Manual of Training

5
Project on Improvement of Local Administration in Cambodia
Manual o n Training Management

 Introduction
 What is Training
Management?
 How to Use the Manuals

Project on Improvement of Local Administration in Cambodia (PILAC)
Ministry of Interior and Japan International Cooperation Agency
al Department of Local A
Manual on Tranining Management

Table of Contents
1. Introduction ………………………….……..4
2. What is Training Management?.............5
3. How to Use the Manuals………………………16
2


Glossary
A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product,

Project:
service, or result.
Training The application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to

Management: training activities to realize the outcome of training.
Training
A conceptual framework to manage the training as a cycle
Management
including the steps of planning, implementation, and evaluation.
Cycle:
3


1 Introduction
This manual provides an overview of training management and how to use the
manuals made by the Project on Improvement of Local Administration in
Cambodia (PILAC).
The following sections first introduce an overview of training management. The

meaning of training management is examined and some basic knowledge for
training management is introduced. The concept of training management is
almost the same as general management and tools and skills for general
management are applicable to training management. The difference is how to
apply those tools and skills in the context of training implementation.
The second part is a guide to the manuals on training operation and

management made by PILAC. Those manuals are not to be read thoroughly for
learning training operation and management. They are edited as a reference
with tips for those who participate in training management. Users can start with
any of the manuals according to their needs and interest. Meanwhile, the
manuals are organized based on an integrated concept, so it would be useful to
understand such an integrated concept and relationship among the manuals.
4


2 What is Training Management?
What is Training Management?
The meaning of project management is a useful start to examine training

management because training management is considered a type of project
management.
Before discussing the meaning of project management, however, it makes sense

to define a project first. Here is a popular definition of a project in “A Guide to
the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Third Edition” (PMBOK, 2004, p.5).
“A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product,

service, or result.”
The definition above has two critical features to distinguish a project from other
activities.
One is the characteristic of being temporary. Every project has a definite
beginning and end.
Another is the characteristic of being unique. The product or output from the
project is distinguishable from other activities. In addition, this distinguishable
element is planned in advance. Although a repetitive job without an end is not a
project, the presence of repetitive elements in a project does not change the
fundamental uniqueness of the project work.
It is also possible to treat training as a variety of project. Here is a definition of

training based on the definition above.
“Training is a temporary endeavor to create unique service in relation to

capacity building.”
Training shares two critical features with a project. Training has a definite
beginning and end and the service created by training is distinguishable from
5


other activities. Of course, this definition does not necessarily apply to some
training programs. For example, in on-the-job training (OJT), the period of the
training is unclear and created service is not necessary distinguishable from
other activities. Thus this definition has limits in applicability. Nevertheless, it
is still useful for examining the meaning of training in view of management.
Elements of Training Management
In the previous section, the meaning of the training is examined in view of

management. This section examines training management.
Before examining the meaning of training management, here is a definition of
project management.
“Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and
techniques to project activities to meet project requirement.”1
Similarly, it is possible to define training management as follows.

“Training management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and
techniques to training activities to realize the outcome of training.”
The definition raises a

question: What are the
required knowledge,
skills, tools and
techniques for training
management? A referable
framework is shown on
page 39 in “Project
Planning, Scheduling,
and Control: A Hands-on
Guide to Bringing
Projects in on Time and
Figure 1: Project Management System
on Budget” by James P.
Lewis (2005). According to this framework, a project management system is
made of seven components as shown in Figure 1.
Below are brief descriptions of the seven components.
1 Ibid., A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Third Edition.

6


HUMAN – To deal with concerned project staff members is a basis for managing
the project successfully. A project manager is able to deal with communication,
conflict, motivation, leadership, decision-making, politics and more in relation
to any problem caused by interpersonal relations.
CULTURE – Although culture is a part of interpersonal relations, it should be

treated separately. The manager is able to deal with the sum total of the value,
attitudes, traditions, and behaviors that exist in an organization.
METHODS – This indicates skills and knowledge for utilizing the tools in
relation to project management like scheduling software or Work Breakdown
Structure (WBS). The manager is able to use those tools.
ORGANZATION- Each organization has a different setup on authority,

responsibility, and accountability borne by an individual manager. The
manager clearly understands his or her spheres of authority, responsibility, and
accountability and is able to deal with them.
CONTRAL – PLANNING – INFORMATION

CONTROL means to make sure that the project brings about the results desired
by the concerned organization.
In project management, CONTROL has two functions. One is almost the same
as the word power. People are controlled by the use of power. Another is
guidance and the actions to correct a deviation from the correct track.
PLANNING and INFORMATION are indispensable parts to control the project.
CONTROL does not function without PLANNING. If the project implementation
process is not clear to the concerned people, the project does not proceed
successfully. Moreover, if we don’t know our location, we lose control.
INFORMATION is a key component to know our location in the project
implementation process.
Project management is the art of balancing the seven of a project management

system. The project manager should have knowledge, skills, tools and
techniques to handle them.
7


References
 A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Third Edition,
PMBOK
 Project Planning, Scheduling, and Control: A Hands-on Guide to
Bringing Projects in on Time and on Budget, James P. Lewis, 2005
8


Concept of Training Management Cycle
Characteristics of Endless Cycle

When we follow the process of training implementation, it can be an open-ended
cycle. As shown below, the steps from Planning to Evaluation can be seen as one
cycle, but another cycle starts
from the end of the previous
cycle. In other words, one cycle
is the origin of the next cycle and
those cycles are considered
endless. This concept may be
applicable to Capacity
Development. When we discuss
the Capacity Development for a
certain permanent organization,
it would be very difficult to
indicate a definite beginning and
Figure 2: Training Management Cycle
end. The solution to one aspect of
Capacity Development sometimes
highlights another requirement in it. When one manages a training course as
part of Capacity Development, it is particularly important to bear this
characteristic in mind.
When do we start considering training?

When we must solve a difficult situation in the organization, we may start
considering training as a countermeasure. Before concluding that training is
the best or most practical solution, it is recommendable to examine whether
training is a solution for the difficult situation we face.
The point of this examination is to measure the possible impact of the training
on the situation. In other words, is training able to contribute to improving the
present difficult situation?
A simple exercise is to identify five major causes of the present difficult situation.
If the person in charge is not sure whether he or she knows the causes well, it is
better to hold a meeting with people who are familiar with the present situation.
9


Here are the steps in this exercise.
First, try identifying more than five causes that bring about the present difficult
situation.
Second, once you cannot find any more causes, choose the most influential five
causes.
Third, rank the selected five causes from more influential to less. If possible,
give the percentage to show the degree of influence of each cause. The total
percentage is to be adjusted to 100%.
Fourth, check whether there are any causes closely related to the quality of
human resources. Any cause related to quantitative issues such as inadequate
manpower is not relevant.
When the most influential cause is closely related to the quality of human
resources, we can go to the next step. If none of the causes are related to the
quality of human resources, it would be recommendable to reconsider the
training. In practice, however, the result is not always clear. Sometimes the
third or fourth cause may be related to the quality of human resources but the
relationship is not very clear. In another instance, the fifth cause is closely
related but the influence from it seems very limited.
Unfortunately, there is no general rule on when you can go to the next step in
practice. If the causes are ranked as third or fourth, it would be better to inquire
the degree of the impact from the training to the improvement of the situation. If
the cause is fifth, you are recommended to consider whether there is an
alternative countermeasure besides the training before going to the next steps.
10


A Sample Case
As your office is very slow to perform the required tasks, other offices complain
that your office is the bottleneck in completing organizational tasks effectively.
Here are the identified causes of the slow work of your office.
Lack of Lack of No salary Room that is

motivation computers subsidies too small
Too hot (no air Inadequate Inadequate Inadequate

conditioners) understanding of
skills budget
the staff’s roles
and functions
Low-quality Lack of
staff members
punctuality
11


Select the five most important causes and rank them with percentages to
examine the degree of importance from the identified cases as follows.
Lack of
computers
40%... No.1
No salary
subsidies
30%... No.2
Inadequate
budget 20%... No.3
Too hot (no air

conditioners) 5%... No.4
Lack of
punctuality
5%... No.4
In the case above, none of the causes seem to have a direct relationship with the
quality of human resources. Thus training may not be an appropriate option.
In another case, if “inadequate skills” instead of “inadequate budget” is

identified, training is an option worth considering and we can go to the next step
with confidence.
No. 3
Inadequate Instead of Inadequate
skills budget
12


Some may think that “Lack of Computers” is the easiest and most important
cause to address and want to have several computers installed in the office.
However, such a solution often brings about another difficult situation. For
example, after installing computers, we may find that staff members do not
have enough skills and knowledge to operate them and the situation is not
improved. The cycle returns to the beginning and the need for computer skills
training may be given a high priority.
Ironically, it is time to go to the next step.
What is Planning?
Planning includes several steps that can be defined in various ways. In this
manual, planning is the process that includes the following three steps.
-Training Needs Assessment
-Training Planning
-Training Preparation
The purpose of Training Needs Assessment is to measure the gap between the
present situation and the desired one or between the present performance and
the desired one. Needs Assessment must cover both the organizational and
individual levels. As stated in the previous section, this gap is generally
perceived as a problem or difficult situation. In the process of Training Needs
Assessment, an identified problem is to be reexamined and redefined as a more
concrete and accurate one.
After Needs Assessment, Training Planning is done. A training designer sets a

goal and measurable objectives and selects the contents and learning activities
through which trainees are to acquire desired knowledge and skills.
Training Preparation is often not seen as substantial because it is considered

the accumulation of various tiresome tasks. However, it is one of the crucial
pitfalls that may lead to a poor result. It is fair to say that a well-organized work
plan is indispensible. Thus useful tools such as Work Breakdown Structure
(WBS) and the Gantt chart are available. The knowledge on how to use those
tools is very important to make a well-organized work plan.
13


