government support
Types of towers: The reinforced concrete tower; the pole tower; the built up
shell-tube tower; and the truss tower.
Classification of wind turbines
Wind turbines are classified with respect to the orientation of the axis of
rotation of their rotors as horizontal axis machines and vertical axis machines.
In the former, rotor axis is kept in horizontal position and can be adjusted so
that it is parallel to the direction of wind stream. A vertical axis machine has a
225
fixed and vertical rotor axis, which is perpendicular to both the surface of the
earth and the wind stream.
A wind turbine operates by slowing down the wind and extracting a part of its
energy in the process. In general, wind turbines have blades, sails or buckets
fixed to a central shaft. The extracted energy causes the shaft to rotate. This
rotating shaft is used to drive a pump, to grind seeds or to generate electric
power.
Types of rotors
Various types of rotors in use in wind energy turbines are:
Multi blade type
Propeller type
Savonious type
Darrieus type
Out of these, the first two find use in horizontal axis machines while the other
two are employed in vertical axis machine
Multi-blade rotor
Multi-blade rotor is fabricated from curved sheet. The width of the blade
increases from the centre. These blades, numbering from 12 to 20 are fixed at
their inner ends to a circular rim. They are also connected near their outer edge
to a second rim, to a fixed support. Diameter of these rotors varies from 2 to 5
metres.

Figure 5.2 Multiblade Propeller

226
Propeller type rotor
The propeller rotor comprises two or three aerodynamic blades made from
strong but lightweight material such as fibre glass reinforced plastic. The
diameter of the rotor ranges from 2m to 25 m. The blade slope is designed by
using the same aerodynamic theory as for aircraft.
Savonious rotor
The Savonious rotor comprises two identical hollow semi-cylinders fixed to a
vertical axis. The inner side of two half cylinders face each other to have an S
shaped cross section as shown in the Figure. Irrespective wind direction, the
rotor rotates due to pressure difference between the two sides. The vertical
axis rotor was developed by an engineer Savonious of Finland in the year 1920.
It is self starting and the driving force is mainly of drag type. The rotor
possesses high soliditiy so as to produce a high starting torque and hence this
rotor is suitable for water pumping.
Darrieus rotor
The darrieus rotor also consists of only two or three blades forming an aerofoil
cross-section. Along their length the blades are curved into a shape called
troposkein. It should be noted that both the aforesaid Savonius and Darrieus
type rotors run independent of the direction of wind because they rotate about
a fixed vertical axis. On contrary, horizontal axis machine have their axis
aligned in the direction of wind in order to generate power. It looks like an egg
beater and operates with the wind coming from any direction. Both the ends of
the blades are attached to a vertical shaft as shown in Figure. It has an
advantage that it can be installed close to the ground eliminating the cost of
the tower structure. Lift is the driving force, creating maximum torque when the
blade moves across the wind. This rotor was designed by a French engineer
G.M. Darrieus in 1925. It is used for decentralized electricity generation.
Horizontal Axis Windmill
Rotor: The rotor converts kinetic energy of the wind flow to mechanical energy.
As the technology is advancing, the rotor size is increasing. Very large wind
227
turbines with 4- 5 MW power rating have rotor diameter in the range of about
100metres or even higher. The rotor can be of three blades or of two blades. In
case of two blades the solidity) percentage area of the blades as compared to
the swept area by the blades) is less and efficiency is 2 to 3 %. The blades can
be constructed from glass reinforced plastic, wood, carbon fibre reinforced
plastic, steel and aluminium. The requirement of blade material is low weight,
high stiffness and high fatigue strength. The glass reinforced plastic is suitable
from the material point of view and is used commonly.
Transmission system: This is used to transmit the mechanical power generated
by the blades to the generator. The transmission system including shaft,
gearbox, braking system, etc. are kept inside a nacelle. The gearbox is used to
convert the low rotational speed of rotor to 1500 rpm required by the generator.
At 1500 rpm electrical power of the required frequency to feed the grid is
produced. The transmission system should be designed with high dynamic
torque capability because of the fluctuating wind speeds.
Generator: A generator converts mechanical motion of the rotor to electrical
energy. It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When a
conducting coil rotates in a magnetic field, voltage is generated across the coil
terminals, which becomes a source of power. The generator of a grid
connected wind machine is required to produce the frequency which is same
as grid frequency. Generator can be synchronous generator or asynchronous
generator. A synchronous generator provides constant frequency output power
but does not allow rotor speed variation. On the other hand an induction
generator can supply constant frequency output power while allowing some
variation in the rotor speed. Practically, since wind speed varies and thus
variation in rotor speed is expected, induction generators are normally used.
Both of these generators are efficient in energy conversion only for small range
of blade tip speed.
Yaw system: The horizontal axis turbines have yaw system that turns the rotor
according to the wind direction. The rotor swept area should be moving
228
perpendicular to the wind direction. The yaw system is also used to cut off the
rotor from the wind in case of very strong wind. This is done from the point of
view of protecting the machine.
Tower: The tower on which a wind turbine is mounted is not just a support
structure but it also raises the wind turbine so that its blades safely clear the
ground and so it can reach the stronger winds at higher elevations. The tower
in a large wind machine is hollow from inside, which provides access to the
nacelle for maintenance. Maximum tower height is optional in most cases,
except where zoning restrictions apply. It is known that as the height from the
ground increases, the wind speed increases. Larger wind turbines are usually
mounted on towers ranging from 40 to 70 metres tall.

Rotor
blade

Rotor Gearbox Generator

brake

Wind

Hub

Yaw Nacelle
mechanics

Tower Output power

box

Figure 5.3 Schematic view of Horizontal axis windmill

229
If wind speed for a given location and at a given height is known, the wind
speed (V) at any other height at the same location can be estimated as:
α
Vunknown ⎛ New height ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Vknown ⎝ Re ference height ⎠

α = terrain roughness factor (0.01 to 0.3)

For water areas like sea, α = 0.01
For farm lands with trees, α = 0.12
For villages and town α = 0.28
Wind Energy Conversion system
A wind energy conversion system converts wind energy into some form of
electrical energy. In particular, medium and large scale WECS are designed to
operate in parallel with a public or local ac grid. This is known as grid-
connected system. A small system, isolated from the grid, feeding only to a
local load is known as autonomous, remote, decentralized, stand-alone or
isolated power system. A general block diagram of a grid connected WECS is
shown below. The turbine shaft speed is stepped up with the help of gears,
with a fixed gear ratio, to suit the electrical generator and fine-tuning of speed
is incorporated by pitch control. This block acts as a drive for the generator.
Use of variable gear ratio has been considered in the past and was found to
add more problems than benefits. Hence dc, synchronous or induction
generators are used for mechanical to electrical power conversion depending
on the design of the system. The interface conditions the generated power to
grid-quality power. It may consist of a power electronic converter, transformer
and filter, etc. The control unit monitors and controls the interaction among
various blocks. It derives the reference voltage and frequency signals from the
grid and receives wind speed, wind direction, wind turbine speed signals, etc.,
processes them and accordingly controls various blocks for optimal energy
balance.

