PAPER 22

Three Stage of Crushing

An Alternative to Sag Circuits

By Christian Ottergren
Sandvik Rock Processing
Stationsplan
S-233 81 Svedala
Sweden
Phone no. +46 40 406831
Cell phone: +46 70 5089021
E-mail: christian.ottergren@sandvik.com

Key words: SAG Mill, Crusher, Cone crusher, Pebble crusher, Heap leaching, Wear cost, ASR
Automatic Setting Regulation, Hydrocone, Sandvik, CODELCO

Proceedings The Westin

36th Annual Meeting of the January 20-22, 2004
Canadian Mineral Processors Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
ABSTRACT

Modern crushers offer double the capacity and performance of classic models. In some
cases crushers are replacing SAG circuits, the advantages being smaller investment and
lower operating costs. Is Tertiary crushing replacing SAG milling as the most optimal
grinding method? Does tertiary crushing achieve the same outcomes as SAG milling?
This paper considers these questions and provides an assessment of the strengths of
tertiary crushing in comparison to other methods. Two case studies: a Scandinavian
Platinum Project, and CODELCO, are also presented.

INTRODUCTION

Research on basic parameters in crushing started at Chalmers University in 1993. The

initial project has developed and now involves several related areas. Modelling in
accordance with new theories has resulted in modified designs which have been
implemented and shown improved performance at operating mines in Chile. Sandvik
Rock Processing is a partner and a major supporter of this program. This paper will cover
some of the achievements and give references to the research reports.

The mining industry has for many years mainly used crushers of the traditional 7’crusher
concept, with thread adjustment of the setting and with a spring or hydraulic overload
system. This machine type has been the workhorse for crushing throughout the world.
The explanation for the dominance of this machine is that it has a reliable mechanical
design. It can be estimated that about 2000 crushers of this design are still at work.

Technical development in all fields utilizes new technologies like high-strength materials,
advanced control systems and more extensive use of hydraulics. This is the reason why
today’s motorcars, for example, are more efficient, more reliable and more
environmentally friendly than their predecessors in the 1950s. Crushers are no exception.
This paper will cover experience from the latest-generation cone crushers developed by
Sandvik Rock Processing.

The parts in this paper related to the CODELCO ElTeniente copper mine in Chile are co-
authored with responsible personnel from the operation at the mine.

Research related to crushers

Fundamental modelling of cone crushers

The ability to predict crusher performance is of central interest in many process

applications for the mining industry and for aggregate producers. A complete description
of cone crusher performance comprises four different main aspects. These aspects are
size reduction, capacity, energy consumption and wear of crusher liners. Size reduction
and capacity have been modelled in previously presented papers. This paper will focus on
prediction of pressure distributions in the crushing chamber and the total crushing force
and power draw of the crusher.
From the local compression ratio at an arbitrary level in the crushing chamber a local
pressure distribution arises. By integrating the pressure distributions a resulting crushing
force acting on the mantle is achieved. From equilibrium of forces the rotational torque,
which is needed for the eccentric motion, can be calculated. The torque multiplied with
the eccentric speed corresponds to the theoretical power needed to achieve the required
size reduction of the material. The total electrical power supplied to the electric motor
includes mechanical losses in the hydrodynamic bearings, bevel gears and belt
transmission and losses in the electric motor itself.

The model can be used for simulation of power draw for different crushing chamber
designs. Thereby, the optimal design can be found for a given crushing task. For
example, the specific energy input in relation to the achieved size reduction can be
minimised or the maximum possible size reduction for a crusher can be predicted.

Prediction of geometry changes due to wear in cone crushers

From the fundamental research it is possible to predict the output from the crusher
provided its geometry, settings and the properties of the feed material are known.
However, because of wear, the geometry of the crushing chambers will change and the
performance will suffer. Because of this, it is desirable to predict how the geometry
changes in the crusher. A model used to predict the worn geometry of a jaw crusher has
been developed earlier. This model has now been implemented for a cone crusher. A
device for monitoring chamber profiles has been developed in order to measure how the
geometry of the crushing liners changes. The results show that the predicted geometry is
similar to the measured, and that the change in capacity corresponds well to the predicted
value.