What is Implementation?
Implementation means to execute pre-fixed activities according to a pre-fixed

timeframe to create unique service. In training implementation, the unique
service is to create the capacity for the trainees to solve an identified problem. In
this process, some flexibility is important but the project has a certain end. A
significant delay brings about a negative impact on the result, i.e., unique
service.
If planning is well done, it is not difficult to implement training. We can only

worry about something unexpected and do our best if it occurs.
What is Evaluation?
Evaluation is often ignored or conducted just as a formality. Some do not want

to conduct evaluation because they believe that evaluation is to measure their
performance. Although this view is not irrelevant, more important functions of
evaluation are overlooked.
First, evaluation is crucial for collecting lessons learned from previous training.
The accomplishment of the training is measured. If the level of the
accomplishment does not reach the expected level, hindering factors are
examined. If an unexpected positive impact is realized, the critical success
factors are identified. Such information will be useful for improving similar
training in the future.
Second, we should be accountable to concerned stakeholders and evaluation is

one of the means to fulfill our accountability. For example, our project, PILAC,
should be accountable to the Cambodian and Japanese Governments and be
able to explain its accomplishment clearly towards the Ministry of Interior of
Cambodia and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). The project
is not persuasive if it tries to convince the stakeholders above of the progress
caused by training without evaluation.
14


For evaluating training and other programs related to capacity development,

PILAC applies a popular framework proposed by Donald L. Kirkpatrick,
Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin. According to this framework,
the degree of elimination of the gap identified by Needs Assessment should be
measured and the improved capacity of training participants is considered
halfway from the viewpoint of the training purpose. It should be clear that the
training is conducted only for solving the problem and the improvement of the
capacity is a means for achieving the goal.
References
 Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels, Second Edition, Donald
L. Kirkpatrick, 1998, Berrett-Koehler
15


3 How to Use the Manuals
How to use the manuals
PILAC has made the following six manuals on training operation and
management. The manuals are designed for the staff members involved in
PILAC, but they are also useful for others to some extent.
1. Manual on Training Management (This manual)

2. Manual on Training Planning
3. Manual on Training Needs Assessment
4. Manual on Training Preparation
5. Manual on Training Evaluation
6. Manual on Training Skills
For the staff members involved in PILAC
The manuals are prepared based on the materials used during the project
period of PILAC and lessons learned from the project activities. Most of the
materials in the manuals may be familiar to the staff members who participated
in the project activities, whereas some in-depth information is added. Therefore,
the staff members can start with any of the manuals according to their needs
and interest.
For the person who will manage a training program for the first time
Below is the recommended sequence for someone who learns training operation
and management. The sequence is almost the same as the actual sequence of
training operation and management. In addition, a binding concept among the
manuals is the Training Management Cycle mentioned in the previous section
and the sequence also follows this cycle.
16


Recommended Sequence
1. Manual on Training Management (This manual)
2. Manual on Training Planning
3. Manual on Training Needs Assessment
4. Manual on Training Preparation
5. Manual on Training Evaluation
For the person who wants to acquire the skills for a trainer
The five manuals above focus on training operation and management. They do
not cover the skills and knowledge for a trainer or facilitator in training. Apart
from the five manuals, one more manual is made by PILAC: Manual on
Training Skills. This manual contains tips for trainers and facilitators and is
helpful for the person who is to work in either capacity.
For the person who wants to learn more
Most of the manuals above are designed for the person who works for a training
program for the first time. The manuals can also be a starting point to deepen
specific areas of expertise in relation to training because they show important
reference books for further study.
17


Contents of Manuals
The figure below shows the relationship between the Training Management
Cycle and the manuals. When one needs to study a specific activity in the
Training Management Cycle, the figure will help him or her choose the
appropriate manual.
Manual on
Training
Management
Manual on
Training
Planning
Manual on Manual on
Training Training
Evaluation Needs
Assessment
Manual on Manual on
Training Training
Skills Preparation
Figure 3: Manuals and Training Management Cycle
Manual on Training Management
As explained in the Introduction, this manual is intended to show an overview

of training management and how to use the manuals made by PILAC.
If one is not yet sure whether training is effective for solving a problem of one’s
organization, one preliminary exercise is suggested in “Chapter 2: Training
Management.”
18


Manual on Training Planning
This manual includes the following four main components.

1) Identify Training Needs and Objectives
2) Develop a Training Plan
3) Develop the Course Design
4) Develop the Training Materials
“1) Identify Training Needs and Objectives” explains the steps to determine
training objectives. The objectives are fixed based on the result of Training
Needs Assessment and the procedure to conduct Training Needs Assessment is
discussed in detail in the following “Manual on Training Needs Assessment.”
In-depth information and examples are in “2) Develop a Training Plan,” “3)
Develop the Course Design,” and “4) Develop the Training Materials” and those
are useful sources when someone needs to prepare a Training Plan, Course
Design, and Training Materials. Apart from these manuals, PILAC formulated
several training materials for actual training and seminars.
Manual on Training Needs Assessment
This manual shows the steps for conducting Training Needs Assessment. The
main contents are as follows.
1) Identify the Problem and Needs;
2) Determine the Design of Needs Analysis;
3) Collect Data;
4) Analyze Data; and
5) Provide Feedback.
This manual contains in-depth information for analyzing corrected data. As the
manual is made based on the first Training Needs Assessment in Project Phase
1, another report on Training Needs Assessment conducted in Project Phase 32
is ready. This report includes an interview guide and other survey tools, and
would be a helpful reference for Training Needs Assessment.
2 Report on Training Needs Assessment Survey, January 2009

19


Manual on Training Preparation
This manual is made based on the PILAC experience. The main content of this
manual is Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), which is a core tool to manage
training implementation in PILAC. This manual explains modified WBS used in
the project. The modified WBS explains cost estimation and budgeting.
Manual on Training Evaluation
This manual shows how to conduct training evaluation and prepare the training
report. The main contents are as follows.
1) Identify the Purpose of Training Evaluation
2) Select a Evaluation Method
3) Design Evaluation Tools
4) Collect Data
5) Analyze and Report Results
The content of “5) Analyze and Report Results” is formulated based on the
experience of PILAC. Training reports for the training sessions and seminars
were made according to this manual. The training reports would be helpful
resources to understand this manual.
Manual on Training Skills
This manual includes tips for those who participate in the training as a trainer
or facilitator. The contents include practical and basic skills and knowledge that
are useful for those who work as a trainer or facilitator for the first time.
Each topic is independent and not meant to be read in depth. The user can
select appropriate topics from the table of contents depending on his or her
needs and interest. A good way to use this manual is to read the table of
contents first and then choose a topic.
20
Manual on Training Planning

 What is Training Planning?
 Four Steps of Training Planning
 Step 1: Identify Training Needs and
Objectives
 Step 2: Develop a Training Plan
 Step 3: Develop the Course Design
 Step 4: Develop Training Materials

Manual on Training Planning al Department of Local A

Table of Contents

Glossary ........................................................................... 3
What is Training Planning? ............................................... 4
Four Steps of Traning Planning......................................... 5
Step 1: Identify Training Needs and Objectives .................. 6
Step 2: Develop a Training Plan ........................................ 9
Step 3: Develop the Course Design.................................. 15
Step 4: Develop Training Materials.................................. 30
References ...................................................................... 44
2


Glossary
A person who designs a training program based on a needs

assessment and a training plan that includes writing learning
Course designer:
objectives, creating learning activities, lesson plans and
audiovisuals.
A document containing the objectives, course modules, content

Curriculum:
outline, and delivery strategy for training or educational programs.
An instructional style that uses minimal lecture, and facilitates

Facilitator:
participant interaction and discovery of the learning points.
The equipment and tools that are used in a learning environment

Instructional
such as transparency films, PowerPoint slide presentations,
Media:
projectors, instructional web pages, and videotapes.
Procedures that the training developer determines will create an

Instructional
effective learning environment, such as lecture, case study and
Method:
testing.
Module: A collection of related chapters within a course.
Project Team: GDLA Task Force members and JICA experts
Trainer: A term used in a corporate setting for a teacher or instructor.
A collection of instructional topics and activities, related by a

Training Course:
single course goal.
Training
Design and development of instructional systems and programs.
development:

3


What is Training Planning?
1

Planning is the first step of the
training management cycle. In
the planning stage, the steps are
divided into two: i) training
needs assessment (TNA) and ii)
training planning. This manual
discusses training planning.

Definition
“Training Planning” is to identify training needs, recommend objectives
and outcomes, and suggest how they can be reached, based on TNA results.
The plan states the causes of deficiency, what performance standards are
not being met, and who the target population is. The plan also recommends
a means to evaluate suggested strategies, how to work with the
management, and when interventions are to be scheduled.
Training planning is the foundation of an effective training program.

