Plant Classification 43

Plant Classification

Systematics : Systematics is the scientific study of the kinds and diversity of organisms
and the existing relationships amongst them.
History of classification : (1) Aristotle classified living organisms on the basis of
morphological similarities and created groups and species. (2) This system of classification based
on external morphological similarities is called ‘Artificial System of Classification’. (3) In India
Charak (1st century A.D.) is known as ‘Father of Ayurveda’. (4) John Ray, English naturalist
(1627–1705), introduced the ‘Concept of Species’.

4.1 Concept of species

Species is the most important and basic unit both in taxonomy and evolution. Species do not
interbreed with the members of other species.
Binomial nomenclature : In 1753, Carolus Linnaeus proposed the Binomial System of
Nomenclature and he is rightly called ‘The father of taxonomy'. According to this system, each
organism, whether plant or animal, bears two names: the first is generic name and second is the
species name. He published this system of Binomial Nomenclature in his book, ‘Species
Plantarum’.
Rules for Nomenclature : These rules are governed by the ‘International Code of
Botanical and Zoological Nomenclature’. (1) The generic name should begin with a capital letter
and species name should begin with a small letter. (2) Both the generic and the species name
should be written in italics.

4.2 Systems of classification

Artificial system of classification : The artificial system of classification is based on one
or few superficial characters.
Natural system of classification : Natural system of classification was proposed by John
Ray, an English naturalist. This system is based on the similarities and differences in the
organisms.
Phylogenetic classification : Classification of organisms is based on their phylogenetic
relationship or on the basis of evolution is called evolutionary or phylogenetic classification.
44 Plant Classification

4.3 Two kingdom system of classification

Linnaeus divided the living world into two kingdoms : Plantae and Animalia.
4.4 Five–kingdom system of classification
Whittaker (1969), an American taxonomist divided the living world into five kingdoms –
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. In this classification, organisms were provided a
proper place on the basis of their structure and evolution. This scheme is now widely accepted.
Kingdom I : Monera (The Prokaryotes) Kingdom Monera includes all the prokaryotes viz.,
bacteria, archaebacteria and blue–green algae. They have the following characteristics – (1)
They are unicellular, microscopic (2) They lack a definite nucleus. The nuclear material
consists of a coiled naked strand of DNA which is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane. (D)
Mode of nutrition may be heterotrophic or autotrophic.
Kingdom II : Protista (Unicellular Eukaryotes) Kingdom Protista (Protist = primary)
includes diverse kinds of unicellular and primarily aquatic eukaryotes. They have the following
characteristics – (1) They contain typical eukaryotic cell organelles. (2) They often bear flagella
or cilia with 9+2 internal microtubular structure. (3) Cell wall, if present, is made of cellulose (4)
Nutrition may be photosynthetic, holotrophic (animal like), saprotrophic or parasitic. (5)
Phytoplanktons are microscopic. Floating and photosynthetic organisms. (6) Some protists are
predatory, e.g., Protozoans. (7) Some protozoans live as parasites.
Kingdom III : Plantae (Multicellular Producers) Kingdom plantae includes all the
multicellular photosynthetic plants on land, seashores and in lakes and streams. Sea weeds
consisting of red, brown and green algae, mosses, ferns and seed plants belong to this kingdom.
Kingdom IV : Fungi (Multicellular Decomposers) Kingdom Fungi includes molds,
mushrooms, puff balls and bracket fungi. They have the following characteristics – (A) Eukaryotic,
unicellular or multicellular organisms without chlorophyll (B) Mode of nutrition heterotrophic.
They are called saprobes or parasites (C) Plant body or thallus consists of mycelium. (D) Cell wall
is made of chitin and the reserve food is in the form of glycogen. (E) They reproduce asexually by
spores or conidia. (F) Parasitic forms cause diseases in plants and animals. (G) Fungi are
regarded as the decomposers of dead organic matter.
Kingdom V : Animalia
4.5 Kingdom plantae
Introduction : All plants have in common the presence of chlorophyll a and other
chlorophyll pigments. Red, brown and green algae account for about 90 percent of the world's
total photosynthesis. The land plants include bryophytes and the tracheophytes. The bryophytes
are referred as amphibians of plant kingdom. The tracheophytes are also called the vascular
plants. They have a special conducting vascular system made up of xylem and phloem.
Conducting tissue is lacking in bryophytes. Most vascular plants are flowering plants. These
plants form seeds within a fruit. So they are called angiosperms. There are vascular plants which
produce seeds but not fruit, and are called gymnosperms.
Algae : The study of algae is called phycology. Some algae are unicellular and other are
multicellular filamentous. Some algae are complex and very large called seaweeds. In algae food
 Plant Classification 45