Optimisation of crushing plants

The overall production process of crushed rock products can be improved with the
assistance of computer simulation and optimisation. Crushing plants are used both by
aggregate producers and the mining industry. To achieve optimal parameters for a
crushing plant it is not only the performance of the individual machines but also the cost
of running them that should be taken into account. A novel method for modelling and
optimisation of crushing plants is currently under development. An object-oriented
approach has been chosen for the modelling task. Using an evolutionary genetic
algorithm then solves the optimisation problem. The knowledge gained from the
simulation and optimisation can be used to improve the overall production of crushed
rock material. Obtained results can be used to improve profit, maximise output of desired
fractions, increase product quality, decrease energy consumption and increase machine
efficiency.
The latest-generation cone crushers

One might be tempted to think that today’s Hydrocone crushers are a version of the Allis-
Chalmers’ Hydrocone. However, that is hardly a correct view. Basic principles from
previous designs are used - just as the car industry still uses many of the proven
principles, which date back as far as the early 1900s. You will for example recognize the
Hydroset concept for crusher adjustment, a well-proven system from primary gyratory
crushers. The Hydrocone crushers have all major functions performed by just one
hydraulic piston. The adjustment of the setting, tramp iron release, clearing of a blocked
crushing chamber and compensation for wear are all handled by the single Hydroset
cylinder and piston. Adjustment of setting by a hydraulic piston creates an opportunity to
adjust “on the fly”. The hydraulic pressure can also easily be measured, meaning that an
indication of the actual crushing force is available for the full-load control system
discussed below.

The eccentric throw of the Hydrocone crushers can easily be changed, offering an
optimum balance between crusher throughput and reduction ratio. The throughput can
thus be adjusted to match the capacity requirement, so that the whole circuit is optimized.
This is not possible using other crushing technology.

One issue that has had priority is service. The machine is fully serviced from the top.
Dozens of other service improvements could be mentioned. Availability factors reaching
97 % are not uncommon in operating plants.

High performance crushers.

Compared to most existing crushers, the H8800 can handle twice the power input, i.e.
800 Hp (600 kW), making it one of the most powerful crushing machines available. The
H8800 Hydrocone is an upgrade of the H-8000 and the biggest in size of these new-
generation crushers from Sandvik and has been developed specifically for the mining
industry in a Super Heavy Duty version.

The H8800 is designed to handle the very high crushing force, which is related to the
high power input. Installed power on a comminution machine is the first line of attack for
putting energy into reducing the ore. It can give higher capacity but should alternatively
be able to give improved reduction = finer mill feed = higher mill capacity = higher total
plant throughput.

As an example, the H8800 has been proven to do 198 % of the work of replaced
traditional 7’ crushers at CODELCO ElTeniete. The corresponding figure at Cananea is
176 %. (Calculated with Bond’s formula of comminution.)

ASR Automatic Setting Regulation.

The ability to regulate the setting under full load at any moment or even continuously,
and the possibility to sense the crushing force, are unique features that have been the
basis for an advanced regulation system. ASR has been developed in several generations
over more than thirty years by Sandvik. More than three thousand ASR systems have
been supplied. ASR provides the numerous possible smart functions that a computerized
system permits. The most important is that load is monitored all the time and the crusher
can continuously be pushed for maximum power draw and maximum crushing force and
still avoid overload. All variations in moisture, raw material characteristics and other feed
conditions are monitored. The necessary setting adjustments for wear are also provided
continuously and the normal drop in performance between adjustments is therefore
consigned to history.

Minimal capital investment, Easy installation.

The H8800 fits on a foundation for a traditional 7’ crusher. This means that the existing
crusher can be dismounted and a new high-performance unit can be installed in a few
shifts. A common way of installing an H8800 crusher is to put it on a frame together with
the motor, isolated from the foundation by rubber mountings. With this arrangement, the
dynamic forces will be reduced by 75 %. Just a simple steel structure can be used instead
of a heavy concrete foundation.

Wide span of mining applications.