Planning directs your efforts and resources toward a proposed outcome.
The deliverable document resulting from this step is a written training plan
that will be submitted for approval to all project members and MOI top
officials. Once it is approved, the plan will be used by project team members
to guide their initial course development tasks.
A training plan, the key to effective training, determines the what, who,
when, where, how and why of the training courses. Effective training
requires a clear picture of how the participants will apply the skills,
techniques, and knowledge that they have acquired from the training.
4


2 Four Steps of Training Planning
Four Steps:
The process of training planning can be divided into four steps: i) identify
training needs and objectives; ii) develop a training plan; iii) develop the
course design; and iv) develop training materials.

5


3 Step 1: Identify Training Needs and Objectives
The first step in training planning is to define training objectives based on

the needs identified by training needs assessment (TNA). The identified
training needs will be prioritized by the MOI top officials and project team
members in accordance with MOI policy and direction.
The steps in identifying training needs and objectives are as follows.
Steps to be

taken

Figure 1: Steps to Be Taken in Identifying Training Needs and Objectives
6


For determining the level of the present baseline capabilities, Knowledge,

Situation
Analysis Attitude, and Skills (KAS) are assessed during TNA. KAS are categories of the
taxonomy (see the table in the next page), which is a way of organizing things
into distinct areas that overlap. The information on the present situation of an
identified subject can be gathered through surveys, interviews, group
discussions, observations, secondary data, workshops, and consultations with
the MOI top officials. The present level of the target group for the training is
determined through TNA.
After knowing the present situation of knowledge, attitude, and skills in an

Make Visions
for Desired identified subject, a desired situation is set up (i.e., the MOI officials take an
Situation
initiative on promotion of D&D) in consultation with the MOI top officials and
PILAC team members. To fill the gap between the present and desired
situations, participants of the training are required to enhance their
knowledge, skills and attitude. This process verifies whether training is an
effective means to fill the gap.
After setting up the desired situation and confirming the present situation
Identify and
Prioritize on KAS, training needs are identified and prioritized in consultation with
Training Needs
the PILAC project team, referring to the TNA results. Then the identified
training needs are prioritized by the MOI top officials and project team
members, considering MOI policy and direction.
Set up the Training objectives are set up after identification and prioritization of the
Training training needs. In the process, categories of “Knowledge, Attitude, and Skills
Objectives
(KAS)” are again used to set up the objectives. This taxonomy of learning
behaviors can be seen as the goals of the training process. In other words,
after the training sessions, the participant should have acquired new skills,
knowledge, and attitudes. Each category can be triggered by specific
activities. The Table 1 includes key words related to those activities and the
description of each category of KAS.
7


Table 1: Learning Domains or Bloom’s Taxonomy

Learning Category Details
Domains
The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This
includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that
serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories,
which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex.
The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties.
Knowledge 1. Knowledge: Recall data or information
2. Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpretation, and
interpretation of instructions and problems
(Cognitive: 3. Application: Use a concept in a new situation
mental skills) 4. Analysis: Separates materials or concepts into component parts so that its
organizational structure may be understood
5. Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together
to form a whole with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure
6. Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials
Key Words: defined, identify, know, list, outlines, recognize, comprehend, clarify, acquire,
summarize, apply, demonstrate, discovers, prepare, produce, analyze, categorize, compile,
plan, organize, appraise, conclude, criticize, describe
This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings,
values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are
listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex
Attitude
1. Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.

2. Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners.
(Affective:
Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon
growth in
3. Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon,
feelings or
or behavior
emotional
4. Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values,
areas)
resolving conflicts between them

5. Internalizing values: Has a value system that controls one’s behavior
Key Words: enhance, recommend, select, encourage, answers, assist, compile, conform,
discuss, perform, practice, report, complete, demonstrate, report, arrange, formulate
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the
motor-‐skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of
speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major
categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex.
1. Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity
Skills
2. Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional set.

3. Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes
(Psychomotor
imitation and trial and error
Domain:
4. Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill.
manual or
5. Complex Overt Response: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve
physical skills)
complex movement patterns

6. Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement

patterns to fit special requirements.

7. Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation
Key Words: distinguish, relate, initiate, create, compose , explain, react, show, state, react,
respond, execute, manipulate, discuss, control, utilize, develop, formulate, monitor,
measure, adapt, arrange, originate, combine, arrange, build, compose
(Source: Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain)
8


4 Step 2: Develop a Training Plan
The second step in training planning is to develop a training plan that

includes the following: i) tentative course title; ii) training scope; iii) target
group; iv) key course topics and generic course activities; v) estimation of
development time; vi) required resources; vii) course duration; and viii)
budget.
The training plan has two key purposes: to direct and focus your training
Components efforts, and to help make decisions about the training. A training plan can
of a Training
Plan alert you to potential problems and design constraints. For example,
planning forces you to think about what you are going to do and what
resources you will need about what you are going to do and what resources
you will need to do it. The course project plan should incorporate the
following elements.
Figure 2: Outline of Training Plan
1. Tentative Course Title

2. Definition of the Training Scope
3. Identification of the Target Group
4. Identification of Key Course Topics and Generic Course Activities
5. Estimation of Development Time
6. Identification of Required Resource
7. Course Duration
8. Outline of the Course Development Budget
9


1. Tentative Course Title

Example of The course should have a name that reflects its purpose.
Outline of
Training Plan
2. Definition of the Training Scope
The scope of the training should be defined in terms of general content
boundaries. For example, the scope of a training course might be to
introduce project features and the course might be to introduce features
and the training course.
Table 2: Example of Defining Training Scope

Sample Questions Sample Answers
To improve the level of knowledge on D&D for government

Why is training needed?
officials
What should the course goal To understand the government policy (D&D and local
be? administration)
When the participants finish

To acquire analytical skills for implementing the Organic Law
this training, what should
that will be approved in the near future
they be able to do?
Under what circumstances? Simulated work conditions

To what level of They need to be able to articulate D&D policy and have a
competency? common view towards promoting D&D.
A certificate of completion and improvement of score from
With what burden of proof?
pre-‐test to post-‐test
3. Identification of the Target Group

The target group (trainees/participants) is whom the training is for. The
plan should include the following: i) their current level of knowledge and
skill; ii) the anticipated gaps in their knowledge and skill; iii) knowledge and
skills they need to acquire; iv) how many people need to receive the
knowledge and skill; v) how many people need to receive instruction; and vi)
and what special considerations they might require in terms of shifts, hours,
culture, language and geographic location.
10


Table 3: Example of Identification of the Target Group

Sample
Outline of
Training Plan Whom is the course for? MOI officials (permanent staff)
How long have they been with MOI? Not specified
According to TNA, the majority of them know about
What do they already know about
D&D. However, the knowledge is limited to the words,
the topic?
not contents of the policy in detail.
Initially some of them who work in the area of D&D.
Do all of them need the training or However, the human resource development system that
just some? will be established in MOI is expected to cover all
officials in the long term.
How will you determine who needs Policy of MOI top managers and results of consultation
it? with JICA and JICA experts
Trainees were already identified by JICA/MOI prior to
How many people need to be project implementation as follows.
trained? Location? Top managers (125 persons x 2 courses x 4 years)
GDLA officials (25 persons x 4 times x 4 years)
Will training be compulsory or
Compulsory
voluntary?
What travel, time or budget
One training cycle involving travel, time and budget will
constraints does the training design
be implemented by Phase as described in PDM.
need to consider?
MOI and JICA experts agree to the training plan to be
What prerequisites do they need?
consistent with MOI policy and direction.
In what settings will they use what D&D policy is promoted, especially if the Organic Law is
they learn in this course? endorsed.
4. Identification of Key Course Topics and Generic Course Activities

Critical topics and activities that should be included in the course are called
key components. For example, in PILAC 1, critical topics are as follows: i)
Progress of the Organic Law; ii) D&D Policy; and iii) Local Administration.
Critical activities are instructional methods that should be included in the
course. For example, instructor-led lecture, case studies based on actual
stories from the field, group discussion, and workshop can be undertaken.
Questions about key components help form a wish list of topics. The
analysis phase of the training development process will determine which
topics are critical, useful to know to improve the level of knowledge, or
missing from the list.
11


5. Estimation of Development Time

Sample Time may be the most important resource for a training planner. There
Outline of
Training Plan never seems to be enough of it. Design decisions in a training plan are based
on one of the two time alternatives: a non-negotiable delivery date, or an
estimated delivery date. A non-negotiable delivery date drives design
decisions. An estimated delivery date is derived from decisions on the
course design.
When the training has a non-negotiable delivery date, the following table
helps you determine on the time you can spend on each development step.
In PILAC, the training delivery date is likely to be determined in PDM.
Table 4: Sample Estimation of Development Time

Item Content
The time needed for this step depends on how clearly the training idea
1. Training
has been developed, whether resources have been discussed and
Planning
committed, and whether a training timeline has been determined.
Analysis includes target group analysis, task analysis, training
2. Analysis
environment analysis and analysis report.
Target group A diverse and geographically dispersed training group will require
2.1
analysis additional time. Add travel time to your time estimates.
Time for this analysis depends to a great extent on how accessible are
the people and experts with whom you are working, and how quickly
2.2 Task analysis
they respond to materials that you submit to them for review and
comments. Add time to target group analysis.
This analysis often raises questions about resource availability, which
Training normally takes time. It includes identification of the conditions such as
2.3 environment the location of the training and its facilities, equipment and media
analysis availability, enrollment condition (compulsory or voluntary),
completion procedure, and evaluation.
This includes time spent in meeting s that discuss the results of your
2.4 Analysis report
analysis above
3. Objective Setting up the training objectives among the training planners (GDLA
Setting Task Force members and JICA experts)
The outputs of this step are course design and selection of
4. Course Design instructional methods and media should fit the needs of the target
group.
This step could take more time if you must develop a multimedia
5. Training
material which includes scripting, casting, editing and production. It
Material
includes development, formatting, editing, and proofing materials,
Development
instructor materials, exercises, activities and supporting materials.
6. Revision Add time for minor editing and updates.
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6. Identification of Required Resources