230
 Turbine
blade
Gearing and V, I Grid or
Generator Interface
coupling local load

Control Vref and fref

Pitch
control
Figure 5.4 Block diagram of Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS)

Favourable sites for Windmills:

• No tall obstructions for some distance (about 3 km) in the upwind direction
• A wide and open view i.e., open plain, open shoreline or offshore location
• Top of smooth well-rounded hill with gentle slopes on a flat plain
• An island in a lake or the sea
• A narrow mountain gap through which wind is channeled
• Site reasonably close to power grid
• Soil conditions must be such that building of foundations of the turbines
and transport of road-construction materials loaded in heavy trucks is
feasible
• Production results of existing wind turbines in the area to act as a guide to
local wind conditions.
Upwind Machine: In an upwind machine, the rotor is located upwind (in front) of
the tower whereas in a downwind machine, the rotor is located downwind of
(behind) the tower. Both the types have certain benefits.
Downwind machine: A downwind machine allows the use of a free yaw system
(in low rating machines). It also allows the blades to deflect away from the
tower when loaded. However, it suffers from wind shadow effects of the tower
on the blades as they pass through the tower’s wake, in region of separated
flow.
231
Wind speed typically from 5m/s to about 25m/s is considered favourable for
most wind power generation.
Power versus wind-speed characteristics of a wind turbine:
The power-speed characteristics of a wind turbine have four separate regions
as shown in the figure.
Low-speed region (Zero to cut-in speed): In this region, the turbine is kept in
braked position till minimum wind speed (about 5m/s), known as cut-in speed
becomes available. Below this speed, the operation of the turbine is not
efficient.
Maximum power-coefficient region: In this region, rotor speed is varied with
wind speed so as to operate it at constant tip-speed ratio, corresponding to
maximum coefficient, Cp,Max. In this range, the nature of characteristics is close
to that of maximum power available in the wind. The turbine is operated at
maximum-power-output point using pitch control.
Constant power region (constant-turbine-speed region): During high-speed
winds (above 12 m/s), the rotor speed is limited to an upper permissible value
based on the design limits of system components. In this region, the power
coefficient is lower than Cp,Max. Large machines use pitch control to maintain
turbine speed as constant. Such a machine is known as pitch regulated.
Classical European machines use fixed blades (constant pitch) and the blade
twist and thickness are so designed as to crudely maintain the speed as
constant. Such a machine is known as stall regulated. This is a simple system
requiring only passive technique, as there are no moving blade surfaces or
complicated hardware. However, power capture is somewhat less due to
rounding of power curve.
In case of fixed-blade rotor, the flow over the blade stalls. The stall
performance depends on the twist of the blade tip from the root and thickness
of blade sections. The lift and drag coefficients change so as to flatten out the
peak of the power curve. Thus, the power output of the wind turbine is limited
as shown in the figure. Stall regulation can be used without much problem up
232
to about a 25 m diameter rotor. About this size, severe vibration problems
associated with the stalled flow in high wind speeds have been encountered.
Thus, large HAWTs always have variable pitch control.
At still higher wind speeds, such as gusts, constant speed operation is
maintained by employing additional means such as some kind of braking (e.g.,
eddy current braking)
Furling speed region (cut-out speed and above): Beyond a certain maximum
value of wind speed (around 25 m/s), the rotor is shut down and power
generation is stopped to protect the blades, generator and other components
of the system.
Vertical Wind Speed variation
At a given location, the wind speed increases as we go above the earth surface.
At the surface, the wind speed is zero due to the friction of air with the surface.
As we go up, wind speed increases more rapidly at lower heights but less
rapidly at greater heights. The vertical variation in the wind speed depends on
the roughness of the terrain and wind speed near the ground. The terrain
roughness factor is represented by a constant, α. This constant can have value
between 0.01 and 0.3.

Low Maximum Constant power Furling speed

Speed power region region
region point region

100
Power output (%)

80
P0 = ½ ρAU3

60

40

20 Cut-in Cut-out

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Wind speed, (m/s)
Figure 5.5 Power versus wind speed characteristics
233
 Tip speed ratio:
speed of the rotor blade tip ϖR
Tip speed ratio = =
undistrubed wind speed V
16

15
Wind speed (m/s)

14

13

12

11

10
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Height (m)
Figure 5.6 Wind Speed Variation with height

Betz Criterion: In practice, all of the kinetic energy in the wind cannot be
converted to shaft power since the air must be able to flow away from the rotor
area. The Betz criterion, derived using the principles of conservation of
momentum and conservation of energy, suggests a maximum possible turbine
efficiency of 59%. Betz limit can be considered an ideal efficiency of a wind
turbine. In practice real efficiency of wind turbine is less and it is normally
referred to as coefficient of performance.
actual power output from a wind turbine Preal
The coefficient of performance = =
available wind power Pideal

Lift and Drag Type machines:

Wind turbines make use of either lift force or drag force predominantly to
cause motion and accordingly are known as lift or drag type machines. In lift
devices, the ratio of lift to drag forces may be as high as 30:1. For the drag
design, the wind literally pushes the blades out of the way. Drag devices are
less efficient and turn slower than wind. They produce high torque and thus are
suitable for pumping applications.
234
The lift blade design employs the same principle that enables airplanes, kites
and bird to fly. The blade is essentially an airfoil or wind. When air flows past
the blade, a wind speed and pressure differential is created between the upper
and lower blade surfaces. The pressure at the lower surface is greater and thus
acts to ‘lift’ the blade. When blades are attached to the central axis, like a wind
turbine rotor, the lift is translated into rotational motion. Lift-powered wind
turbines have much higher rotational speeds than drag types and therefore are
well suited for electricity generation. Lift devices are more efficient and turn
faster than wind.
The wind machines that use drag force provide high torque but rotate at low
speed. Due to these characteristics these machines are suitable for water
pumping and grinding type applications. These machines are relatively
inefficient, their coefficient of performance lies between 0.15 and 0.3. i.e., their
efficiencies are between 15% and 30%
The wind that uses lift forces is low to medium torque high speed. The
coefficient of performance of these machines ranges between 0.3 and 0.40.
Conversion of Wind Power: A wind turbine converts the energy of the wind into
electrical energy. A wind turbine is similar to a fan but works in reverse
direction. A fan converts electrical energy to mechanical motion which gives us
airflow; on the other hand a wind turbine converts airflow into mechanical
motion and gives us the electrical power. Typically wind turbines are much
larger in size as compared to a fan.
There are several types of wind turbine that can convert wind energy into
useful energy. These include, propeller type wind turbine mostly used for
power generation, multi blade wind turbine used for water pumping, Savonius
wind turbine and Darreius wind turbine.

235
Environmental Aspects:
(i) Indirect Energy use and emissions
Energy is required to produce material used to construct the wind turbine and
its installation. The energy is paid back in a period of few months to about a
year, what is known as energy payback period. Some pollution (emission of
CO2) is caused due to use of energy during construction. But in total, the so-
called indirect CO2 emission over the total operating life of the wind generator
is very low (about 1% of the system using coal)
(ii) Bird Life
Large wind turbines pose a threat to bird life as a result of collision with tower
or blades. Their resting and breeding patterns are also affected
(iii) Noise
The disturbance caused by the noise produced by a wind turbine is one of the
important factors that prevent its siting close to inhabited areas. The acoustic
noise is composed of (a) mechanical noise due to movement of mechanical
parts in the nacelle (mainly gear and also other equipments), which can be
reduced by good design and acoustic insulation, and (b) aerodynamic noise
(swishing sound from the rotating blades), which is a function of wind speed
and which cannot be avoided. Some of this noise is of infra sound, at
frequencies below the audible range. This infra sound may cause houses and
other structures to vibrate.
(iv) Visual impact
Wind turbines are massive structures quite visible over a wide area in most
locations. The visual impact of wind turbines is qualitative in nature. In a study,
it was found that public appreciation of a landscape decreases as more and
more wind turbines are installed. A special case of visual impact is the effect of
shadow of the turbine, particularly of the rotor blades. The rotational frequency
plays an important role in determining the disturbance level. Offshore wind
farms, being away from inhabited areas, do not in general create the same
severity of visual intrusion.
236
(v) Telecommunication interference
Wind turbines present an obstacle for incident electromagnetic waves (TV or
microwave signals). These waves can be reflected, scattered and dithered.
Thus they interfere with telecommunication links and badly affect the quality of
radio and TV reception. The effect can be mitigated by the use of cable system
or by installing powerful antennas.
(vi) Safety
Accidents with wind turbines are rare but they do happen, as in other industrial
activities. For example, a detached blade or its fragment may be thrown a
considerable distance and can harm people and property. However, most wind
turbines are located in isolated areas, which make it less likely to cause any
damage. The international Electrical Committee (ICE) has taken initiative to
produce an international standard on safety.
(vii) Effect of ecosystems
Large-scale use of wind generation can reduce wind speed and cause stress to
an ecosystem. Lakes that are downhill from the wind turbines might become
warmer because of reduced evaporation from their surface. Soil moisture might
also increase. Nevertheless, these impacts may not be of great consequence
except in certain sensitive areas.