The H8800 crusher has only been on the market for a good five years. The installation list
has now passed 50 units. Half of the installations have been to replace existing crushers
for a performance upgrade.
The references of the H8800 are already in many interesting application areas at the
world's largest copper, iron, gold and aggregate producers:
1. Finer mill feed gradation. Due to maximum power input/crushing force and
improved reduction, a finer mill feed can be achieved. This, in turn, will improve mill
performance.
2. Increased throughput. This can eliminate a bottleneck in an existing installation or
result in fewer units and provide a simpler solution when designing a new circuit.
3. Pebble crushing. Critical-size pebbles, generated in AG or SAG circuits, are reduced
in a pebble crushing circuit. The Hydrocone is designed for this very heavy-duty work.
4. Improved leaching recovery. The autogenous crushing process in an Hydrocone
helps liberate mineral grains to improve leachant penetration. With ASR patented
Multi-CSS mode it is possible to automatically alter settings up and down during
production and create a mix of bigger stones for a stable leach pad together with
material that is crushed finer for improved recovery. This is not possible using other
crushing technology.
5. Increased lump ore production. The ability to continuously control setting and the
easily changed eccentric throw make it possible to find the optimal parameters and
create more of a certain particle size while minimizing the production of fines. These
techniques were developed in the aggregate industry where the needs for specific
product gradations are both more commonplace and more demanding.
Results from Reference installations.
Mexicana de Cananea.

The first H-8000 Hydrocone in mining started producing on August 19th, 1996.
The crusher replaced an existing Symons 7’ in a secondary application.
The H-8000 has worked more than 40 000 hours and has processed about 40 000 000
tons in non-stop 24 hours/day operation.

After 7000 hours of operation with the first unit, Cananea decided to purchase a second
H-8000 unit, which started producing on November 8th, 1997.

The crushers have a considerably higher reduction ratio than the Symons 7’ machines.
The amount of -12.5 mm in the product has increased from 25 % to between 40 and 50
%. This is in line with our predictions, due to the increase in horsepower. The average
power consumption is 410 kW.
Wear cost on the Symons 7’ has been 0.0376 USD / ton
Wear cost on the H-8000 is 0.020 USD / ton
Note that the H-8000 machines do much more crushing work at almost half the cost, i.e.
the WEAR COST per ton of -12.5mm produced is ONE THIRD OF THE COST for
the replaced 7’ unit.

CODELCO ElTeniente.

CODELCO División ElTeniente operates the biggest underground mine in the world and
has more than 2200 kilometers of tunnels. It is located some 150 km from Santiago, the
capital city of Chile. The deposit is beautifully embedded in the Cordillera de Los Andes
at 2100 meters and was first explored by the North American citizen William Braden in
1905.

By processing daily 100 000 tons of copper ore with an average grade of 1.15 percent
copper, ElTeniente produces 350 000 tons of copper per year, which corresponds
approximately to 30 % of CODELCO-Chile’s total production.

The mineral is reduced in crushing and grinding stages. Copper and molybdenum
particles are separated from the barren material through a flotation process for further
processing in the smelter. There are two concentrators and the latest expansion has been
at the one called Colón. Colón has a secondary crushing stage, which consists of three
parallel lines and a tertiary stage of eight parallel lines in closed circuit. In order to
expand capacity, ElTeninte planned to install some new high-performance crushers to
replace the existing Standard and Short Head 7’ machines. The first Sandvik
H-8000 crusher was commissioned as a secondary crusher on March 21st, 1998. After
five months of operation it was decided to install a tertiary H-8000 crusher as well and
after intensive test work during a full year, CODELCO have since decided to purchase
totally twenty (20) Sandvik crushers for their existing operations as well as for
expansions in heap leach or SAG pebble circuits. The future production at ElTeniente is
based on only H-8000 / H8800 Hydrocone crushers.
Capacity study.

Secondary lines have each had an average capacity of 900 t / h with the Std 7’ crushers.
Screen oversize material which is fed to the crusher represents between 320 and 550 t / h.
There were other possible changes, which could have been made in the system in order to
increase capacity without replacement of crushers. However in an expansion program
these were made together with the installation of the new H-8000 crusher. It is now fed
an average rate of 1350 t / h to the line. The H-8000 crusher is far from its capacity limit
and the project group at the mine think it will, after some additional adjustment, be
possible to process 1500-1600 t / h per line. Reduction ratio has also been improved
considerably. With a Std 7’, the crusher product contained 25-30 % of -½ “, whereas the
H-8000 crusher gives a product containing 40-45 % - ½ “. The above numbers add up to
the fact that the secondary H-8000 crusher produces some 2.5 times as much finished
product.

The tertiary SH 7’ crushers produce 330-380 t / h, containing some 156-230 t / h of

-½” product, whereas the H-8000 crusher produces 490-590 t / h, containing some 322-
446 t / h of -½” product.
These numbers show that the tertiary H-8000 crusher produces some 2 times as much
finished product.