Sample The project plan must include human and capital resources required for all
Outline of
Training Plan phases of the training, including design, implementation and monitoring
and evaluation. They include indentifying project team members, subject
matter experts, equipment, facilities, and services. Services include booking
of the venue and accommodation, meals and printing.
Table 5: Identification of Required Resources

MOI has meeting rooms which can accommodate
What facilities will be required for around 30 persons and 100 persons. Other
training implementation? alternatives are hotels and Center for Japan
Cooperation.
What equipment will be required and Computer, projector, pointer, microphone, video (for
will it be available on needed dates? recording), portable printer, scanner
Project manager and training implementation
arrangements team will be set up. Sub-‐groups will be
What roles need to be filled on the divided into three: i) trainers/facilitators, ii)
project team, and who will fill them? participants, and iii) materials, facilities and
equipment
(See Manual on Training Preparation)
According to training module, experienced
What subject-‐matter experts will be
subject-‐matter experts will be appointed (i.e., MOI
required?
officials in charge of one-‐window service).
7. Course Duration
Duration refers to how often and for how long the course is to be delivered.
The duration of the course can influence cost and resource decisions, as
well as design and content development decisions. It can indicate a need for
follow-up expenses as evaluation of the training course.
8. Outline of the Course Development Budget

(1) Budget
The budget includes anticipated expenses such as fees of subject-matter
experts, travel-related course attendance, equipment purchase or lease,
facilities rental, printing training materials (text, presentation materials,
and other references), and training kit (papers, pencils, and files).
Consider what you might need to outsource. Outsourcing should be

considered when the cost of doing it yourself, which includes learning,
13


equipment, software is higher than an estimated cost from an official.

(2) Tools and Templates to Use
The training plan is a report. You can create it by using planning tools such
as Project Manager, and spreadsheet programs such as Excel to create time
lines and Work Breakdown Structure 1 (WBS) (Refer to Manual on
PILAC Training Preparation).
Figure 3: Sample Work Breakdown Structure
1 A fundamental project management technique for defining and organizing the total scope of a project, using a
hierarchical tree structure. The first two levels of WBS (the root node and Level 2) define a set of planned
outcomes that collectively and exclusively represent 100% of the project scope. At each subsequent level, the
children of a parent node collectively and exclusively represent 100% of the scope of their parent node.
14


Step 3: Develop the Course Design

5
The third step in training planning is to develop the course design including
curriculum development, syllabus formulation and to determine necessary
instruction methods and media and instruction materials.
Training course design is a blueprint of the training course and details what
Training the course will look like. It includes the following: the objective of the course,
Course
Design an overview of the participants; a list of prerequisites, objectives, course
topics, and content descriptions; a course outline; instructional methods,
instructional media; descriptions of instructional activities; a description of
evaluation methods; a course timetable that shows content sequencing with
time requirements; and any required equipment or resources.
The purpose of training design document is to detail the course design itself
and to provide an opportunity to correct errors in the intended outcomes
according to the objectives and contents. Its focus is on the structure and
content of the training course. The outline of the training course design is
shown in the following figures. There are two examples of training course
design. The latter is a simplified example. Either of the two can be chosen
depending on time availability and type of training courses. Based on those
examples, you can develop your own format as necessary.
15


Figure 4: Sample Training Course Design
Sample
Training 1. INTRODUCTION
Course
Design  Training Name
This section provides the course title, its acronym if any, and the release, version, or
revision number of the course.
 Training Scope
This section describes the area covered by the training.
 Training Materials
This section lists the deliverable components of the training solution, including printed
and electronic materials.
 Duration of Course
The section estimates the amount of time participants will take to complete the
course. Prepare this estimate with a caveat that it may be refined during the training
material development phases.
 Number of Participants
This section describes optimum, minimum, and maximum class sizes.
 Prerequisites
This section describes any prerequisite courses, certifications, tests, or activities the
learner must complete before attending the course.
 Participants
This section provides a description of the training population and includes the
following: job titles, areas of responsibility, length of service with MOI, background,
previous and related experience, existing competencies, education level, attitudes,
learning styles, media preferences, completed prerequisites, and course expectations.
It should include any additional information that provides insight to the nature of the
learner that would affect success in attaining the course goal.
 Course Objectives
The section includes the course objectives and describes the purpose of the training,
how it fits into a curriculum applicable, and how the training will benefit the
participant. The section includes the problems for which this training is a solution and
includes the performance criteria that indicate successful achievement.
 Course assessment and evaluation
This section is an overview of the methodology that will be used to determine the
effectiveness of the training. It includes two components: feedback from the learners
regarding the logistics of the training event and their perceived level of learning, as
well as testing of the participants to determine their level of learning based on the
objective.

16


Sample
2. CONTENT OUTLINE
Training
Course
Design  Instructional Resources
This section lists the course materials and the format in which they will be provided to
participants, instructors, and administrators. This includes materials in printed or
electronic form, and the prerequisite conditions for receiving the materials such as
network connections and mail delivery.
 Structure of Material
This section describes each part that comprises the course, such as modules, lessons,
and exercises. The description of each part includes what it contains, how long it takes,
how it fits into the other parts, and its purpose.
 Course and Performance Objectives
This section includes the course objective and lists all performance objectives.
 Instructional Sequence and Activities
This section lists the order of course topics and a brief conceptual description of each.
If there is a consistent structural model on which each topic is based, then it should be
described here.
 Content
The section is a description of each content segment, including all structural levels such
as modules, lessons and exercises. The description is based on what the material
contains rather than how it will be organized. If this is a product course, the list of
products covered in the course should be listed here.
 Delivery Schedule
This section describes the anticipated time that each content segment will take to
complete during course delivery. It can most conveniently and succinctly be expressed
as timetable.
 Development Requirements
This section includes the resource needed to develop the training product. They
include the following: software, hardware, manuals, documentation, in-‐house
personnel, consulting services, project team members, meeting facilities, testing
equipment, tools, site tours, simulation equipment, video production equipment or
crew, and any other materials and resources that are required for the facilitation and
completion of the development process.
 Delivery Requirements
This section includes resources required to deliver the training product. This can
include many of the same items in the development requirements section.
 Production Requirements
This section includes resources required to produce materials for the training product
such as network managers, media designers, video duplication services, printers, and
any other resources that package the developed material into deliverable form.

17


Figure 6: Example of Simplified Training Course Design
Example
of Title: The title should be concise and descriptive of the nature of the training program.
Simplified
Training Venue: This identifies the site where the training program will be held considering such items
Course as learning activities, facilities, equipment, and cost.
Design
Duration: The time needed for the training to cover all necessary topics
Implementing Agencies:
The institution(s) that will take charge of the actual execution of the training
Participants:
Those who are identified as the expected attendees of the training program. This
should also indicate their profile, e.g., number and type (occupation, etc.) of the
participants.

I. Rationale:
It justifies the activity as well as expected outcomes of the programs based on the
results from the training need assessment.
II. Objectives:
It states what is expected of the participants after the training.
III. Methodology:
This describes the strategies that will be applied during the actual execution of the
training program. There is no single best training method, but the recipients of the
training learn best if they participate actively. A combination of methods is expected
to bring about better results.
IV. Course Contents:
The most important topics that should be listed based on the objectives of the
training, considering the time frame, available facilities, resources, and manpower.
Break down the major topics into more specific components. Related topics should be
grouped together for continuity of thought.
V. Expected Outputs:
They are often a tangible outcome immediately after the training program.
VI. Evaluation Instruments:
Evaluation instruments should be clearly stated.
VII. Budget Requirement:
An estimate of the entire cost of the training program should be included. Training
development, implementation and evaluation costs should be prepared and secured.
VIII. Supplies and Materials:
Supplies and materials needed during the training should be listed with their
quantities and prices.
IX. Training Management:
Training management shall consist of such posts as project officer, coordinator, and
assistant. This part shall describe the structure of management and responsibility of
the staff.
X. Training Evaluation:
Training evaluation methods shall be stated here. Details of the evaluation methods
are described in Manual on Training Evaluation.
18


Below is an example of training course design drafted by PILAC.
Top Management Seminar

PILAC Title
Venue Center for Japanese Cooperation
Duration July 9-‐10 (125), July 12-‐13 (125), 2007
Implementing Agencies MOI/JICA
Provincial governor, vice governors, high-‐ranking officials of line
Participants
ministries at national level (125 Participants x 2 = 250 participants)