237
 Rotor front

Pu Vu Pd Vd
P, V
(2) (3)
(1)
(4)

V
V1
2
V1
3
1
V1
3

P
P2

P1

P3

Figure 5.7 Pressure and velocity profiles of wind moving through a

horizontal-axis propeller type wind turbine

238
P = atmospheric wind pressure
Pu = pressure on upstream of wind turbine
Pd = pressure on downstream of wind turbine
V = atmospheric wind velocity
Vu = velocity of wind upstream of wind turbine
Vb = velocity of wind at blades
Vd = velocity of wind downstream of wind turbine
A = area of blades
m = mass flow rate of wind
ρ = density of air

Kinetic energy of wind stream passing through the turbine rotor is

KE = ½ mVb2
And m = ρ A Vb
Hence KE = ½ ρA Vb3

Steady flow energy equation

V1 2 V2 2
Z1 + + u 1 + P1 v 1 + Δq = Z 2 + + u 2 + P2 v 2 + ΔW
2 2
Considering the incoming air between the entrance and the upstream of the
rotor blades as a thermodynamic system, and assuming that the air density
remains constant (since changes in pressure and temperature are very small
compared to ambient), that the potential energy is zero, and no heat or work are
added or removed between the entrance and upstream, the general steady flow
energy equation reduces to kinetic and flow energy terms only..

Vu 2 Vb 2
+ Pv = + Pu v
2 2
ρVu 2 ρVb 2
P+ = Pu +
2 2 (Upstream) (1)

239
 ρVb 2 ρVd 2
Pd + = P+
2 2 (downstream) (2)
As the blade width is very thin as compared to total distance considered, it can
be assumed that velocity within the turbine does not change much.

Combining (1) and (2)

(Pu – Pd) = ½ ρ (Vu2 – Vd2) (3)
The axial force Fx, in the direction of wind stream, on a turbine wheel with
projected area, perpendicular to the stream A, is
Fx = (Pu – Pd)A (4)
This force is also equal to change in momentum per unit time from upstream to
downstream winds
Fx = m(Vu – Vd) (5)
Equating (4) and (5)

(Pu – Pd)A = m(Vu – Vd) = ρAVb(Vu – Vd) (6)

Solving (3) and (6)
½ ρ (Vu2 – Vd2) = ρVb(Vu – Vd)

Vu + Vd
Vb =
2
In a wind turbine system, steady flow work, W is equal to the difference in
kinetic energy between upstream and downstream of the turbine for unit mass
flow
W = (KE)u – (KE)d = ½ (Vu2 – Vd2)
The power output of the turbine is the rate of work done, using the mass flow
rate equation
Vu + Vd
P = ½ m (Vu2 – Vd2) = ρ A ( )(Vu2 – Vd2)/2
2

P = ¼ ρ A (Vu + Vd) (Vu2 – Vd2) (7)

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For maximum turbine output P, differentiate (7) with respect to Vd and equal to
zero
dP
= 2 2
dVd 3Vd +2VuVd – Vu = 0
The above equation has two solutions i.e., Vd = 1/3 Vu and Vd = Vu
For power generation Vd < Vu, so we can have only Vd = 1/3 Vu (8)
Substituting (8) in (7) we get
8
Pmax = ρA Vu3
27
16
= × ½ ρA Vu3 = 0.593 × ½ ρAVu3
27
Total power in wind stream is Ptotal = ½ ρAVu3

Pmax = 0.593 Ptotal

Maximum theoretical efficiency (also called the power coefficient Cp) is the ratio
of maximum power output to total power available in the wind

Pmax
Cp = = 0.593 = 59.3%
Ptotal
Design of wind turbine rotor
Axial Thrust on turbine
There are two forces which are acting on the blades. One is the axial force
acting in the direction of the wind stream that provides an axial thrust and the
other is the circumferential force acting in the direction of wheel rotation that
provides torque.
From (3) Axial thrust Fx = ½ ρA (Vu2 – Vd2) (9)
= ½ ρ (πD2/4) (Vu2 – Vd2)
= π/8 ρ D2 (Vu2 – Vd2)
For maximum output, Vd = 1/3 Vu
∴Axial thrust Fx, max = π/9 ρD2Vu2 (10)

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Circumferential force of Torque developed by the turbine
Maximum torque T on a turbine rotor would occur when maximum thrust can
be applied at the blade tip farthest from the axis. A propeller turbine of radius R
experiences
Power = Torque (N) × angular velocity of turbine wheel (m/s)
Tmax = Fmax × R
From (9) Fx is maximum when Vd = 0
∴ Fmax = = ½ ρA Vu2
Hence Tmax = ½ ρA Vu2 × R
For a wind turbine producing a shaft torque T, the torque coefficient is
CT = (T / Tmax)
Also the tip-speed ratio is the ratio of blade’s outer tip speed to the upstream
wind speed.
Vtip ωR
λ= =
Vu Vu
Where ω is the angular velocity of the rotor and R is the blade radius

Vu λ
∴ Tmax = ½ ρA Vu2 × = Ptotal (λ/ω)
ω
Maximum shaft power, Pmax is the power obtained from the turbine and is given
as

Pmax = T×ω = CT×Tmax×ω

Since Cp = Pmax / Ptotal

∴ Cp Ptotal = CT×Tmax×ω

= CT× Ptotal (λ/ω) ×ω

∴ Cp = CT×λ
But Betz limit Cp = 0.593
Hence CT,max = (0.593/λ)
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Terms used in wind energy
Aerofoil: A streamlined curved surface designed for air to flow around it in
order to produce low drag and high lift forces
Angle of attack: It is the angle between the relative air flow and the chord of the
aerofoil
Blade: An important part of wind turbine that extracts wind energy
Leading edge: It is the front edge of the blade that faces towards the direction
of wind flow
Trailing edge: It is the rear edge of the blade that faces away from the direction
of wind flow
Chord line: It is the line joining the leading edge and trailing edge
Mean line: A line that is equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces of the
aerofoil
Camber: It is the maximum distance between the mean line and the chord line,
which measures the curvature of the airfoil
Rotor: It is the prime part of the wind turbine that extracts energy from the
wind. It constitutes the blade and hub assembly
Hub: Blades are fixed to a hub which is a central part of the turbine
Propeller: It is the turbine shaft that rotates with the hub and blades and is
called the propeller. Blades are twisted as per design. The outer profile of the
blades conforms to aerodynamic performance while the inner profile meets the
structural requirements
Tip speed ratio: It is the ratio of the speed of the outer blade tip to the
undisturbed wind speed
Pitch angle: It is the angle made between the blade chord and the plane of the
blade rotation
Pitch control of blades: A system where the pitch angle of the blades changes
according to the wind speed for efficient operation