material is stored in the form of “starch’’. Some algae as “cephaleuros’’ is found on tea plants as
parasite.
(1) Red algae (Rhodophyta) :
(a) Morphology : Red algae range from microscopic unicellular forms to those nearly half a
metre in length. Some red algae are coralline. Red algae are characterised by the presence of
the pigments phycoerythrin and phycocyanin (the phycobilins). They are most showy of sea
weeds.
(b) Cell structure : Cells of red algae show a typical eukaryotic structure. Reserve food is in
the form of floridean starch.
(c) Reproduction : Red algae is an ancient group with no flagellated cells formed at any
stage in their life cycle. They reproduce by spores & sexual organ are found ( antheridium, 
carpogonium.)
(d) Economic importance : (i) Porphyra is consumed in Japan and China; as food and
Chondrus crispes (Irish moss) in Ireland. Rhodymenia palmata, is boiled in milk in Ireland and
then eaten. (ii) Chondrus species yield an extract, the carrageenin. (iii) Gelidium, Gracelaria are
used in the manufacture of agar-agar.
(2) Brown algae (Phaeophyta)
(a) Occurrence : It consists of about 2,000 species, mostly marine. Sargassum, a warm–
water form covers thousands of hectares in the Sargasso sea.
(b) Morphology : The brown algae are filamentous forms some of them are massive
seaweeds, called sea kelps. Ex. – Laminaria, Nereocystis, Macrocystis. Unicellular forms are not
known.
(c) Reproduction : It takes place in the following ways – (i) Vegetative reproduction – It
occurs by fragmentation of the thallus. (ii) Asexual reproduction – It takes place by biflagellated
zoospores and aplanospores produced in unilocular sporangia or multilocular sporangia. Spores are
laterally biflagellate. (iii) Sexual reproduction – It is of following types – (1) Isogamous, (2)
Anisogamous, (3) Oogamous.
(d) Economic importance : Kelps such as Laminaria and Macrocystis yield alginic acid.

Chlorophyl carotenoids etc Reserve food Thallus

l
Rhodophyta a+d Phycobilins Floridean Mainly
(Red algae) (Phycoerythrin+phycocy Starch + Multicellular
anin) Floridoside Rarely
–carotene, lutein Unicellular
Phaeophyta a+c –carotene Multicellular
(Brown Fucoxanthin (brown Mannitol +
algae) a+b colour) Laminarin Unicellular
Chlorophyta Colonial
(Green –carotene Starch +Oil in Multicellular
algae) Xanthophyll resting
46 Plant Classification

(=Lutein + Zeaxanthin) cells

(C) Green Algae (Chlorophyta) : It comprises 7,000 species.

(a) Occurrence : Majority of the green algae live in fresh waters, and a few are marine.
Some are epizoic, e.g., Zoochlorella with Hydra or with fungi forming lichens.
(b) Morphology and Anatomy : Chlamydomonas is flagellated and Chlorella is
nonflagellated. Some are colonial like Volvox and some are filamentous and unbranched like
Ulothrix and Spirogyra.. Acetabularia is the largest unicellular plant measuring upto 6 cm in
length.
(c) Reproduction : Green algae reproduce in the following ways – (i) By fragmentation – It
is the usual method of vegetative propagation. (ii) Asexual reproduction – It occurs by the
formation of flagellate zoospores, and rarely by non–motile spores called, aplanospores. (iii)
Sexual reproduction – It takes place by isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy showing zygotic
meiosis of haplontic life–cycle.
(d) Economic Importance : Chlorella. It is a unicellular algae it is used in the study of plant
physiology and it is used as a source of O 2 in space ships. The sea lettuce, Spirogyra and
Oedogonium are eaten directly by certain people. Chlorella yields an antibiotic, chlorellin.
Life cycle of Spirogyra :
(i) Habitat and Habit : Cosmopolitan fresh water, olive-green filamentous alga commonly
found floating on the water surface. Spirogyra adnata occurs in stream and river. Common name
– “Pond Scum”, “Pond Silk” or “Water Silk”.
(ii) Structure : Spirogyra is a unbranched filamentous alga. All the cells are similar in shape
size and structure and arranged in a linear row (rectangular cell). Each cell contains a large
central vacuole. Cytoplasm occurs in form of a thin layer around vacuole called primordial
utricte. Cytoplasm contains a large nucleus held by cytoplasmic-fibres. Each cell contains 1-16
spirally coilled ribbon-shaped chloroplasts, with a left handed twisting (sinistral).
(iii) Reproduction :
1 (1) Vegetative reproduction : It takes place by fragmentation.
(2) Asexual reproduction : Asexual reproduction is normally absent in Spirogyra. It occurs
only in few species by the following methods – (a) By aplanospores (b) By akinete – Thick wall
cell (c) By parthenospores or Azygospores – When gametes fail to fuse they form parthenospore.
Zoospores are totally absent in Spirogyra. Its reproductive structures are non-flagellated.
(3) Sexual reproduction : It takes place by conjugation. Gametes are non–ciliated.
Gametes perform amoeboid movement during conjugation. Gametes of Spirogyra called
aplanogametes due to absence of cilia or flagella. In Spirogyra, during the transfer of one
aplanogamete to other aplanogametangia the following process takes place – (a) Two filaments
lying parallel to each other, (b) Formation of papillate outgrowths to form conjugation tube,
(c) Ladder–like (Scalariform) conjugation. One aplanogamete moving into the aplanogametangia
of the other filament, (d) Zygospores formed in one filament and empty aplanogametangia of the
other filament.
(iv) Two types of conjugation : Scalariform or Ladder like conjugation and Lateral
conjugation.
 Plant Classification 47