The Royal Government of Cambodia developed the Strategic Framework
for Decentralization and De-‐concentration in 2005 to implement the
Rationale
D&D reform. However, it was found in Training Needs Assessment that
officials do not know much about D&D policy and local administration.
(all governors and vice-‐governors) to understand D&D policy and local
Objectives
administration in order to smoothly promote D&D policy
Methodology Lecture, Group Discussion, Questions and Answers
 Progress on D&D policy
 Organic Law on Sub-‐National Democratic Development
Course Content
 Local Administration in Cambodia and Japan
 Case Study in Service Delivery in the public sector
MOI high-‐ranking officials, short-‐term Japanese expert and researcher of
Lecturers
Cambodian Development Resource Institute
Expected Outputs All participants can understand D&D policy and local administration.
Budget Requirement USXX dollars
Reference materials, PowerPoint presentations, related Prakas, paper
Supplies and Materials
and pens for group work, projector, computer, board etc
Training Management PILAC Project Team (GDLA Task Force members and JICA Expert)
Training Evaluation Criteria (Training Contents, Materials, Level of
Training Evaluation
Understanding) done by participants
A curriculum is a statement of the intended aims and objectives, content,

Curriculum experiences, outcomes and processes of an educational program including
Development
the following.
 a description of the training structure (entry requirements, length and
organization of the training program including assessment system)
 a description of expected methods of learning, teaching, and feedback
The curriculum should cover both generic professional and

specialty-specific areas. The content of the curriculum should be stated in
terms of what knowledge, skills and expertise the participant will acquire.
19


Curriculum development is recreating or modifying what is taught, while

Curriculum curriculum evaluation guides decision making, serves accountability needs,
Development
and promotes understanding of the curriculum. Curriculum guides include
teaching goals and instructional strategies. Courses of study, syllabi, or
blueprints specify the content, learning outcomes and time allocations.
Figure 8: Sample Training Curriculum
Training Title Training on D&D Policy and Local Administration

MOI officials can smoothly promote D&D through understanding the D&D
Objectives
policy and local administration
1) Top Management Seminar
Training Course
2) GDLA Officials Training
1) July 9-‐10 (125), July 12-‐13 (125), 2007
Duration
2) July 19-‐20 (25), July 23-‐24 (25), July 26-‐27 (25), July 30-‐31 (25), 2007
Venue Cambodia-‐Japan Cooperation Center
1) GDLA high-‐ranking officials and officials of concerned ministries (125
Participants participants x 2 times =250 participants)
2) All GDLA officials ( 25 Participants x 4 times =100 participants)
Methodology Lecture, Group Discussion, Questions and Answers
Trainers/Facilitators GDLA Task Force Members, MOI officials and other concerned agencies
 Progress on D&D policy
 Organic Law on Sub-‐National Democratic Development
Course Contents  Local Administration in Cambodia and Japan
 Case Study in Service Delivery in the Public Sector
 Group Discussion
Implementing Agencies MOI supposed by JICA
All participants understand D&D policy and local administration in
Expected Outputs
Cambodia and Japan.
Training Management PILAC Project Team (GDLA Task Force members and JICA Expert)
1) Evaluation Criteria (Training Contents, Materials, Level of
Understanding) done by participants
Training Evaluation 2) Pre-‐and post-‐tests, training evaluation criteria (trainers/facilitators,
training contents, materials, level of understanding) done by
participants
20


A syllabus shows a series of training components in order and time

Syllabus allocation among different contents. Whatever way the topics are sequenced,
Formulation the absorptive capacity of the participants should be considered and the
topics should lead toward the achievement of the training objectives. The
following three general criteria should be considered when formulating a
syllabus: i) training objectives; ii) participants; and iii) practical
requirements. Basic questions are as follows.
 What is the objective of the identified module for attaining the training
objectives?
 What methodology should be adopted to conduct the course effectively?
 What specific instructional materials are needed?
 How long does it take to achieve its objective?
Table 6: Sample Training Syllabus
PILAC
21


Below is the training schedule of the Top Management Seminar in PILAC

PILAC
Phase 1.

Table 7: Training Schedule (Top Management Seminar)
st
Day 1 : Date: July 09, 2007
8:00-‐8:30 Registration GDLA Task Force
8:30-‐9:00 Opening Ceremony H.E. Prum Sokha
9:00-‐9:30 Session 1: Introduction Dr. Kato (JICA)
-‐Briefing PILAC
st
-‐Introduction of Day 1 Schedule
9:30-‐10:00 Coffee Break
10:00-‐11:00 Session 2: Progress on D&D Policy H.E. Sak Setha
11:00-‐12:00 Session 3: Organic Law on Sub-‐National Democratic H.E. Sak Setha
Development
12:00-‐14:00 Lunch Break
14:00-‐15:00 Session 4: Local Government System in Japan Mr. Kamiko (JICA Expert)
15:15-‐16:15 Session 5: Public Finance in Japan Mr. Kamiko (JICA Expert)
16:15-‐17:00 Session 6: Small exercise GDLA Task Force
nd
Day 2 : Date: July 10, 2007
7:45-‐8:00 Registration GDLA Task Force
st
8:00-‐8:30 Session 7: Review of Day 1 GDLA Task Force
st nd
-‐Review of Day 1 and introduction of Day 2 Schedule
8:30-‐9:30 Session 8: Reflection of small exercise H.E. Leng Vy
10:00-‐11:00 Session 9: Case Study: One Window Service Asia Urbs
11:00-‐12:00 Session 10: Accountability and Civil Service in Decentralising Cambodia Development
Cambodia Resource Institute
14:00-‐15:00 Session 11: Questions and answers Dr. Kato (JICA Expert)
15:00-‐15:30 Session 12: Questionnaire for evaluation GDLA Task Force
nd
-‐Delivery and collection of Overall Questionnaire and Day 2
Questionnaire
15:30-‐15:45 Session 13: Seminar Reporting GDLA Task Force
15:45-‐16:15 Session 14: Closing Ceremony H.E. Prum Sokha
16:15-‐16:45 Session 15: Delivery of Certification H.E. Prum Sokha

22


Here is the training schedule of the GDLA Training in PILAC Phase 1.

PILAC
Table 8: Training Schedule (GDLA Training)

st
Day 1 : Date: July 19, 23, 26, 30, 2007
8:00-‐9:00 Session 1: Introduction and Pre-‐test
-‐Introduction of the training course GDLA Task Force
-‐Pre-‐Test
9:00-‐9:30 Session 2: Briefing PILAC Dr. Kato (JICA Expert)
9:30-‐10:15 Session 3: Local Administration System in Cambodia & Japan (I) GDLA Task Force
10:30-‐11:15 Session 3: Local Administration System in Cambodia & Japan (II) GDLA Task Force
11:15-‐12:15 Session 4: D&D theory and practice GDLA Task Force
14:00-‐15:00 Session 5: Organic Law on Sub-‐National Democratic
GDLA Task Force
Development
15:00-‐16:30 Session 6: Group Work: Exercise how to explain D&D in
GDLA Task Force
Cambodia for Provincial Officers
16:30-‐17:00 Session 7: Questions and answers
-‐Questions and answers GDLA Task Force
st
-‐Collection of Day 1 Questionnaire
nd
Day 2 : Date: July 20, 24, 27, 31, 2007
st
8:00-‐8:30 Session 8: Review of Day 1
st nd GDLA Task Force
-‐Review of Day 1 and introduction of Day 2 schedule
8:30-‐9:30 Session 9: Case Study: One Window Service Asia Urbs
9:30-‐10:30 Session 10: Group Work: Discussion on One Window Service GDLA Task Force
11:00-‐12:00 Session 10: Group Work: Discussion on One Window Service GDLA Task Force
14:00-‐15:00 Session 11: Review and reflection of the training GDLA Task Force
15:00-‐15:45 Session 12: Post-‐test and questionnaire
nd
-‐Delivery and collection of Overall Questionnaire and Day 2
GDLA Task Force
Questionnaire
-‐Post-‐Test
15:45-‐16:00 Session 13: Distribution of certificate Deputy D.G.
16:00-‐16:30 Session 14: Closing Deputy D.G.
23


You already know who the participants are, what they know, and what they
Instruction need to know, as a result of your analyses. You have determined the goal of
Methods and
Media the course, the learning objectives, and how they will be tested. You have a
roadmap, the training design that includes topics to focus on what order to
address them in, and how long each will take the participant to complete.
The design document also included a proposal of the instructional methods
and media that seemed most appropriate to use.
Instructional methods are strategies for delivering content. It takes time to

decide how to organize instructional methods that can be described by
many characteristics. Since time, cost, and effort are driving factors in most
training projects you will work on, the comparison table of instructional
methods that follows is rated by time, cost and effort (complexity). Other
influencing factors to select an instructional method are instructor
expertise, degree of learner interaction, and the potential for enabling
higher levels of learning.
Table 9: Characteristics of Instructional Methods

Small Group Discussion
Characteristics
Hands-‐On Experience
of Instructional
Panel of Experts
Methods
Guest Speaker
Brainstorming
Case Study
Facilitation
Discussion
Questions
Exercise
Role Play
Lecture
Time L M M M M M L L L M M M
Cost L L L L L L L, M L L L L M, H
Complexit L L L L L M L L L L, M L, M M
y
Degree of L M M, H M, H M, H H L L, M H H H H
Interaction
Legend: Requires a high (H), medium (M) , or low (L) level of cost, time or effort
(Source: Hassell-‐Corbiell (2001). Developing Training Courses)
24