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Stall-regulated system: When the turbine blades are fixed at an optimum angle
and the machine is stalled during high winds either mechanical or hydraulic
systems
Swept area: This is the area covered by the rotating rotor
Solidity: It is the ratio of projected area of the blades area to swept area
Drag force: It is the force component which is in line with the velocity of wind
Lift force: It is the force component perpendicular to drag force
Nacelle: The nacelle houses the generator, gear box, hydraulic system, yaw
mechanism
Yaw control: As the direction of the wind changes frequently, the yaw control is
provided to steer the axis of the turbine, either in the upward wind direction or
in the downward wind direction
Cut-in speed: It is the wind speed at which the wind turbine starts to operate
Rated wind speed: It is the wind speed at which the turbine attains its
maximum output
Cut-out speed: it is the speed at which a wind turbine is designed to be shut
down to prevent damage from high winds. It is also called furling wind speed
Wind rose: It is pattern formed in a diagram illustrating vectors that represent
wind velocities occurring from different direction
Wind shear: At the earth’s surface, wind speed is always zero. It increases with
height above the ground. The wind near the earth’s surface is retarded y
surface roughness. The rate of change of wind speed with height is known as
wind shear
Wind vane: A wind vane monitors the wind direction. It sends signal to the
controlling computer which activates the yaw mechanism to make the rotor
face the wind direction
Upwind machine: In an upwind machine, the rotor is placed upwind (in front) of
the rotor
Downwind machine: In a downwind machine, the rotor is located downwind of
(behind) the tower
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 Blade
Tip

Upper
camber Mean line
Leading Trailing Blade
edge • edge element
•
•
•

Lower Blade
Chord
camber

ω Hub
Figure 5.8 Blade element
Wind turbine design
Design specification
The design specification for a wind-turbine will contain a power curve and
guaranteed availability. With the data from the wind resource assessment it is
possible to calculate commercial viability. The typical operating temperature
range is -20 to 40°C. In areas with extreme climate (like inner Mongolia or
Rajasthan) specific cold and hot weather versions are required.

Low temperature
Utility-scale wind turbine generators have minimum temperature operating
limits which apply in areas that experience temperatures below –20 °C. Wind
turbines must be protected from ice accumulation, which can make
anemometer readings inaccurate and which can cause high structure loads and
damage. Some turbine manufacturers offer low-temperature packages at a few
percent extra costs, which include internal heaters, different lubricants, and
different alloys for structural elements. If the low-temperature interval is
combined with a low-wind condition, the wind turbine will require an external
supply of power, equivalent to a few percent of its rated power, for internal
heating. For example, the St. Leon, Manitoba project has a total rating of 99 MW
245
and is estimated to need up to 3 MW (around 3% of capacity) of station service
power a few days a year for temperatures down to –30 °C. This factor affects
the economics of wind turbine operation in cold climates.

Aerodynamics
The aerodynamics of a horizontal-axis wind turbine is not straightforward. The
air flow at the blades is not the same as the airflow far away from the turbine.
The very nature of the way in which energy is extracted from the air also
causes air to be deflected by the turbine. In addition the aerodynamics of a
wind turbine at the rotor surface exhibit phenomena that are rarely seen in
other aerodynamic fields.
In 1919 the physicist Albert Betz showed that for a hypothetical ideal wind-
energy extraction machine, the fundamental laws of conservation of mass and
energy allowed no more than 16/27 (59.3%) of the kinetic energy of the wind to
be captured. This Betz' law limit can be approached by modern turbine designs
which may reach 70 to 80% of this theoretical limit.

Power control

A wind turbine is designed to produce a maximum of power at wide spectrum

of wind speeds. All wind turbines are designed for a maximum wind speed,
called the survival speed, above which they do not survive. The survival speed
of commercial wind turbines is in the range of 40 m/s
(144 km/h) to 72 m/s (259 km/h). The most common survival speed is 60 m/s
(216 km/h). The wind turbines have three modes of operation:
• Below rated wind speed operation
• Around rated wind speed operation (usually at nameplate capacity)
• Above rated wind speed operation
If the rated wind speed is exceeded the power has to be limited. There are
various ways to achieve this.

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Stall
Plastic vortex generator stripes used to control stall characteristics of the
blade - in this example protecting the blade from rapid fluctuations in wind
speed.
Closeup look at the vortex generators (VGs) - the larger ones are closest to the
root of the blade where the boundary layer is thicker (i.e., closest to the hub)
Stalling works by increasing the angle at which the relative wind strikes the
blades (angle of attack), and it reduces the induced drag (drag associated with
lift). Stalling is simple because it can be made to happen passively (it increases
automatically when the winds speed up), but it increases the cross-section of
the blade face-on to the wind, and thus the ordinary drag. A fully stalled turbine
blade, when stopped, has the flat side of the blade facing directly into the wind.
A fixed-speed HAWT inherently increases its angle of attack at higher wind
speed as the blades speed up. A natural strategy, then, is to allow the blade to
stall when the wind speed increases. This technique was successfully used on
many early HAWTs. However, on some of these blade sets, it was observed that
the degree of blade pitch tended to increase audible noise levels.
Vortex generators may be used to control the lift characteristics of the blade.
The VGs are placed on the airfoil to enhance the lift if they are placed on the
lower (flatter) surface or limit the maximum lift if placed on the upper (higher
camber) surface.
Pitch control
Furling works by decreasing the angle of attack, which reduces the induced
drag from the lift of the rotor, as well as the cross-section. One major problem
in designing wind turbines is getting the blades to stall or furl quickly enough
should a gust of wind cause sudden acceleration. A fully furled turbine blade,
when stopped, has the edge of the blade facing into the wind.
Standard modern turbines all pitch the blades in high winds. Since pitching
requires acting against the torque on the blade, it requires some form of pitch
angle control. Many turbines use hydraulic systems. These systems are usually
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spring loaded, so that if hydraulic power fails, the blades automatically furl.
Other turbines use an electric servomotor for every rotor blade. They have a
small battery-reserve in case of an electric-grid breakdown. Small wind
turbines (fewer than 50 kW) with variable-pitching generally use systems
operated by centrifugal force, either by flyweights or geometric design, and
employ no electric or hydraulic controls.

Other controls

Yawing
Modern large wind turbines are typically actively controlled to face the wind
direction measured by a wind vane situated on the back of the nacelle. By
minimizing the yaw angle (the misalignment between wind and turbine pointing
direction), the power output is maximized and non-symmetrical loads
minimized. However, since the wind direction varies quickly the turbine will not
strictly follow the direction and will have a small yaw angle on average. The
power output losses can simply be approximated to fall with cos3(yaw angle).
Electrical braking (Dynamic braking resistor for wind turbine)
Braking of a small wind turbine can also be done by dumping energy from the
generator into a resistor bank, converting the kinetic energy of the turbine
rotation into heat. This method is useful if the kinetic load on the generator is
suddenly reduced or is too small to keep the turbine speed within its allowed
limit.
Cyclically braking causes the blades to slow down, which increases the stalling
effect, reducing the efficiency of the blades. This way, the turbine's rotation can
be kept at a safe speed in faster winds while maintaining (nominal) power
output. This method is usually not applied on large grid-connected wind
turbines.
Mechanical braking
A mechanical drum brake or disk brake is used to hold the turbine at rest for
maintenance. Such brakes are usually applied only after blade furling and
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electromagnetic braking have reduced the turbine speed, as the mechanical
brakes would wear quickly if used to stop the turbine from full speed. There
can also be a stick brake.

Turbine size

A person standing beside medium size modern turbine blades.