(1) Scalariform conjugation : It is most common type of conjugation and occurs in

“heterothallic” species of spirogyra. It mainly takes place during night.
(2) Lateral conjugation : It takes place between two adjacent cells of same filament.
Lateral conjugation occurs in homothallic species of spirogyra. Lateral conjugation of two types –
(a) Indirect lateral conjugation (b) Direct lateral conjugation.
(3) Germination of zygote : Wall of zygote is three layered – (a) Exosporium– Coloured
and ornamented (b) Mesosporium (c) Endosporium.
Germination takes place in favourable conditions. Four haploid nuclei form inside zygote as a
result of meiosis. Three nuclei degenerate and only one nucleus remains functional. Now zygote
undergoes repeated mitotic divisions to form a haploid filament of Spirogyra. Life cycle is
“haplontic type''.
Bryophytes : Term given by Braun. Bryophytes comprise of mosses and liverworts. Prof S. R.
Kashyap regarded as father of Indian Bryology.
(1) General characteristics : (a) The plant body is a gametophyte. It is green in colour and
plant body is thalloid or differentiated into stem–like, leaf–like structures and rhizoids (mosses)
which are unicellular or multicellular. (b) Sexual reproduction is of oogamous type. Sex organs
are jacketed and multicellular embryo formation occurs. Bryophytes are called amphibians of
plant kingdom. The male sex organs are known as antheridia and the female sex organs as
archegonia. (c) Water is essential for fertilization. Oospore develops into the sporophyte which is
differentiated into foot, seta and capsule. (d) Sporophytic genertion depend on gametophytic
generation.
(2) Classification of Bryophyta : It is divided into three classes (a) Hepaticeae (b)
Anthocerotae (c) Muici
(a) Hepaticeae : Main plant body is a gametophyte. Sporophyte differentiate into Foot, Seta
and Capsule, (except Riccia). Example : Riccia, Marchantia.
(b) Anthoceroteae – Main plant body is gametophyte. (i) At the center of capsule columella is
present. (ii) In the thallus of Anthoceros mucilaginous cavity is present in which Nostoc (Cyanophycian
member) is found. Example: Anthoceros.
(c) Musci : Plant body is gametophytic. (i) It is differentiate into leaves, stem and rhizoids.
(ii) Sporophyte differential into Foot, Seta and Capsule on capsule wall stomata are found. (iii) In
capsule portion sterile columella is found. (iv) Protonema is filamentous structure. Example –
Funaria, Sphagnum.
(3) Economic Importance : (a) Mosses bind soil and prevent soil erosion. (b) Peat is used
as a fuel like coal. (c) Sphagnum, commonly called bog moss or peat moss. It is used to keep
moist the cut plant parts during transportation and propagation. (d) Bryophytes also act as a
good biological indicator.
Life history of Funaria
(1) Distribution and habitate : The plants are found in damp and shady localities. Tallest
moss is Dowsonia. The adult plant body of moss represents Gametophytic phase. The gametophyte
has two distinct growth stages. (a) Creeping filaments protonema and (b) Gametophore (erect
foliose part).
(2) Gametophytic phase : (a) Protonema – The spore, on its germination produces a
Protonema. It is a prostrate algae like filamentous structure. (b) Gametophore – Gametophore
48 Plant Classification

arises from the bud to give rise leafy shoot. Gametophore is a actual gametophyte plant which
is measure 1–3 cms and distinguished into three parts (i) Rhizoids (ii) Stem and (iii) Leaves.
Leaves of Funaria are small without petiole and ovate in shape. They are arranged spirally.
Reproduction : It is brought about by two methods – (1) Vegetative (2) Sexual
(1) Vegetative Reproduction : It may take place by the following methods –(a) Bulbils
formation (b) Secondary protonema formation. (c) By Apospory – Any part of protonema separate
and fall in soil it grow in soil and form a new plant.
(2) Sexual Reproduction : It is oogamous type Funaria is monoecious and autocious.
Male reproductive organ is : Antheridium, is club shaped structure borne on short
multicellular stalk. It mature first so called Protandrous. It has single layer of jacket.
Female reproductive organ is : Archegonium which is flask shaped structure. They are
surrounded by perichaetial leaves. It is distinguished into stalk, venter and neck. A swellen
venter contain an egg and a venter canal cell. Neck contain six or more neck canal cells.
Fertilization : Water medium is essential for fertilization. The antherozoids are attracted by
some chemotactic substance, possibly sugar, produced by archegonium. A antherozoid fuse with
egg to form a diploid zygote.
Sporophytic phase : Diploid zygote divide to produce sporophyte of Funaria. The mature
sporophyte distinguished into three parts namely the foot, seta and the capsule. The capsule is
distinguished into three regions, an upper opercular region, middle fertile or theca region and
lower apophyseal region. The peristomeal teeth (32) are present in peristome. They are in two
whorls–outer (16) and inner (16) whorls. These teeth help in dispersal of spores. The middle
theca region is distinguisable into epidermis followed by hypodermis and chlorenchymatous
region, filamentous trabaculae with large air spaces, two spore sacs and central sterile region is
columella. The apophyseal region is the lower most part of the capsule. The epidermis has
stomatal apertures. Foot is very small and absorbs water and other essential food material from
the gametophyte.
Germination of spore : Spore is the first cell of gametophytic generation. It has oil
droplets and chloroplast. The spore germinates to form the primary protonema having green
upright chloronemal branches and colourless underground cautonemal branch.
4.6 Vascular plants pteridophytes
Vascular plants are the predominant land plants. Pteridophytes are considered as vascular
cryptogams. Gymnosperms and Angiosperms are included under vascular phanerogams.
4.7 Life history of Selaginella (Pteridophyte) / Little Club Moss
They are generally found on damp and shady hill side in many tropical rain forest. Ex.
Selaginella kraussina, S. pallidissima, S. rupesteris and S. lepidophylla (called resurrection plant).
Selaginella is a evergreen delicate generally perennial herb stem may be prostrate in S.
kraussiana, erect in S. erythropus, climber in S. alligans. Plant body is distinguished into four
parts – Root, Stem, Leaves and Rhizophore. Primary root degenerate shortly and adventitious
root are present in a tuft on tip of rhizophores. Stem is green and cylindrical. “Rhizophores arised
from the dichotomous [bifurcation] stem, are colourless without chlorophyll, cylindrical, capless
 Plant Classification 49