Table 10: Instructional Methods

Instructional Method Content
Methods
 In a traditional lecture, the lecturer speaks, and the participants listen. The lecturer’s
style determines whether questions are allowed. The lecture method of delivery offers
limited or no opportunity for the participants to ask questions.
 This method can be appropriate for short presentations of one to two hours,
information dumps, and squeezing much information (that participants will not be
expected to remember or master, but must be aware of) into a short period of time. It
Lecture might also be appropriate where the participants have entry-‐level skills and knowledge,
and are therefore limited in their ability to interact.
 Lecture-‐driven delivery can only be expected to yield lower levels of cognitive learning
such as basic comprehension and recall.
 To achieve higher cognitive levels of learning, the content can include drills, questions
that require a higher level of cognitive activity and exercises that cause learners to
exercise a higher level of interaction and thought.
 Asking questions is an instructional method. Asking open questions that begin with
who, what, when, where, and how, invite the learner to think rather than listen and to
interact rather than absorb.
Questions
 Questions should be strategically placed in the instructor guide to fuel interactivity.
Asking “Why” seems to force the participant into a defensive position, as if the
questioner is challenging the participant’s position.
 Drills, quizzes, and simple individual or group games give the participants an
Exercise
opportunity to demonstrate and comprehend high levels of cognitive knowledge
 A structured discussion activity presents a multifaceted topic to participants. Individuals
or groups are assigned to defend different points of view.
Discussion  This method can cause learners to use application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
levels of cognitive knowledge. The disadvantage is that most learners listen, and a
handful of learners reap the interactive rewards of manipulating and expressing ideas.
 It has the same characteristics and advantages of discussion, with an additional
Small advantage –more learners have an opportunity to participate.
Group  This instructional method has two levels: the small group discussion, where most or all
Discussion learners have a chance to participate; and the report level, where a spokesperson
presents the group’s findings to the class.
 This is an instructor-‐led process in which the instructor introduces a process, and then
coaches the learners through it by asking questions, introducing drills, providing or
Facilitation eliciting examples and job applications.
 It is a hybrid instructor-‐led method that is interactive and where learners have
fundamental knowledge and skills to build upon, but not enough to be self-‐directed.
 Transcribing the presentations of guest speakers is a low cost way of collecting course
content. To be effective, you need to provide the speaker with a topic, objectives, time
Guest allocation for speaking, and questions that the presentation should answer.
Speaker  The level of learning that takes place using a guest speaker is parallel to the effect of a
lecture, and can be elevated to higher cognitive levels of knowledge if the speaker’s
skills invite an equally high level of interaction with the learners.
 A panel of experts presents the same advantages of a guest speaker, and adds diversity.
This method is appropriate where several points of view should be considered, or to
Panel of
provide foundation for discussion or case study.
Experts
 You should prepare the panelists with a topic, the learning objectives, time allocated
for the activity, and, if appropriate, a list of issues to address.

25


Table 11: Instructional Methods

Instructional Method Content
Methods
 This method is effective when learners are engaging in changing a strategy and
a problem-‐solving tool used to generate ideas.
Brainstorming
 There is a facilitator who lists ideas that learners generate and ask open-‐ended
questions that elicit application analysis, synthesis, and cognitive thinking.
 A case study is an activity that describes a real-‐life situation, or potentially real
life situation, poses a problem, asks for solutions, compares solutions with the
Case Study real-‐life solution, and evaluates all solutions.
 Properly facilitated, this method can involve higher levels of cognitive and
affective learning.
 Role play requires the learner to act out a probable situation. It allows for
coaching and immediate feedback in a supportive environment.
Role Play  Role play is most appropriate for practicing people skills such as presentations,
interviews, evaluations, and discussions, and can engage learning at the
affective level (arousing feelings and emotions).
 This method simulates a real-‐life situation, using the tools and environmental
Hands-‐On cues that the learner will have access to or be required to use in a job situation.
Experience  It is most appropriate for engaging learning at the psychomotor level (requiring
physical action combined with thought)
Using the above instructional methods, the following shows that realism
increases with the use of instructional methods that are closer to real life. It
may be fair to say that the more realistic it is, the easier the participants can
internalize the content of the training.
Figure 9: Degrees of Realism with Instructional Methods
26


Group exercise may be used to provide the participants with an opportunity

Instructional
Methods to share ideas and experience on specific issues. This method is an effective
way to gain knowledge and transform it into practice, changing the
participants’ attitude at work. The following table shows the process of
conducting exercise.
Table 12: Instructional Methods for Exercise

Method Content
 Kinds of learning for teaching points are:

Identify i) memorization (of facts or processes)
Objective ii) understanding (of principles and situation); and
iii) performance (of actions)
 There are two elements here: i) choosing a question, example or situation; and
ii) describing it.
 The example should be one familiar to all participants, and the choice should
therefore be determined by what you know of the participants.
Outline
 Describing the problem is the core of the exercise. Consider carefully how much
Problem
information to include – too little, and the participants have to make
assumptions which increases the number of possible solutions; too much and
either the example becomes so complex that participant get confused, or the
solution becomes too obvious and easy.
 Where there is a single correct solution, explain it as simple a fashion as
possible and if helpful, the method of reaching it
Devise  Where there is no “right” answer, say so and offer a “suggested” solution,
Solution possibly identifying where this falls short of the ideal. You may want to offer
alternative solutions, emphasizing their comparative good and bad points, but
take care not to over-‐complicate the exercise.
 Prepare instructions both for the participant, on how to complete the exercise
and for the participant, on how to run it. They must be clear and
straightforward.
Prepare
 The participant’s instructions should be detailed enough to allow another
Instructions
participant to run the exercise with minimal rehearsal.
 A standard format trainer’s guide is useful to ensure that noting essential is
forgotten.
 The closer the text group is to the target group the better. Even if that is
impossible, test run the exercise on someone.
 It is amazing how often an exercise which looks perfectly reasonable on paper
just does not work in practice.
 Points for testing are:
Test-‐Run
-‐How well the exercise achieves its objective;
Exercise
-‐How easily the participant can follow the instructions;
-‐How easily the participant can complete the exercise;
-‐How good the solution is
-‐The completeness of the trainer’s guide;
-‐The timing of the exercise, and possibly the location
27


A sample trainer’s guide to exercise is shown below. It can be used to plan

Example
of an exercise based on the above points.
Trainer’s
Guide to
Exercise
Figure 10: Sample Trainer’s Guide to Exercise
1. Training Course:
2. Exercise:
3. Location:
4. Format: Individuals/Pairs/Trios/Small Groups/Whole Groups
5. Duration:
6. Other Materials
/Equipment
Required
7. Primary Objectives:
8. Other Objectives:
9. Preparation:
10. Running the

Exercise:
11. Potential Problems

28


Instructional materials are the aids that implement the instructional

Instructional
methods. The following is an overview of the one you are most likely to use.
Materials
Most training materials apply to both classroom and electronic course
delivery.
Table 13: Instructional Materials

Material Content
 Usually in the form of books or binders including instructor guides and
participant guides. They might also include resource manuals such as glossaries,
Bound Printed
policies, procedures, guidelines, and other lengthy documents.
Matter
 Bound printed matters are usually provided at the beginning of the course. They
can be loaned or given as personal copies for each learner.
 Short documents that are distributed when they are needed, such as exercises,
assignments, and checklists.
 If there are many, and if nothing will be lost, provide handouts before they are
Handouts
needed, then include them in a bound printed matter.
 This technique ensures that everyone will have a copy and saves handling and
distribution time.
 Paper-‐sized transparent sheets that can be run through a printer or photocopier
like a piece of paper. Overheads can be used to provide an enlarged copy of
what the learner sees in his materials, to illustrate a drawing, a flow of activities,
projected onto a screen visible to the entire class.
Overheads
 This means requires a transparency projector. Some organizations have one.
Some organizations have transparency machines that use a roll of transparency
file, which is scrolled over the viewing area.
 You can also overlay a transparency sheet over this type of projector.
 Includes tapes played in a video recorder and streaming video.

Video Media  Video is appropriate for showing procedures, equipment, and behaviors that are
difficult to describe.
Activities are learning events. An activity should include directions for the
instructor such as the purpose of the activity, time allowed for the activity,
how to administer it, and suggested answers. Instructions for the
participants should also include the activity and the time allowed for it.
29


6 Step 4: Develop Training Materials
The fourth step in training planning is to develop training materials. After

identifying instructional methods and materials, training materials should
be developed. The trainers are expected to be not just speakers, but also
prolific writers of training materials.
After identifying “Why is it needed?”, “Who are reading it?”, “When is it

Structure of needed?”, “Where is it written?”, and “What points are included?” in the
Training
Materials initial planning stage of training materials, decide what your main point is
and at what stage you want to make it. Sometimes it makes sense to leave
the main point until the end upon building it with supporting data.
There are various techniques to help you structure your writing. The
simplest is merely to list your points and juggle them around, either by
numbering your list, or by writing each point on adhesive stickers. These
points then form separate sections or paragraphs. Other structuring
techniques use flowcharts and mapping. Below is a checklist for writing to
be read.

30


Figure 11: Checklist for Writing to Be Read
Writing to Be
Read  Whether you should write at all
 Who your reader is
 Whether you know enough about your reader
 What your objective is, in behavioral terms
 What your reader’s needs are
 How to resolve the conflicting needs of multiple readers
 What format you want to use
 What tone you want to use
 How to meet your deadline
 When you write best
 Where your write best
 What your main point is, and where you will place it
 What other points you will include
 How you will structure them

(Source: Stimson (2005). How to Write and Prepare Training Materials)
It is important to avoid misuse of words that leads to confusion. The best

Using
Effective writing is composed of short, simple, and familiar words in short, simple
Words sentences. Here are a few useful guidelines.
Figure 12: Guidelines of Using Words
 Eliminate redundancies.
 Avoid jargon.
 Use the positive rather than the negative.
 Use concrete rather than abstract nouns.
 Use verbs rather than nouns.
 Use active rather than passive verb forms.
 Use the first and second person pronouns (‘I’ and ‘you’).