For a given survivable wind speed, the mass of a turbine is approximately

proportional to the cube of its blade-length. Wind power intercepted by the
turbine is proportional to the square of its blade-length. The maximum blade-
length of a turbine is limited by both the strength and stiffness of its material.
Labor and maintenance costs increase only gradually with increasing turbine
size, so to minimize costs, wind farm turbines are basically limited by the
strength of materials, and siting requirements.
Typical modern wind turbines have diameters of 40 to 90 metres (130 to 300 ft)
and are rated between 500 kW and 2 MW. As of 2010 the most powerful turbine
is rated at 7 MW.

Generator

For large, commercial size horizontal-axis wind turbines, the generator is

mounted in a nacelle at the top of a tower, behind the hub of the turbine rotor.
Typically wind turbines generate electricity through asynchronous machines
that are directly connected with the electricity grid. Usually the rotational speed
of the wind turbine is slower than the equivalent rotation speed of the electrical
network - typical rotation speeds for a wind generators are 5-20 rpm while a
directly connected machine will have an electrical speed between 750-3600
249
rpm. Therefore, a gearbox is inserted between the rotor hub and the generator.
This also reduces the generator cost and weight.
Commercial size generators have a rotor carrying a field winding so that a
rotating magnetic field is produced inside a set of windings called the stator.
While the rotating field winding consumes a fraction of a percent of the
generator output, adjustment of the field current allows good control over the
generator output voltage. Enercon has produced gearless wind turbines with
permanent magnet generators for many years, and Siemens produces a
gearless "inverted generator" 3MW model while developing a 6MW model This
gives better reliability and performance than gear based systems. Gearless
turbines
Parts of DIY Wind turbine
Older style wind generators rotate at a constant speed, to match power line
frequency, which allowed the use of less costly induction generators. Newer
wind turbines often turn at whatever speed generates electricity most
efficiently. This can be solved using multiple technologies such as doubly fed
induction generators or full-effect converters where the variable frequency
current produced is converted to DC and then back to AC, matching the line
frequency and voltage. Although such alternatives require costly equipment
and cause power loss, the turbine can capture a significantly larger fraction of
the wind energy. In some cases, especially when turbines are sited offshore,
the DC energy will be transmitted from the turbine to a central (onshore)
inverter for connection to the grid.

250
Blades

Blade design
Blades can be made from simple objects as barrels
The ratio between the speed of the wind and the speed of the blade tips is
called tip speed ratio. High efficiency 3-blade-turbines have tip speed/wind
speed ratios of 6 to 7.
Modern wind turbines are designed to spin at varying speeds
(a consequence of their generator design, see above). Use of aluminum and
composite materials in their blades has contributed to low rotational inertia,
which means that newer wind turbines can accelerate quickly if the winds pick
up, keeping the tip speed ratio more nearly constant. Operating closer to their
optimal tip speed ratio during energetic gusts of wind allows wind turbines to
improve energy capture from sudden gusts that are typical in urban settings.
In contrast, older style wind turbines were designed with heavier steel blades,
which have higher inertia, and rotated at speeds governed by the AC frequency
of the power lines. The high inertia buffered the changes in rotation speed and
thus made power output more stable.
The speed and torque at which a wind turbine rotates must be controlled for
several reasons:
• To optimize the aerodynamic efficiency of the rotor in light winds.
• To keep the generator within its speed and torque limits.
• To keep the rotor and hub within their centripetal force limits. The centripetal
force from the spinning rotors increases as the square of the rotation speed,
which makes this structure sensitive to over speed.
• To keep the rotor and tower within their strength limits. Because the power
of the wind increases as the cube of the wind speed, turbines have to be
built to survive much higher wind loads (such as gusts of wind) than those
from which they can practically generate power. Since the blades generate
more downwind force (and thus put far greater stress on the tower) when

251
 they are producing torque, most wind turbines have ways of reducing torque
in high winds.
• To enable maintenance; because it is dangerous to have people working on
a wind turbine while it is active, it is sometimes necessary to bring a turbine
to a full stop.
• To reduce noise; As a rule of thumb, the noise from a wind turbine increases
with the fifth power of the relative wind speed (as seen from the moving tip
of the blades). In noise-sensitive environments, the tip speed can be limited
to approximately 60 m/s.
Blade count
The determination of the number of blades involves design considerations of
aerodynamic efficiency, component costs, system reliability, and aesthetics.
Noise emissions are affected by the location of the blades upwind or downwind
of the tower and the speed of the rotor. Given that the noise emissions from the
blades' trailing edges and tips vary by the 5th power of blade speed, a small
increase in tip speed can make a large difference.
Wind turbines developed over the last 50 years have almost universally used
either two or three blades. Aerodynamic efficiency increases with number of
blades but with diminishing return. Increasing the number of blades from one
to two yields a six percent increase in aerodynamic efficiency, whereas
increasing the blade count from two to three yields only an additional three
percent in efficiency. Further increasing the blade count yields minimal
improvements in aerodynamic efficiency and sacrifices too much in blade
stiffness as the blades become thinner.
Component costs that are affected by blade count are primarily for materials
and manufacturing of the turbine rotor and drive train. Generally, the fewer the
number of blades, the lower the material and manufacturing costs will be. In
addition, the fewer the number of blades, the higher the rotational speed can
be. This is because blade stiffness requirements to avoid interference with the
tower limit how thin the blades can be manufactured, but only for upwind
252
machines; deflection of blades in a downwind machine results in increased
tower clearance.
Fewer blades with higher rotational speeds reduce peak torques in the drive
train, resulting in lower gearbox and generator costs.

The 98 meter diameter, two-bladed NASA/DOE Mod-5B wind turbine was the
largest operating wind turbine in the world in the early 1990s.
System reliability is affected by blade count primarily through the dynamic
loading of the rotor into the drive train and tower systems. While aligning the
wind turbine to changes in wind direction (yawing), each blade experiences a
cyclic load at its root end depending on blade position. This is true of one, two,
three blades or more. However, these cyclic loads when combined together at
the drive train shaft are symmetrically balanced for three blades, yielding
smoother operation during turbine yaw. Turbines with one or two blades can
use a pivoting teetered hub to also nearly eliminate the cyclic loads into the
drive shaft and system during yawing.
Finally, aesthetics can be considered a factor in that some people find that the
three-bladed rotor is more pleasing to look at than a one- or two-bladed rotor.