and elongated structure. Rhizophore is positively–geotropic. Leaves are small, narrow, triangular,
pointed and ligulate which bears a flap like out growth at the base called ligule”.
Reproduction :
(1) Vegetative Reproduction : It is by means of fragmentation or by bulbils.
(2) Sexual Reproduction : It is take place through two different type of spores, are called
microspores and megaspores respectively. It is called heterospory (heterosporous) They are
formed in side the microsporangia and megasporangia (borne on  or  strobilus).
Spike : Each spike bears many ligulated sporophyll arranged on the central axis. Sporangia
are present on the upper surface of sporophylls. They are two types, smaller called
microsparonagia and larger sporangia called megasporangium.
Spores : The microspore is double layered structure and contain oil droplets. The
megaspore has three layered structure namely exospore, mesospore and endospore. The
microspore on germination form thirteen celled male gametophyte [One prothallial cell  Basal
lateral position; Eight jacket cells  Peripheral in position; and Four  Primary androgonial cell 
Central in position.]. The megaspore forms the female gametophyte. Microspore release at 13 –
celled stage. (1 + 8 + 4)
Female gametophyte : Megaspore is the unit of female gametophyte. The development of
female gametophyte start even when the megaspore remains present in the megasporangium.
Female gametophyte differentiated into upper region called female prothallus and lower region is
called storage region which are separated by diaphragm. Archegonia which develop on upper
surface contain single neck canal cell, single venter canal cell and single egg, remain surrounded
by the cells of prothallus.
Fertilization : Water medium is essential for fertilization. In few species like S. rupestris,
archegonia are fertilized when enclosed in the megasporangium (spike) hence approach towards
the seed habit of Angiospern. Thus heterospory is a pre–requisite for the seed habit (vivipary).
Sporophytic phase (Embryo) : Zygote form a wall around it and under goes
segmentation. As a result of many divisions it forms embryo distinguishable into rhizophore, foot,
leaf and stem. The young embryo of Selaginella is dependent upon the gametophyte for its food.

Note :
 Stele of Rhizophore is monarch and exarch.
 Vascular bundle of Selaginella stem is protostele (haplostele), mesarch and with
trabiculate endodermis.
 Cyathea, Dicksonia & Alsophila are peculiar fern having tree habit.
 Rhynia is a fossil of pteridophyte.
 ‘Telome theory’ for origin of plant body in pteridophyte was proposed by Zimmerman.
 Ovules is absent in all Pteridophyte.
 Adiantum is called “Walking fern”. In fern xylem is mesarch. In fern (Pteridophytes) diploid
stage is generally dominates. Fern prothallus is haploid.
4.8 Gymnosperms – (Seed plants without fruits)
50 Plant Classification

Gymnosperms form an intermediate group between Pteridophytes and Angiosperms. The