31


Much writing these days is actually read from a computer screen using
Presenting
Training PowerPoint. Here is a checklist for presenting training materials.
Materials
Figure 13: Checklist for Presenting Training Materials
 Consider the appearance of your material?

 Plan the use of white space?
 Have one main topic per paragraph?
 Begin each paragraph with “signpost” sentences?
 Use headings?
 Use a consistent numbering system?
 Display lists effectively?
 Include only essential numbers?
 Present numbers simply?
 Use charts and tables?
 Include detailed information in appendices?
 Use emphasis and appropriate color effects?
 Use appropriate animation effects?
 Use pictures?
 Adapt your work to paper or on-‐screen presentation?

There are several types of training materials to be used for training: i)

Types of
Training textbook; ii) course visuals or presentation materials (such as ones
Materials produced with PowerPoint); iii) trainer’s notes; and iv) course handouts.
An important training material to formulate first is a textbook with an

Textbook
emphasis on helping the learner to learn. Text is the part giving information
in a textbook. The principles are the same as for all writing. The question
“How much information should you include?” is a key one. The answer is
“Only as much as you need for the learner to achieve the objectives.” The
more precise the objectives, the easier it is to write text.
32


Text should be written in an easy-to-read style: short and simple

Textbook
paragraphs, sentences and words. In particular, make sure that each
paragraph makes only one point. In self-learning materials, a number of
single-sentence paragraphs are much better than one or two more literary,
longer ones. Bullet points and numbering also help the learner identify
separate points.
Text is not the only way of giving information. Graphs and line drawings
are also used not just in illustrating points but also in indicating visually
what the training participants have to learn.
Summaries and checklists help the learner by providing the following.

 A quick reference to what is covered
 Repetition: The common summary-text-checklist pattern matches the
old training adage: “First you tell them what you are going to tell them,
then you tell them, then you tell them what you told them.”
 Pauses for reflection: Summaries and checklists are in a different
format from the main text, and this encourages a change of pace in the
reader.
Course
There are many ways to produce visuals such as overhead transparencies,
Visuals and PC-controlled slides. Microsoft PowerPoint, a PC-controlled slide
show, is more frequently used than ever, adding significantly to the
professionalism of overhead transparencies by the inclusion of animation
and multimedia displays. Here are the guidelines of producing visuals.
 Keep the text short and simple.
 Avoid the dilemma on using either the upper or lower case completely by
using pictures rather than words.
 Use color which strengthens visuals.
Other common visual aids include flipcharts and posters. The main
function of flip charts, whiteboards and blackboards is to allow the trainer
to produce instant visual aids during the session. Flip charts can also be
used to elaborate a ready-made material. Writing must be legible, and it is
easier to write neatly on a flip chart than on a board.
33


Posters are often the focal point for a lecture or discussion. Thus they need
to be strong in design to keep the audience’s attention. Remember the rules
and about simplicity, pictures, and color. Posters are excellent for anything
you want to display as a permanent reminder. They are also particularly
suitable for mapping a process which you will discuss in your training
session.
Trainer’s notes often called a lesson plan or teaching plan. They may be on
Trainer’s
paper or cue-cards. A useful method is to use a standard four-column
Notes
approach, with columns for time, content, exercises, and audiovisual aids.
Many PC-based presentation packages have the facility to add note pages.
The purpose of trainer’s notes is to enable the trainer to run a training

course. Points to be considered for the course are as follows.
 Write a training objective(s).
 Work out how to test that the objective(s) have been achieved.
 Identify what information participants must know to complete the text.
 Start the presentation by arousing interest.
 Break the ice quickly by getting participants talking and doing things.
 Structure “must-know” items (and any others you decide to include).
 Summarize frequently.
 Make obvious the links between different topics.
 Select the techniques and audiovisual aids which will reinforce each
training point.
 End on a high note and emphasize the links back to the work situation.
Many trainers have their own preferred way of formulating their notes.
However, whatever the format, the following information should be
included.
 The basic content which is being covered and the methods used (e.g.,
lecture, question-and-answer )
 Links between the content, audiovisual aids, handouts and exercises
 Time checks along the way
34


Figure 14: Sample Trainer’s Notes
Trainer’s
Notes

Initially, this information may be written in some detail as a lesson or

teaching plan, which can be preserved for other trainers. Points to consider
include the following.
 Information on the objective, equipment, and materials should be found
on the first sheet only, and not on the sheets that follow.
 Timing can be estimated either as actual time or elapsed time from the
beginning of the session.
 The content column can be as explicit or as cryptic as you wish.
Highlighting in different colors lecture portions, questions, desired
answers and activities gives a useful overview of the anticipated
dynamics of the course, and indicates any time savings to be made.
 Handouts are often associated with exercises and may be referred to in
the exercises column. It is useful to give them an identifying letter or
number.

35


A Session Plan can also be written in the Notes pages on presentation
packages like Microsoft PowerPoint. These packages are useful and have
transformed the standard of presentations in the last few years. However,
they are structured around slides, and tend to overuse these audiovisual
aids. The packages are best used with the following conditions.
 Considering the overall structure of the presentation or course

 Identifying which presentation method, activity or audiovisual aid will
best reinforce or illustrate the message of each element
 Using the presentation package only to start the training session.
Include the appropriate session plan portion in the notes pages for each
slide.

Figure 15: Sample Session Plan

Ways of providing course handouts include the following: Ready-made
Course
Handouts
Handout; Do-it-yourself; and Combination Approach. An easy way to

create such handouts is to base them on copies of the visuals, with space
alongside or on the opposite page for participant notes.
Ready-made Handout such as PowerPoint slides should be “kept short and

simple” while including necessary information for participants’ sake and
your own. Here are the points to be considered.
 Structure information so that participants can use and refer to it easily.
 Do not forget the headings.
36


 Write short paragraphs, short sentences, and short words.

 Use a lively and direct style.
 Use pictures, including charts, line drawings or photographs (just make
sure they can be clearly reproduced).
 Use layout to attract and retain attention.
Below are the advantages and disadvantages of trainer-produced handouts.
Figure 16: Advantages and Disadvantages of “Ready-‐Made Handout”
Advantages of trainer-‐produced handouts:

 You can make sure that they are complete and accurate.
 Participant can spend their training time learning, rather than just noting down
your words.

Disadvantages of trainer-‐produced handouts:
 Participants may switch off and concentrate less, when they know there is a
handout covering the topic.
 As individual participants inevitably have different needs, none of the information
you provide will be useful for everybody.
 It is difficult to find the right time to distribute handouts. Here is why.
*Before the event: Some people may read them in advance, but others (usually
the less able or knowledgeable) will not, causing even greater disparity in
participants’ starting knowledge. Also some people may actually see the handout
as a substitute for the training session and not attend the session at all.
*During the session: The temptation is to read them at that stage instead of
concentrating on the presentation.
*After the event: This is when you are to have participants file and forget them.

Do-it-yourself
is the reverse of having the trainer use ready-made handouts.
the advantages and disadvantages.
Here are
Figure 17: Advantages and Disadvantages of “Do-‐it-‐yourself”
Advantages of do-‐it-‐yourself:

 It can save you time and effort (although, of course, both are needed).
 Notes are more personal to the participant and may consequently be better used
after the training.

Disadvantages of do-‐it-‐yourself:
 A participant who is busy scribbling has the time neither to listen, think, nor to
ask questions. Thus do-‐it-‐yourself becomes a total waste of face-‐to-‐face training.
 The notes may be incomplete.
37


The Combination Approach would be that the trainer provides an outline

of the main points covered with space for the participants to amplify as they
please. The outlines should be more than just topic headings and perform
the following functions.
 Set out important rules and checklists in full.
 Use diagrams and pictures to clarify the material and aid retention.
 Either include all necessary reference materials, or make sure the
participants can get hold of them easily.
 Invite the participants to note examples from their own experience to
which the training points might be applied.
 Do beware of putting in so much information that the outline becomes
trainer-produced notes.
In sum, the combined approach tries to provide the best of both worlds: the
completeness and accuracy of trainer-produced notes, made more relevant
and personal by the participant’s involvement. However, the biggest
disadvantage is that it may restrict the flexibility of the training session.
Participants will expect the trainer to cover all the points in the workbook in
order. In a particular group, participants may wish to reverse the order or
concentrate on some aspects rather than others. You can still do this
provided that you explain to the participants when you are deviating and
that you know your workbook well enough to direct them to the right page.
Three materials should be prepared: i) textbook; ii) handouts or PC

PILAC presentation (PowerPoint presentation); and iii) other reference documents
such as related PRAKAS and D&D Policy (Strategic Framework for
Decentralization and De-concentration).
38


Below are the training materials for the Top Management Seminar that were
PILAC
produced in PILAC Phase 1.