Blade materials
New generation wind turbine designs are pushing power generation from the
single megawatt range to upwards of 10 MW. The common trend of these larger
capacity designs are larger and larger wind turbine blades. Covering a larger
area effectively increases the tip-speed ratio of a turbine at a given wind speed,
thus increasing the energy extraction capability of a turbine system.
Current production wind turbine blades are manufactured as large as
100 meters in diameter with prototypes in the range of 110 to 120 meters.
In 2001, an estimated 50 million kilograms of fiberglass laminate were used in
wind turbine blades. New materials and manufacturing methods provide the
opportunity to improve wind turbine efficiency by allowing for larger, stronger
blades.
253
One of the most important goals when designing larger blade systems is to
keep blade weight under control. Since blade mass scales as the cube of the
turbine radius, loading due to gravity becomes a constraining design factor for
systems with larger blades.
Current manufacturing methods for blades in the 40 to 50 meter range involve
various proven fiberglass composite fabrication techniques. Manufactures
such as Nordex and GE Wind use an infusion process for blade manufacture.
Other manufacturers use variations on this technique, some including carbon
and wood with fiberglass in an epoxy matrix. Options also include prepreg
fiberglass and vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding. Essentially each of
these options is variations on the same theme: a glass-fiber reinforced polymer
composite constructed through various means with differing complexity.
Perhaps the largest issue with more simplistic, open-mold, wet systems are the
emissions associated with the volatile organics released into the atmosphere.
Preimpregnated materials and resin infusion techniques avoid the release of
volatiles by containing all reaction gases. However, these contained processes
have their own challenges, namely the production of thick laminates necessary
for structural components becomes more difficult. As the preform resin
permeability dictates the maximum laminate thickness, bleeding is required to
eliminate voids
and insure proper resin distribution. A unique solution to resin distribution is
the use of a partially preimpregnated fiberglass. During evacuation, the dry
fabric provides a path for airflow and, once heat and pressure are applied, resin
may flow into the dry region resulting in a thoroughly impregnated laminate
structure.
Epoxy-based composites are of greatest interest to wind turbine manufacturers
because they deliver a key combination of environmental, production, and cost
advantages over other resin systems. Epoxies also improve wind turbine blade
composite manufacture by allowing for shorter cure cycles, increased
durability, and improved surface finish. Prepreg operations further improve
254
cost-effective operations by reducing processing cycles, and therefore
manufacturing time, over wet lay-up systems. As turbine blades are
approaching 60 meters and greater, infusion techniques are becoming more
prevalent as the traditional resin transfer moulding injection time is too long as
compared to the resin set-up time, thus limiting laminate thickness. Injection
forces resin through a thicker ply stack, thus depositing the resin where in the
laminate structure before gelatin occurs. Specialized epoxy resins have been
developed to customize lifetimes and viscosity to tune resin performance in
injection applications.
Carbon fiber-reinforced load-bearing spars have recently been identified as a
cost-effective means for reducing weight and increasing stiffness. The use of
carbon fibers in 60 meter turbine blades is estimated to result in a 38%
reduction in total blade mass and a 14% decrease in cost as compared to a
100% fiberglass design. The use of carbon fibers has the added benefit of
reducing the thickness of fiberglass laminate sections, further addressing the
problems associated with resin wetting of thick lay-up sections. Wind turbine
applications of carbon fiber may also benefit from the general trend of
increasing use and decreasing cost of carbon fiber materials.
Smaller blades can be made from light metals such as aluminum. Wood and
canvas sails were originally used on early windmills due to their low price,
availability, and ease of manufacture. These materials, however, require
frequent maintenance during their lifetime. Also, wood and canvas have a
relatively high drag (low aerodynamic efficiency) as compared to the force they
capture. For these reasons they have been mostly replaced by solid airfoils.

255
Tower
Typically, 2 types of towers exist: floating towers and land-based towers.
Tower height
Wind velocities increase at higher altitudes due to surface aerodynamic drag
(by land or water surfaces) and the viscosity of the air. The variation in velocity
with altitude, called wind shear, is most dramatic near the surface.
Wind turbines generating electricity at the San Gorgonio Pass Wind Farm.
Typically, in daytime the variation follows the wind profile power law, which
predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude.
Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the expected wind speeds by
10% and the expected power by 34%. To avoid buckling, doubling the tower
height generally requires doubling the diameter of the tower as well, increasing
the amount of material by a factor of at least four.
At night time, or when the atmosphere becomes stable, wind speed close to the
ground usually subsides whereas at turbine hub altitude it does not decrease
that much or may even increase. As a result the wind speed is higher and a
turbine will produce more power than expected from the 1/7th power law:
doubling the altitude may increase wind speed by 20% to 60%. A stable
atmosphere is caused by radiative cooling of the surface and is common in a
temperate climate: it usually occurs when there is a (partly) clear sky at night.
When the (high altitude) wind is strong (a 10-meter wind speed higher than
approximately 6 to 7 m/s) the stable atmosphere is disrupted because of
friction turbulence and the atmosphere will turn neutral. A daytime atmosphere
is either neutral (no net radiation; usually with strong winds and/or heavy
clouding) or unstable (rising air because of ground heating — by the sun). Here
again the 1/7th power law applies or is at least a good approximation of the
wind profile. Indiana had been rated as having a wind capacity of 30,000 MW,
but by raising the expected turbine height from 50 m to 70 m, the wind capacity
estimate was raised to 40,000 MW, and could be double that at 100 m.

256
For HAWTs, tower heights approximately two to three times the blade length
have been found to balance material costs of the tower against better utilization
of the more expensive active components.
Foundations
Wind turbines, by their nature, are very tall slender structures; this can cause a
number of issues when the structural design of the foundations is considered.
The foundations for a conventional engineering structure are designed mainly
to transfer the vertical load (dead weight) to the ground, this generally allows
for a comparatively unsophisticated arrangement to be used. However in the
case of wind turbines, due to the high wind and environmental loads
experienced there is a significant horizontal load that needs to be accounted
for.
This loading regime causes large moment loads to be applied to the
foundations of a wind turbine. As a result, considerable attention needs to be
given when designing the footings to ensure that the turbines are sufficiently
restrained to operate efficiently In the current Det Norske Veritas (DNV)
guidelines for the design of wind turbines the angular deflection of the
foundations are limited to 0.5°.
Wind farms
Wind turbines of various sizes are available commercially. Small machines are
often used for stand alone applications like domestic or small scale industrial
needs. When we have to generate large quantities of power, several wind
turbines are clubbed together and installed in clusters, forming a wind farm or
wind park.
There are several advantages in clustering wind machines. The installation,
operation and maintenance of such plants are easier than managing several
scattered units, delivering the same power. Moreover, the power transmission
can be more efficient as the electricity may be transformed to a higher voltage.
Several steps are involved in the successful planning and development of a
wind farm. They are:
257
1. preliminary site identification
2. detailed technical and economical analysis
3. environment, social and legal appraisal and
4. micro-siting and construction
The first step in the development of a wind farm is to identify a suitable
location, having reasonably high wind velocity. Once the broad geographical
region for the development of the proposed wind farm is identified, it may be
possible to locate several sites which could be used for constructing the wind
farm. Wind data available from local weather stations, airports etc. or published
documents like wind maps may be used for this purpose.
A candidate site must usually have a minimum annual average wind speed of 5
m/s. Once such sites available in the region are identified, computer models are
used for estimating the energy potential of these sites in different time frames.
The WERA model, provided with this book, can be used for this purpose. Thus
the candidate sites are compared and short listed on the basis of their wind
potential.
In the first stage we relied on existing information to rate the potentiality of the
sites. In the next stage, more rigorous analysis is required. The nature of the
wind spectra available at the sites is to be thoroughly understood for the
detailed technical analysis. For this, wind speed has to be measured at the hub
height of the proposed turbines. Anemometers installed on guyed masts are
used for wind measurement.
Several anemometers, installed at different locations, are preferred for accurate
analysis. Wind speed at the site has to be monitored at least for six months. If
time and resources permit, the duration may further be increased to one year or
even more.
Once long term wind data collected over short periods are available, detailed
wind resource analysis is possible using computer programmes like WERA. As
discussed in the next chapter, the total kWh output from a turbine, at a given
site, depends on the matching between the site’s wind profile and the machine
258
characteristics. Hence, it is advisable to include the behavior of the turbines,
proposed to be installed at the site, in the performance model. This gives us
the capacity factor and kWh output from the turbines over different time
intervals. Apart from the sites wind potential, other factors like access to the
grid, roads and highways, existing infrastructure for power transmission and
ground condition at the site are also to be critically analyzed while choosing
the site. The local electricity distribution system at these sites should be
examined to ensure that minimum infrastructures are additionally required for
feeding the power to the grid. Similarly, accessibility to major highways and
roads is also an important factor, as we have to transport the turbine and its
components to the site. Availability and cost of land for the wind farm
development is another major consideration. If our intention is to sell the
generated power, an understanding on the prevailing energy market is also
essential. The physical condition of the site should be thoroughly examined at
this stage. This will give us an idea about the cost of foundation and other
related constructions. The size (power rating) and number of turbines required
for the project can be decided. Cost of the turbines and its accessories as well
as the mode of maintenance may be negotiated with the manufacturer or local
suppliers.