cone–bearing plants or the conifers form the largest group with 500 species. They are most
predominant gymnosperms in cooler regions. The common conifers are species of pine, fir,
spruce, cedar, cypress and larch. Sequoia gigantia (redwood tree) measures more than 100
metres in height.
General Characteristics :
(1) Gymnosperms are woody perennial plants and no herbs.
(2) Main plant body is a sporophyte and is heterosporous. Male and female gametophytes
inconspicuous and depend for nutrition on the sporophyte.
(3) Conifers have one growth pattern termed monopodial growth which gives the
characteristic conical, “Christmas tree” like shape.
(4) Wood and bark of conifers have resin channels filled with resin.
(5) Leaves are adapted to cold and dry conditions. They are needle–like as in pine; small, flat
and leathery. The leaves have a thick layer of cuticle and sunken stomata.
(6) The reproductive organs are represented by cones. The microsporangia and
megasporangia are borne on leaf–like structures called micro and megasporophylls respectively.
(7) Fertilisation involves only one fusion. The endosperm is haploid.
(8) Seeds are naked and not embedded in fruit.
Economic Importance :
(1) Pine seeds like chilgozas are eaten as dry fruit. (Pinus gerardiana sp.).
(2) Ephedrine, a drug from Ephedra, is used for the relief of asthma and other respiratory
ailments.
(3) Turpentine is obtained from pine resin.
(4) Cycads are grown for ornamental plants. Cycas circinalis serves as a source of “sago”
called sago palm.
4.9 Life history of Pinus (a conifer)
There are six species of Pinus are found in India – (1) Pinus gerardiana – (Chilgoza-pine) (2) P.
roxburghii – (chir–pine) (3) P.Wallichiana – (Blue–pine). Pinus is a evergreen perennial tree which is
growing on the slopes of hills in temperate climate. It is in conical shaped. Main plant is
sporophyte which is differentiated in to root, stem and leaves.
Root : Well developed tap root system is found in Pinus. Ectotrophic mycorrhiza is found in
roots.
Stem : Stem of the Pinus is straight [erect], cylindrical, long, woody and branched.
Branches are monopodial. There are two type of branches –
Long branches or branches of unlimited growth : Also known as “long shoot”. Dwarf
shoot of Branches of Limited growth – Apical bud is absent in these branches. They are known as
“drawf shoot” Leaves – Two types of leaves are found in Pinus i.e., dimorphic leaves.
Scaly leaves : They are small, membrane like and brown in colour. They are found on both
type of branches i.e., dwarf and long shoot.
 Plant Classification 51

Foliage leaves or photosynthetic leaves : They are only found on the apex of the dwarf
shoot. They are long, green and needle shaped. Group of foliage leaves is known as “foliar spur”.
Number of the leaves in a foliar spur is different in different species as follows :
Internal structure :
(1) Root : Internal structure is like as dicot root. Vascular bundle are radial and exarch.
Protoxylem is bifurcated [divided into two branch] which gives the ‘Y’ shape to xylem. A resin
canal is present between the two arms of Y.
(2) Stem : Conjoint, collateral open and endarch type of vascular bundle are found in stems.
Secondary growth present. It is similar as that of dicot stem. Wood is compact and called
“pycnoxylic wood”.
(3) Leaves : Leaf of the Pinus is xeromorphic outline of the transverse section of pinus
leaves is dependent upon number of foliars on foliar spur has taxonomic value.
Species No. of leaf spur Out line
P. monophylla – 1 – Circular
P. sylvestris – 2 – Half circular (semi circular)
P. longifolia – 3 – Triangular
Thick cuticle is found on epidermis of leaf. Sunken stomata are distributed on epidermis.
Mesophyll in Pinus is made up of parenchymatous cells. Uncounted long peg like process are
formed by infolding of internal cell wall of mesophylls. So that is known as “armed mesophyll
cell”. Vascular bundles (2 in number) are conjoint, collateral open and endarch. ‘T’ type
transfusion tissues are found between the both vascular bundle.
Reproduction : Vegetative reproduction is absent in Pinus. Pinus is ‘monoecious’ and
“Autoecious”. Male and female cones are developed on the same plant, but they are developed
on different branches.
(1) Male cone : Male cones are developed in cluster on the dwarf shoot. Each
microsporophyll is a stalked, triangular structure. Two microsporangia are attached on abaxial
(lower) side of each microsporophyll. Development of microsporangia is eusporangiate type.
(2) Microspore : Microspore have wings & 3 layered wall
(a) Exine : This layer is highly cutinized and it is found only at one side.
(b) Exointine : Two wings are developed on both lateral sides from this layer of microspore.
(c) Intine : It is innermost layer of microspore. It is formed by cellulose.
(3) Female cone are developed on long shoot. Female cones are normally around 15–20 cm
long. Female cone gets mature in three years. It is made up of many megasporophylls arranged
spirally. Each megasporophyll is made up of two types of scales in Pinus.
(a) Bract scale : They are small and leathery attached directly on the axis of cone.
(b) Ovuliferous scale : They are developed from the upper surface of bract scales.
Ovuliferous scales are triangular woody and wedge shaped at maturity. Two “anatropous type” of
ovule or megasporangia are intact on upper surface.
Gametophyte : Male and female gametophytes are developed inside the spore wall.
52 Plant Classification