Wear cost study.

The average cost for liners in the secondary Std 7’ crushers is 75 000 USD per year.
Over 20 months of operation, the H8800 has had four liner changes. The cost for wear
liners is then at same level per year. However, with 2.5 times more product, the result is
that for the secondary H-8000 crusher, the cost for wear parts is less than half per
ton of finished product.

The average wear cost for the tertiary SH 7’ crushers was 90 0000 USD per year. This
makes about 0.075 USD per ton of -½ “ product. The tertiary H-8000 crusher was
initially at a similar cost level for wear parts. Sandvik has recently applied a liner profile
improvement that is giving good savings in this duty as well.

Other spare parts and consumables.

On the Std 7’ and SH 7’ crushers, the long-term experience is that the yearly cost for
other parts is somewhat higher than for the wear parts. As the H-8000 crusher has
operated for only a few years, we cannot yet see the full picture. However, the
preliminary indication is that there is a considerably better relation on this point, as
well as on oil consumption.

Energy study.

In the secondary section, the Std 7’ crushers have - in several tests - shown an average
energy consumption of 0.325 kWh / ton passing through the circuit. A similar study of
the H8800 gives an average of 0.59 kWh / ton. However, to compare the numbers, one
needs to keep in mind the higher reduction work in the H-8000. It produces some 50-75
% more finished product. The difference is then marginal.

In the tertiary section the SH 7’ crushers consume on average 0.91 kWh / ton. The
number for the H8800 is likewise 0.91 kWh / ton.
Conclusion: The amount of energy required per ton of -½ “ product does not show a
significant difference between the H-8000 and the previous crushers.

Why then were the H-8000 crushers selected?

• The H-8000 has a better ability to receive tramp iron. The crusher protects itself very
well with the Hydroset system and returns smoothly to the original setting. As
ElTeniente is an underground mine, it suffers from the common major problem of
contamination with tramp iron and wood in the feed. ElTeniente has installed magnets
and metal detectors and stations people specially assigned to watch the feed belt, but
there are still frequent passages of uncrushable obstacles.
• The H-8000 demonstrated lower operating costs.
• the H-8000 has a computerized system that interests ElTeniente. It gives them the
opportunity to optimize the crusher’s production.
• The strong point is the ability to utilize more energy per crusher, which improves
crushing circuits and reduces production costs in the existing infrastructure.

Unique SAG circuit at ElTeniente

At the end of 2001 four more H-8000 Hydrocones were delivered for a pebble crushing
facility in El Teniente’s latest expansion with a new SAG circuit. The
H-8000 is found to be well suited to the very heavy-duty work of pebble crushing. The
pebbles will be removed from the SAG mill and then will report to a closed pebble crushing
and screening circuit, from where the crushed pebbles will be fed straight into the ball mills.
This is an alternative approach compared to the traditional one, where the crushed pebbles
are often returned to the SAG mill. This means that the SAG circuit is completely relieved
of pebbles. The four H-8000 Hydrocones will handle pebbles coming from the existing SAG
circuit as well and the two existing 7’ crushers will be taken out of the line.

Cassette Crusher System

In the Mining Industry one often meets objections to the use of several units arguing this
is more complicated and ends to a greater risk of mechanical problems than when a
single, larger capacity unit is used. Experience in mines using multiple units has shown
the opposite and demonstrated that the total net plant availability is higher when one uses
several crushers instead of one large machine. The shutdown of a single unit means that
the entire processing ability of the plant grinds to a halt. In practice, smaller units do not
all go down at the same time, allowing the operator to continue producing with parallel
machines, albeit at a slightly lower level of production.
Maintenance is also improved in many aspects in today’s crushing machines. Liner
changes are normally not carried out at site. Instead liners are changed in a spare topshell
and on a spare mainshaft in a workshop. These items can be replaced within three to four
hours provided everything is properly prepared.

Sandvik has introduced a maintenance concept that takes this idea even further, replacing
the entire crusher with a properly prepared spare machine. We refer to these types of
modules as a “Cassette Crusher System”. An H6800 Hydrocone crusher as a complete
unit including motor and oil tank built as a “Cassette Crusher” weighs 35 000 kg. The
urn-around time is now reduced even further. The use of one spare cassette crusher
enables maintenance crews to overhaul that crusher in a planned manner in the comfort of
the maintenance workshop with proper light and lifting devices and without noise and
dust from operating machines. Maintenance of crushers can then be efficiently
coordinated with that of hauling and drilling equipment.