For bringing the project to a reality, apart from being economically viable, it
should be environmentally acceptable. The major concerns are visual effects,
avian interaction, noise emission and ecological factors. Local survey and
consultation with the local planning authority would be helpful in determining
the environmental acceptability of the project. It should also be ensured that
the proposed project is acceptable to the local residents. The developer should
discuss the proposed project with the local community for avoiding any
possible hassles in a later stage. It should be ensured that the project comply
with the statutory requirements prevailing in the region. The sites, which do not
meet the requirements in the above aspects, may be dropped from the ‘short
list’.
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Finally, the site satisfying all these requirements-technical, economical,
environmental, legal and social-in the best possible way can be selected for the
wind farm development. Next step is to formulate a detailed proposal for the
project. Suitability of the site in all the above aspects should be described in
the proposal. The proposal may then be submitted to the appropriate body (for
example, the local planning authority) for further processing and approval. As
development of wind farm is a capital intensive affair (approximately costing $
1 million per MW of installed capacity), possible funding for the project also
should be located side by side.
Once the proposal for the project is approved by the competent authority, then
we can proceed further with the micro sitting. Micro siting involves laying out
the turbine and its accessories at optimum locations at the selected site.
Turbines are placed in rows with the direction of incoming wind perpendicular
to it

When several turbines are installed in clusters, the turbulence due to the
rotation of blades of one turbine may affect the nearby turbines. Inorder to
minimize the effect of this rotor induced turbulence, a spacing of 4 DT to 5 DT is
provided within the rows, where DT is the rotor diameter. Similarly, the spacing
between the rows may be around 10 DT, so that the wind stream passing
through one turbine is restored before it interacts with the next turbine. These
spacing may be further increased for better performance, but may be expensive
as we require more land and other resources for farther spacing.
It is a usual practice to leave a clearance of (hT + DT) from the roads, where hT is
the hub height of the turbine. Leaving this clearance on both sides, the row
width available at a given site can be calculated. If not constrained by other
factors, the number of turbines per row (NTR) may be estimated as
LR
N TR = +1
SR
where LR is the row length and SR is the row spacing. If PF is the total capacity
of the wind farm and PT is the rated power of a turbine, then
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 5DT

Distance between the turbines

(within the rows)

Distance between the

turbine rows
10DT

Figure 5.9 Typical layout of Wind Farm

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 P
NT = F
PT

where NT is the total number of turbines in the farm. Hence the total number of
rows is obviously
NT
NR =
N TR

Although the above calculations can give us some indication on the turbine
placement, in practice, the final placement of individual turbines at a given site
depends on several factors like the shape and size of the available land,
existing electrical network etc. Turbines may be relocated due to environmental
factors also-for example we may violate the above
norms to locate turbine at a point which is less prominent from a visually
critical spot.
Offshore wind farms
In the recent years, there is a strong trend to shift the wind farm activities to
offshore. Offshore wind farms are not a new concept as the possibilities for
such projects were explored even during the 1970s and 1980s. Though these
studies could bring out many critical issues related to the offshore wind
potential and its exploitation, the real offshore hardware was realized with the
commissioning of the Helgoland project in Germany during 1989. This was
followed by several projects like Blekinge, Sweden (1990) and Vindeby,
Denmark (1991). Today, a number of ambitious offshore projects are in the
pipeline.
Offshore wind energy projects have several attractions. Offshore winds are
stronger and steadier than the onshore wind. For example, at 10-15 m from the
shore, the velocity of wind is higher by 20-25 per cent. As the wind velocity at
the site critically influences the energy generated and thus the cost of unit
generation, this stronger wind spectra is a significant advantage. Further, in

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comparison with the onshore wind, offshore wind is less turbulent. This
reduces the fatigue loads on turbines and thus increases their service life.
Offshore wind projects are more environmentally acceptable as the land use,
noise effect and visual impact may not be major concerns for planning
approvals. Land based turbines are often made to run at tip speed ratios lowers
than the optimum to reduce the noise pollution. Offshore systems can be
designed to operate at higher speeds-some times 10 per cent higher-resulting
in better aerodynamic efficiency. Similarly, offshore units are bigger in size and
hence have better economics. Currently, bigger turbines of 2 MW or more
capacity are being used for offshore installations. As aesthetic is not a major
concern at offshore, it is possible to go for two bladed rotors instead of the
conventional three bladed designs. This not only reduces the weight, but also
improves the aerodynamic efficiency.
For offshore installation, turbines are to be adapted to the marine environment.
A clear understanding of the offshore conditions is essential for the design.
Apart from the wind characteristics, the important factors are depth of water,
wave conditions, see bed characteristics, proximity to electrical network,
possibility of ice formation and effect on marine habitat. With the present day’s
technology, it is not feasible to build the farms at water depths over 40 m.
Hence most of the farms are built near to the shore-probably within 10 km-
where we have shallow water. Height of waves increases with the wind velocity
and depth of seabed. Wave heights vary between 4 to 8 m at shallow bed where
as at water depths between 16 to 29 m, the wave height could be as high as 16
to 20 m. If site-specific measurements are not available, wave characteristics
are to be modeled prior to the farm design. Similarly, possibilities of ice
formation should also be taken into account. Offshore turbines are to be
guarded against corrosion with special surface finishing. Tower and nacelle are
made airtight to avoid the exposure of sensitive components to salty air. Some
designs are also provided with a dehumidification system. Due to the harsh
marine environment, it may be difficult to reach the turbine frequently for
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maintenance. Hence, these high reliability- minimum maintenance turbines are
designed to be remote controlled, as far as possible. Some of the modern
turbines, tailor made for offshore use, are provided with special cranes for easy
repair and maintenance of the blades and generator. Special platforms with
cranes are also provided at the base for handling the components.
Cost and Economics of wind energy
1. Cost and investment structures
Investment costs, including auxiliary costs for foundation, grid-connection,
and so on
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs.
Electricity production/average wind speed.
Turbine lifetime.
Discount rate.
Of these, the most important parameters are the wind turbines’ (WT) electricity
production and their investment costs. As electricity production is highly
dependent on wind conditions, choosing the right site is critical to achieving
economic viability.
2. Operation and maintenance costs of wind power
O&M costs are related to a limited number of cost components:
Insurance
Regular maintenance
Repair
Spare parts
Administration
3. The cost of energy generated by wind power
The total cost per kWh produced (unit cost) is calculated by discounting and
levelising investment and O&M costs over the lifetime of the turbine and then
dividing them by the annual electricity production. The unit cost of generation
is thus calculated as an average cost over the turbine’s lifetime. In reality,
actual costs will be lower than the calculated average at the beginning of the
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turbine’s life, due to low O&M costs, and will increase over the period of turbine
use.
4. Development of the cost of wind power
The rapid European and global development of wind power capacity has had a
strong influence on the cost development of wind power within the past 20
years. To illustrate the trend towards lower production costs of wind power, a
historical case showing the production costs for different sizes and vintages of
WTs has been constructed. Due to limited data, it has only been possible to
construct this case for Denmark, though a similar trend was observed in
Germany at a slightly slower pace.
5. Future development of the cost of wind power
Power production costs of wind-generated electricity have fallen steadily as the
technology has developed. Future cost reductions are a function of how the
market grows. Looking forward, using analysis based on the “experience
curve” method, it is anticipated that power production costs will continue to
decrease. With a doubling of total installed capacity, the cost of production per
kWh from new wind turbines will fall by between 9% and 17%.
6. External costs of power production
These calculations take no account of the environmental benefits to society of
wind power or the “external costs” (the environmental and social costs not
reflected in the market price) of conventional electricity generation. If those
environmental costs were levied on electricity generation according to their
impact, many renewables, including wind power, would not need any support.
If, at the same time, direct and indirect subsidies to fossil fuels and nuclear
power were removed, the need to support renewable electricity generation
would seriously diminish or cease to exist.
7. Development and Investment Costs of Offshore Wind Power
Offshore wind only accounts for a small amount of the total installed wind
power capacity in the world is approximately 1 per cent. The development of
offshore wind has mainly been in northern European countries, around the
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North Sea and the Baltic Sea, where about 20 projects have been implemented.
At the end of 2007, almost 1100 MW of capacity was located offshore. Offshore
wind is still around 50 per cent more expensive than onshore wind. However,
due to the expected benefits of more wind and the lower visual impact of the
larger turbines, several countries now have very ambitious goals concerning
offshore wind. In comparison to land-based turbines, the main differences in
the cost structure are related to two issues:
Foundations are considerably more expensive for offshore turbines. The
costs depend on both the sea depth and the type of foundation being built
Transformer stations and sea transmission cables increase costs.
Connections between turbines and the centrally located transformer
station, and from there to the coast, generate additional costs.
8. The Cost of Energy Generated by Offshore Wind Power
Although the costs are higher for offshore wind farms, they are somewhat
offset by a higher total electricity production from the turbines, due to higher
offshore wind speeds. An on-land installation normally has around 2000–2300
full load hours per year, while for a typical offshore installation this figure
reaches more than 3000 full load hours per year.
9. Costs of conventional power production
When conventional power is substituted by wind power, the avoided cost
depends on the degree to which wind power substitutes each of three
components – fuel cost, O&M costs and capital. It is generally accepted that
implementing wind power avoids the full fuel cost and a considerable portion
of the O&M costs of a displaced conventional power plant. The level of avoided
capital costs depends on the extent to which wind power capacity can displace
investments in new conventional power plants and is thus directly tied to the
capacity credit of wind plant – the percentage of conventional capacity that a
wind turbine can replace. 25% is considered to be a reasonable capacity credit
for wind power when the volume of wind electricity in the grid is less than 10%
of total electricity production.
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Problem-1: Calculate the maximum power output of a 15 m diameter wind
turbine at one atmospheric pressure and wind speed of 12 m/s. Assume the
density of air is 1.2 kg/m3.