Male gametophyte : Few development of Male gametophyte occurs before pollination. A 4

celled gametophyte in formed having (1) Tube cell (2) Generative cell (3) Prothalial cell.
Pollination : Pollination takes place through the air at 4–celled stage. Large numbers of
pollen grains or microspore released from the microsporangia in the air and look like yellow cloud
of dust known as “Sulphur Shower”. Pollination process completes in March (spring season).
Male
Body cell gamete
Male
Generative gamete
cell Stalk
cell
Fully developed Male gametophyte of the Pinus is 6 celled structure.
Female gametophyte : It can be understood through the study of following headings :
(1) Structure of ovule : Ovule of the Pinus is anatropous and unitegmic type sessile.
Integument is made up by three layers – outer–fleshy layer, middle–stony layer and inner–fleshy
layer.
(2) Megasporogenesis : A single cell of hypodermal layer function as megaspore mother
cell which divide meiotically to form a linear tetrad of megaspores. Out of four, three megaspores
degenerate. Only one megaspore remains functional present towards the chalazal end.
(3) Development of female gametophyte : Functional megaspore increase in size, then
after free nuclear division and cell wall formation produce a haploid structure known as
‘endosperm’ or female gametophyte. 2–5 archegonia are formed towards the micropylar end in
female gametophyte.
Fertilization : Fertilization is siphonogamous. The process of fertilization take place after
the 12–14 months of pollination. One male gamete fused with egg nucleus to form a zygote or
oospore and another male gamete degenerates. Many archegonia fertilized in a female
gametophyte but only one zygote develops into a embryo
Embryo : Embryo is formed from oospore. Development of embryo is meroblastic and
endoscopic.
(1) Development of proembryo : Nucleus of the zygote produce 16 nucleus arranged in 4
tiers of 4–4 nucleus.
(a) Nutritive tier or Upper tier : This is the upper most tier. Function – to provide
nutrition.
(b) Rosette tier : This is second tier. Function – Conduction of nutrients between embryo
and suspensor.
(c) Suspensor tier : Its cells are long which pushed the embryo deep into the endosperm.
(d) Embryonal tier : This is the lowermost tier on which 4 embryonal masses are present.
(2) Formation of Embryo from Proembryo : More than one embryo are formed from one
zygote in Pinus. It is known as “Cleavage polyembryony”. Another type of Polyembryony found
in Pinus is Simple Polyembryony. Germination of seed is epigeal.
4.10 Angiosperms (Flowering plants)
 Plant Classification 53

Angiosperms are those plants in which seeds develop in the ovary. The ovary later forms the
fruit. These plants represent the most highly developed group in the plant kingdom. Some
flowering plants like Zostera occur in shallow seas. One species has been found growing in hot
springs at 60oC. In rain forest several types of orchids have been found growing on trees. These
are called epiphytes.
4.11 Kingdom fungi
Introduction : Fungi includes heterotrophic organisms are the major decomposers of
organic material. As parasites, fungi cause several diseases of animals, humans, and plant
diseases. The study of fungi is known as Mycology. Storage food material of fungi is glycogen.
Habitat and nutrition : Fungi are found in almost all sort of habitats. Some fungi may grow
on cow dung (coprophyllous fungi) or may occur symbiotically.
Mycorrhiza : Some fungi occur in a long lasting beneficial association with roots of higher
plants such as pines. This association is termed mycorrhiza.
Structure and growth : They range from uninucleate forms to thread–like structure, called
mycelium, a mass of interconnected filaments called hyphae. Each hypha is bounded by a cell
wall of chitin. In higher forms, the hyphae have cross walls are called septate. An unseptate
(coenocyte) hypha is like a multinucleate tube–like structure. The septate or multicellular hyphae
of most fungi have two types of pores –
(1) Septum has a simple pore for the continuity of the protoplasm.
(2) The partition walls have a complex pore called dolipore.
Cell and Tissue Structure : Fungi are eukaryotic. Aggregation of hyphae produce following
constructions –
(1) Prosenchyma : When the hyphae are loosely interwoven and are nearly parallel to one
another.
(2) Pseudoparenchyma : In this case the vegetative hyphae are interwoven so as to form
a sort of compact tissue resembling that of parenchyma.
(3) Rhizomorph : When the vegetative hyphae are closely and tightly packed together to form
a root–like strand.
(4) Sclerotium : This is a compact form of mycelium which is usually rounded, oval or
elliptical.
(5) Stroma : It is a pseudo-parenchymatous mass of hyphae in which numerous fruiting
bodies are embedded.
Reproduction : Fungi have three types of reproduction –
(1) Vegetative reproduction : Vegetative reproduction in fungi may be of the following
types –
(a) Fragmentation – Vegetative hyphae get broken into fragments accidentally and
fragments develop into new plants under favourable conditions, e.g., Rhizopus, Mucor, etc.
(b) Fission : In this case vegetative cells split up into two daughter cells by constriction,
e.g., yeast.
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(c) Budding : This type of vegetative reproduction is found in the unicellular fungi like
budding yeasts.
(d) Oidia : The hyphae break up into numerous fragments known as oidia or arthrospores.
The oidia germinate on suitable substratum to give rise new mycelium.
(e) Chlamydospores : In some fungi like smuts, the vegetative cells are converted into
small thick-walled rounded spores known as chlamydospores.
(f) Sclerotia : These are hard and resistant bodies.
(2) Asexual reproduction : Asexual reproduction in fungi may be of the following types –
(a) By zoospores : These are thin–walled uninucleate structures formed in zoosporangium.
These germinate to give rise a new mycelium.
(b) Aplanospore formation : These are thin-walled, non-motile spores produced in a
sporangium.
(c) Conidia : These are non–motile, thin–walled exogenous spores produced on a
conidiophore. They are arranged in acropetal succession or in basipetal succession.
(3) Sexual reproduction : Fungi show a gradual reduction in sexuality i.e., as we proceed
from the lower to the higher forms, the sexuality is reduced. It is absent in fungi imperfecti. Some
lower fungi, mainly aquatic forms, produce motile gametes which fuse in water.
(4) Sex organs : In fungi the sex organs (gametangia) are unicellular and without any
protective covering. The male and female sex organs may develop on different hyphae of the
same mycelium or on hyphae of two different mycelia respectively called homothallic or
heterothallic conduction. Blackeslee discovered the phenomenon of heterothallism in Rhizopus in
the year 1904. Sexual reproduction in fungi may take place by any of the following methods
–
(a) Gametic fusion : It involves the fusion of two motile or non-motile gametes. A motile
gamete is called planogamete. It results in the formation of a diploid zygote. It is of three types –
(i) Isogamy (ii) Anisogamy (iii) Oogamy : This is an advanced type of gametic fusion.
Here the female gamete is non–motile and is called egg, and the male gamete is smaller, active
and motile. It is called the sperm.
(b) Gametangial contact : In this case two gametangia come in contact with one another.
Now a passage is formed by the dissolution of common wall at the point of contact or fertilization
tube is developed to facilitate the entire protoplast of male gametangium into the female
gametangium.
(c) Gametangial copulation : Here, the entire protoplasmic contents of two
morphologically or physiologically dissimilar gametangia are involved in fusion and the thick-
walled body formed as a result of fusion is called zygospore, e.g., Mucor and Rhizopus.
(d) Spermatization : In this case, female sex organ is either represented by a simple hypha
or by a specialised hypha. The male gamete is represented as spermatium. Fusion takes place
between a spermatium and receptive hypha (female sex organ).
(e) Somatogamy : The fusion involves two vegetative or somatic cells belonging to the
same thallus or two physiologically different thalli eg. yeast.
 Plant Classification 55