Cassette Crusher Systems of this type have been installed in the Alumbrera mine,
Argentina as well as in mines in Chile and Sweden.

As the complete spare unit is available as soon as it has been overhauled, change-out can
be scheduled at a planned stop. The total availability for crushers will thus reach the
figure 100% !

It is quite possibility to apply the Cassette Crusher System also to screens and feeders in
order to increase availability in a complete crushing and screening system.

Changed facts bring new light to the selection of comminution circuits

On Crushing and Screening circuits

The areas covered above have been developed i.e.:

• More effective crushers with double the Performance available previously.
o A traditional circuit with 12 crushers is today equivalent to 6 crushers
• New aspects of Maintenance that can improve availability considerably.
o Cassette crusher systems with operation availability 100 %
• New aspects on Dust Control systems developed in the aggregate industry but
just as applicable in the mining industry

On AG / SAG circuits

AG and SAG circuits were introduced into the mining industry and soon became the
popular choice instead of the traditional three-stage crushing circuit.
However these circuits soon became more complicated:
• The requirement for a pre-crushing or pebble-crushing circuit – This means
adding equipment of the same kind as is used in multi-staged crushing circuits
• The risk of failure with one big unit. E.g. the delivery time for a ring motor
• The drop in AG/SAG mill performance when coming into more competent ore
Worthwhile to make new studies
Staged crushing circuits can be the option instead of AG / SAG mills

Possible benefits:
• Less investment.
• Lower installed power.
• Smaller foundations.
• Lower or similar operating cost.
• Lower power cost.
• Shorter period for both study and implementation.
• Shorter period for commissioning and tuning to full stable production.
• Lower sensitivity to changes in ore characteristics.

Note: All of these benefits can be achieved with well-proven technology but with new
parameters giving new results.

References

Evertsson, C. M., “Prediction of Size Distributions from Compressing Crusher

Machines”, Proceedings EXPLO 95 Conference, Brisbane, Australia, 173-180, 4-7
September 1995.

Evertsson, C. M. and Bearman, R. A., “Investigation of Interparticle Breakage as Applied

to Cone Crushing”, Minerals Engineering, Vol. 10, 199-214, February, 1997

Evertsson, C. M., “Prediction of Cone Crusher Performance”, Lic. Eng. Thesis, Machine
and Vehicle Design, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden, January 17,
1997.

Evertsson, C. M., “Output Prediction of Cone Crushers”, Minerals Engineering, Vol. 11,
215-232, March, 1998.

Evertsson, C. M., “Modelling of Flow in Cone Crushers”, Minerals Engineering, Vol. 12,
1479-1499, December, 1999.

Evertsson, C. M., Cone Crusher Performance, PhD Thesis, Machine and Vehicle Design,
Chalmers University of Technology, 2000.

Evertsson, C. M. and Lindqvist, M., “Pressure Distributions and Power Draw in Cone
Crushers”, Minerals Engineering ´02, Perth, 25-27 Sept, 2002
(Accepted for publication in Minerals Engineering)
Lindqvist M. and Evertsson, C. M., “Prediction of worn geometry in cone crushers”,
Minerals Engingeering ´02, Perth, 25-27 Sept, 2002
(Accepted for publication in Minerals Engineering)

Svedensten P. and Evertsson, C. M., “Optimisation of crushing plants by using

evolutionary genetic algorithm”, Minerals Engingeering ´02, Perth, 25-27 Sept, 2002
(Accepted for publication in Minerals Engineering)

Evertsson, C. M. and Svedensten, P., “Rock Breakage Behaviour in Form Conditioned

Crushing”, internal report, Machine and Vehicle Systems, Chalmers University of
Technology, 2002.

SME 1998, New crushing technologies in mining applications

SME 1999, Improvements in Crusher Control
C. Ottergren, Svedala Industri, Sweden

SME 2000, Reducing production cost by crushing circuit improvement

C. Ottergren, Svedala Industri, Sweden
CODELCO ElTeniente Mine, Chile

New Developments in Comminution Circuits

A. Svensson and J.F. Steer, Svedala Industri, Sweden
Presented at Camborn school of Mines, Minerals Engineering Vol 3, 1990