1 3 1 π × 15 2
Total power output = AρV = × × 1.23 × 12 3 = 187.80 kW
2 2 4
Problem-2: Calculate the power in a wind moving with speed of 6 m/s incident
on a wind turbine with blades of 100 m diameter. How does the power change if
the wind speed increases to 12 m/s? Assume the density of air is 1.2 kg/m3.
Step-1: When V = 6 m/s

1 1 π × 100 2
Total power available = AρV 3 = × × 1.2 × 6 3 = 1017.876 kW
2 2 4
Step-2: When V = 12 m/s

1 1 π × 100 2
Total power available = AρV 3 = × × 1.2 × 12 3 = 8143.01kW
2 2 4

Conclusion: If wind speed increases by a factor of two, the power output would
increase by a factor of eight. Also power is proportional to the area.

Problem-3: Wind speed is 10m/s at the standard atmospheric pressure.

Calculate (i) the total power density in wind stream, (ii) the total power
produced by a turbine of 100 m diameter with an efficiency of 40%. Air density
is 1.226 kg/m3
Solution
1 3
(i) Total power density = Total power / A = ρV
2
1
= × 1.226 × 103 = 613W / m 2
2
(ii) Total power produced = Efficiency × Power density × Area

π × 100 2
= 0.4 × 613 × = 1924.8kW
4

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Problem-4: Wind at atmospheric pressure and 15°C has a speed of 10 m/s.
A 10-m diameter wind turbine is operating at 5rpm with maximum efficiency of
40%. Calculate (i) the total power density in wind stream, (ii) the maximum
power density, (iii) the actual power density, (iv) the power output of the turbine
and (v) the axial thrust on the turbine structure.
Solution
1 3 1
Total power density = ρV = × 1.226 × 103 = 613 W / m2
2 2
P max 8
Maximum power density = = ρV 3
A 27
8
= × 1.226 × 103 = 363 W / m3
27
Actual power density = Efficiency × Total power density
= 0.40 × 613 = 245.2 W/m2

πD2
Power output = 0.245 ×
4
0.245 × π × 102
= = 19.33kW
4
π π
Axial thrust, Fmax = ρD 2 V 2 = × 1.226 × 102 × 102
9 9
= 4277.40 N

Problem-5 Wind at atmospheric pressure and temperature of 15°C has a

velocity of 10 m/s. The turbine has diameter of 120 m and its operating speed is
40 rpm at maximum efficiency. Calculate (i) the total power density in the wind
stream, (ii) the maximum obtainable power density assuming η=40%, (iii) the
total power produced (in kW) and (iv) the torque and axial thrust.
Given: V = 10 m/s, T = 15°C, Radius of rotor = 120/2 = 60m.

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Speed of rotor, ω = (2π×40) / 60 = 4.188 rad/s.
Density, ρ = P/RT = (1.01325×105) / (287 × 288) = 1.225 kg/m3.
Area of rotor = πR2= π×602=2936.7 m2.
For maximum output, CPmax = 0.593
Tip-speed ratio, λ = (Rω/V) = (60 ×4.188 / 10) = 25.128
Power available in wind, P = ½ ρAV3 = ½ × 1.225 × 2936.7 × 103 = 1.798 MW
Maximum conceivable torque, Tm = PR/V = (1.798 × 106×60 / 10)
=10.788 × 106N
Maximum torque coefficient, CTMax = CPMax / λ = (0.593 / 25.128) = 0.0236
Torque produced at the shaft = TS, Max = TM × CT Max = 0.254 × 106 N.
Problem-6: An industry wants to install a wind turbine to generate annual
energy of 50000 kWh. The wind speed at the location is 7 m/s at a height of 10
metre from the ground. Which turbine would you suggest to the industry?
Assume coefficient of performance, Cp = 0.40
Transmission losses (rotor to generator) tloss = 0.90
Generator losses, gloss = 0.90
Capacity factor = 0.30
Number of hours in a year = 24 × 365 = 8760 hours
Density of air = 1.22 kg/m3
Step-1: Power density of wind (Ideal) (power per unit area)
= ½ × ρ × V3 = ½ × 1.22 × 73 = 209.23 W/m2

Step-2: Actual power density

= ideal power density × overall loss factor
Overall loss factor = cp × gloss × tloss = 0.4 × 0.90 × 0.90 = 0.324
∴ Actual power density = 209.23 × 0.324 = 67.79 W/m2
Annual energy density (useful) = power density × number of hours per year
= 67.79 × 8760 = 593.844 kWh/m2

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Note: The real annual energy density will be less as the wind of rated speed will
not blow for 8760 hours. Thus, considering the capacity factor:
Real annual energy density
= Annual energy density (useful) × capacity factor
593.844 × 0.3 = 178.15kWh/m2
Step-3: Rotor size and turbine power rating
Area of the rotor
= Total annual energy required / real annual energy density
= (50000/178.15) = 280.65 m2

Radius of the rotor blade, (R)

πR2 = 280.65
R = 9.45 m
Step-3: Actual power rating of the turbine
Actual power rating of the turbine is obtained by multiplying the actual power
density with the area of the rotor
Power rating of the turbine = Actual power density × area of rotor
= 67.79 × 280.65 = 19025.26 W

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