4.12 Classification : 4 Classes

Zygomycetes (The conjugation fungi) : The common black bread moulds, Rhizopus and
Mucor belong to this group. The group to named zygomycetes because a diploid resting spore
called the zygospore is formed during the life–cycle.
(1) General characteristics
(a) Mostly saprophytes, some parasites on plants and animals.
(b) Mycelium is well–developed. Profusely branched and coenocytic.
(c) Asexual reproduction takes place by sporangiospores, aplanospores or by conidia.
(d) Sexual reproduction by the copulation of gametangia forming resting spores called
zygospore
Ascomycetes (The sac fungi) : Ascomycetes or sac fungi is a large group. It includes
diverse forms such as yeasts, brown, green and pink moulds, cup fungi and edible morels.
(2) General characters
(a) Mycelium haploid and with septate and branched hyphae.
(b) They characterised by the development of ascospores in a sac–like structure called
ascus.
(c) Ascus contains 8 ascospores.
(d) They cause several diseases in plants. In advanced ascomycetes, groups of asci get
aggregated to form compact fruiting bodies, called the ascocarps. Following three types of
ascocarps are known to occur –
(i) Cleistothecium : These are closed and spherical ascocarps, e.g., Penicillium and
Aspergillus.
(ii) Perithecium : These are flask–shaped ascocarps, e.g., Neurospora and Claviceps.
(iii) Apothecium : These are cup-shaped ascocarps called the apothecium, e.g., Peziza.
(3) Economic Importance of Ascomycetes
(a) Yeasts ferment carbohydrates, mainly the sugars (glucose and fructose), resulting in the
production of alcohol and CO2.
(b) Yeasts such as Candida cause certain types of skin infections and respiratory diseases in
man. Ergot (Claviceps) which grows in cereal grains produces mind-altering chemicals from which
the drug LSD is produced.
(c) Genus Penicillium has many species which are important in the daily life of human
beings. P. chrysogenum and P. notatum are used in the manufacture of the antibiotic penicillin.
(d) P. roqueforti and P. camemberti are used for ripening and imparting characteristic
flavours to cheese.
Basidiomycetes (The club fungi) : Basidiomycetes is a large group of fungi. It includes
the highest evolved fungi. The group gets its name from the basidium, the club–shaped structure
at the tip of the reproductive hypha which bears four spores at its tip. Here reproductive
structures or fruiting bodies are called basidiocarps.These are mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs
and bracket fungi.
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(1) Economic Importance

(a) Members of this group cause some plant diseases like rusts and smuts.
(b) Some club–fungi are edible e.g. – Morchella, Agaricus.
(c) Basidiomycetes are among the best decomposers of wood.
(d) Deuteromycetes : They are called fungi imperfecti or dust bin group. They show
septate mycelium and conidia formation sexual reproduction is absent. They cause many disease
in plants, animals and human beings. e.g. Alternaria solani – cause early blight of potato,
Colletotrichum falcatum – Cause red rot of sugarcane, Helminthosporium oryzae – Cause brown
spot of rice (cause of Bengal famine,1943)
(2) Life history of Mucor (class zygomyectes) : Mucor is saprophytic. Mycelium is
branched, hyaline coenocytic, aseptate and vacuolated.
(3) Reproduction
(a) Asexual reproduction
(i) It take place by sporangia and spores. Sporangia develops on sporangiophores which
come out from mycelium and their distal ends swell up and form sporangia inside which large
number of aplanospores are produced.
(ii) By chlamydospores : These spores are formed from old mycelium. It has a thick wall
around. It can survive in unfavourable conditions.
(iii) Oidia : Mycelium becomes septated and thin–walled cells are formed called oidia. Oidia
are similar to buds of yeast. When they produce bud they are called Torula stage.
(iv) Sexual Reproduction : It is by gametangial copulation.
(3) Germination of Zygospore : During germination outer wall of zygospore is ruptured. A
germ tube protrudes out from this ruptured place and it is called “Promycelium”. At the apex of
promycelium, a sporangium is formed which is called “germsporangium” or “zygosporangium”.
These germsporangia produce spores alike to asexual method. Spores germinate in favourable
condition to form new mycelium.
(4) Heterothallism : Blakeslee discovered heterothallism first in Mucor. According to
Blakeslee two types of species are found in order mucorales which are called respectively
homothallic and heterothallic species.
(5) Economic importance
Mucor stolonifer – Causes soft rot disease of vegetable crops.
Rhizopus arrhizus – Causes fruit rot of apple
Lichens : A lichen is an intimate association of a fungus and an alga. The fungal component
is called the mycobiont, and the algae component is known as the phycobiont.
(1) Habit and habitat : Lichens are found growing in all sorts of habitats. They are adapted to
survive under great extremes of heat, cold and drought.
(2) External morphology : They are of the following three types – (a) Crustose – These are
found as incrustations on rocks and barks and cannot be isolated easily, e.g., Rhizocarpon,
Lecanora, Graphis. (b) Foliose – These are flat, leaf–like with logbed margins. These are attached to
 Plant Classification 57

the substratum by rhizines, e.g., Parmelia, Physcia and Pelitigera. (c) Fruticose – These are much
branched, ribbon-like, flattened, filamentous or shrub-like in appearance. e.g., Cladonia and Usnea.
(3) Reproduction : Reproduction in lichens takes place by two methods –
(a) Asexual reproduction.
(b) Sexual reproduction.
(a) Asexual reproduction : It is a common method of reproduction and is of
following types –
(i) Fragmentation – The fragmentation of lichen thallus takes place by the death and decay
of older portions. (ii) By soredia – A soredium consists of a few algal cells surrounded by fungal
hyphae. They are disseminated by wind or other agencies. (iii) By isidia – These are small
papillate outgrowths appearing on lichens. They also contain algal and fungal partners like
soredia. They are dispersed by wind and develop into new lichen thallus. (iv) Cephalopodia –
These appear on lichen thallus. These differ from isidia in having different algal partner as in
parent thallus.
(b) Sexual reproduction : In lichens, it is only the fungal partner that contributes to the
sexual reproduction for the thallus.
(4) Economic importance of Lichens : Lichens are useful to nature and human life in the
following ways –
(a) Ecological value : Lichens are pioneer in succession in a new colonise bare rocks. They
disintegrate the rocks and are called “farmers of nature”.
(b) Food : The reindeer moss, Cladonia rangiferina is eaten by the reindeer and cattle.
(c) Medicines : e.g., Cladonia is used for fever, Evernia for coughs, Peltigera for
hydrophobia.
(d) Perfumes : Certain species of lichens yield perfumes which are used in toiletry,
manufacture of dhoop.
(e) Dyes and minerals : Some lichens produce dyes. Orchill used in the dyeing of clothes,
orecin used as a stain in microscopic preparations and chemical litmus are obtained from the
species of Rocella and Lecanora.
Mycorrhiza : The symbiotic association of a fungus with roots of higher plants is called
mycorrhiza. The term was coined by frank. When the fungus grows around the root surface as a
mantle, it is called ectotrophic, or ectomycorrhiza, and when it penetrates the root and grows
within it, is called endotrophic or endomycorrhiza. Pines and birches remain stunted if
mycorrhizae are absent.

Fungus Diseases
A. In Man
1. Candida albicans (Yeast) – Moniliasis of mucous membrane, skin,
nails and lungs
2. Cryptococcus neoformans (Yeast) – Cryptococcus meningitis (a disease of
central nervous system leading to
58 Plant Classification

B. In Plants mental disorder)

1. Albugo candida
2. Phytophthora infestans
3. Puccinia graminis
4. Ustilago tritici
5. Sclerospora graminicola var. sorghi
6. Colletotrichium falcatum
– White rust of crucifer plants like mustard
and cauliflower
– Late blight of potato
– Black rust of wheat
– Loose smut of wheat
– Downy mildew of jowar and green ear of
bajra
– Red rot of sugarcane

Famous books

S.No. Book Written by

1. Historia Plantarum Universalis Jean Bauhin
2. Genera Plantarum Betham and Hooker
3. Species Plantarum Linnaeus
4. Micrographia Robert Hooke
5. A Manual of Determinative Bacteriology Bergey
6. The Families of Flowering Plants Hutchinson
7. Philosphic Zoologique Lamarck
8. Origin of Species Charles Darwin