Table 14: Training Materials on Top Management Seminar
Type Content
 D&D Policy
Textbook
 Local Governance and Local Finance in Japan
 PowerPoint Presentation Briefing about PILAC

 PILAC Briefing Paper
 PowerPoint Presentation on Progress of D&D Policy
 PowerPoint Presentation on the Conception of the Draft of Organic Law
Handout  PowerPoint Presentation on Local Government and Local Finance in Japan
 PowerPoint Presentation on Administration that serves citizens (One Window Service Office)
 PowerPoint Presentation on Case Study “One Window Service Office,” Administration Reform
 PowerPoint Presentation on Accountability and Civil Service
 Case Study: Accountability and Civil Service
 Related PRAKAS and Law on Local Governance

 Amendments to the Constitution
 Law on the Establishment of the Ministry of Interior
 PRAKAS on the Roles, Responsibilities and Organizational Structure of the Provincial and
Municipal Administrations
 PRAKAS on the Structures and Administrative System of Srok Siem Reap, Siem Reap Province
and Srok Battambang, Battambang Province
Reference  Decision on the Structure and the Administration of Srok Battambang, Battambang Province
Document and Srok Siem Reap, Siem Reap Province
 PRAKAS on the Organization and Functioning of One Window Service Office of Srok Siem
Reap, Siem Reap Province and Srok Battambang, Battambang Province
 PRAKAS on the Structure and Management of the Ombudsman Office in Srok Siem Reap,
Siem Reap Province and Srok Battambang, Battambang Province
 Strategic Framework for Decentralization and De-‐concentration Reforms
 Documents on Cambodia Millennium Development Goals
 Royal Decree on Establishment of the National Committee for Support to Commune/Sangkat
39


Below are the training materials on the GDLA Training that were produced
PILAC in PILAC Phase 1.

Table 15: Training Materials on GDLA Training
Type Content
 Local Administration System in Cambodia and Japan

Textbook
 D&D Policy
 PowerPoint Presentation Briefing about PILAC

 PILAC Briefing Paper
 PowerPoint Presentation on Local Administration in Cambodia and Japan
 PowerPoint Presentation on D&D Policy
Handout
 PowerPoint Presentation on the Conception of the Draft of Organic Law
 PowerPoint Presentation on View on D&D and Gradual Process of D&D and Policy and RGC
 PowerPoint Presentation on Administration that serves citizens (One Window Service Office)
 PowerPoint Presentation on Case Study “One Window Service Office,” Administration Reform
 Related PRAKAS and Law to Local Governance

 Amendments to the Constitution
 Law on the Establishment of the Ministry of Interior
 PRAKAS on the Roles, Responsibilities and Organizational Structure of the Provincial and
Municipal Administrations
 PRAKAS on the Structures and Administrative System of Srok Siem Reap, Siem Reap
Province and Srok Battambang, Battambang Province
Reference  Decision on the Structure and the Administration of Srok Battambang, Battambang
Document Province and Srok Siem Reap, Siem Reap Province
 PRAKAS on the Organization and Functioning of One Window Service Office of Srok Siem
Reap, Siem Reap Province and Srok Battambang, Battambang Province
 PRAKAS on the Structure and Management of the Ombudsman Office in Srok Siem Reap,
Siem Reap Province and Srok Battambang, Battambang Province
 Strategic Framework for Decentralization and De-‐concentration Reforms
 Documents on Cambodia Millennium Development Goals
 Royal Decree on Establishment of the National Committee for Support to Commune/Sangkat
40


The following are other points for developing effective training materials: i)
Other Points
for Training usability of tables and charts in all training materials to be produced
Materials
(textbook, course visuals, and handouts); ii) usability consideration in
designing those materials; and iii) instruction technique.
To represent numerical information, the following factors need to be

Tables and
Charts
considered: the use of computer charge packages, chart formats, and the

situations most suitable for each. Here is a list of the table and chart
formats.

Table 16: Tables and Charts
Type Content
 Advantages: i) it is easy to prepare; ii) it can include much information; and iii) it can
be used to compare many variables over multiple dimensions.
Table
 Disadvantages: i) you can easily include too much information in it; and ii) it can be
difficult to identify exactly what is important.
 It can be used to compare the size of several variables.
 Lines on a graph can be straight lines to each point.
Line Graph
 It shows a trend line or a “line of best fit.” Note that the line graph can give you a
visual appreciation of average values over all variables.
 Bar charts run horizontally across the page, while column charts are vertical.
Bar and
 Typically that means that you can have more bars than columns on a chart but
Column
otherwise there is little to choose between these two formats.
Charts
 They convey less information than tables or graphs, but do give a large impact.
 While line graphs and bar charts compare size, pie charts show proportion.
Pie Charts  They are divided into slices which make up the whole, preferably not more than five
or six. To emphasize one particular slice, cut it out of the pie.
 They show a direct reporting relationship; broken or dotted lines normally show a
Organizational secondary or staff relationship.
Charts  They can easily complicate a chart. Thus, unless they are really necessary, avoid
them and simply mention the secondary relationship as a footnote.
Flowcharts  These show the progression of an activity.
41


Factors to consider when designing training materials include the following.

Usability
Consideration
Table 17: Considerations for Designing Training Materials
Point Content
 Layout considerations should include the experience level of the instructor,
Layout
environmental constraints of the training, and navigability.
 Appearance considerations should include the distance from which the material will
Appearance
be seen, lighting conditions, and shapes or colors that add to the content message.
 Reuse considerations should include whether the course will be delivered in more
Reuse
than one format such as instructor-‐led one.
 Cost considerations include: i) durability of the materials, which depends on how
they will be used; ii) rental of equipment to support materials; iii) adaptations for
Cost
sites that require translation into another language; and iv) layout, printing, and
other production costs and revision of content.
 The distribution of course content must take into account delivery, technical
Distribution support, and power requirement including how many devices and outlets are
needed.
 Revision considerations include whether to conduct a course that contains
out-‐of-‐date material; and whether to update it on an as-‐needed basis, including
Revision
minor editing and content changes, or only at scheduled times such as every phase
of the training.
Here are a number of instructional techniques you should avoid including

Instructional
Techniques in your training course.
Figure 18: Short List of “DON’TS”
 Do not have the instructor read out loud:

Unless language recognition is part of the learning objective, reading out loud
indicates a lack of preparation on the part of the instructor and demonstrates
disrespect for the learners.
 Do not have participants read out loud:
Unless reading out loud directly relates to a permanence objective, it is inappropriate
to have participants read out loud.
 Do not spend time silently reading course materials in class:
Make required reading a prerequisite to the course. If the material needs to be
covered, instruct the trainer to paraphrase the content. This method is not a
productive learning by involving the learner.
42


Training course evaluation is done upon the training conducted. Details of

Evaluation and
the methods are described in “Manual on Training Evaluation.” Thus
Revision
this section shows only the revision part. Revision is the process of
correcting errors such as page numbering and spelling, adjusting timing or
sequence, modulating processes such as exercises, test questions, and
examples, and updating or changing content such as government policies
and priorities.
43


References:

Frank, Darlene. Terrific Training Materials: High Impact Graphic Designs, N.p.: HRD Press,
1996.

Hassell-‐Corbiell, Rives. Developing Training Courses: A Technical Writer’s Guide to
Instructional Design and Development. Tacoma, Washington: Learning Edge Publishing,
2001.

Nilson, Carolyn. How to Manage Training: A Guide to Design and Delivery for High
Performance. New York: AMACOM, 2003.

Stimson, Nancy. How to Write and Prepare Training Materials. London: Kogan Page, 2005.

44
Manual on Training Needs Assessment

 What is Training Needs Assessment?

 Five Steps of Training Needs
Assessment
 Step 1: Identify Problem and Needs
 Step 2: Determine Design of Needs
Assessment
 Step 3: Collect Data
 Step 4: Analyze Data
 Step 5: Provide Feedback


Manual on Training Needs Assessment al Department of Local A
Table of Contents

Glossary ........................................................................... 3
1. What is Training Needs Assessment? ............................ 4
2. Five Steps of Traning Needs Assessment ....................... 7
3. Step 1: Identify Problem and Needs ............................... 8
4. Step 2: Determine Design of Needs Assessment............. 9
5. Step 3: Collect Data .................................................... 21
6. Step 4: Analyze Data ................................................... 25
7. Step 5: Provide Feedback ............................................ 36
References ...................................................................... 37
Appendices
Appendix 1: Questionnaire for Training Needs Assessment

Appendix 2: Guide Questions for Training Needs Assessment
2


Glossary
An observable behavior supported by specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
Competency
Each competency has a specific result or output.
A procedure for organizing narrative and qualitative data into emerging themes
Content Analysis and concepts. Usually associated with a quantitative form of analysis in which
the themes are counted or measured.
A cost-benefit analysis completed prior to conducting training. It is an estimate

Feasibility
of the cost of the training weighed against the possible benefits that could be
Analysis
achieved if training were conducted
Also called performance analysis; identifies the difference between current

Gap Analysis
performance and the desired performance.
The process of asking questions to experts or performers to identify training

Interview
needs.
The process of identifying all the parts of a specific job; conducted before a task
Job Analysis
analysis.
Learning Describes a specific behavior, conditions, level of achievement and is written
Objectives from the learner’s point of view.
Gathering of information about a specific work need that can be resolved by

Needs training. The types of needs assessment include performance analysis, target
Assessment population analysis, sorting training needs and wants, job analysis, and task
analysis.
Discovers training needs that are related to the organization’s work. Training is
Needs versus
linked to the final outcome and providing appropriate training will benefit the
Wants Analysis
individual as well as the organization.
Performance Also known as gap analysis. Performance analysis looks at an official’s current
Analysis performance and identifies whether the official is performing as desired
Performance A difference with a negative connotation, implying that the official is not meeting
Deficiency a known standard for performance.
Project Team GDLA Task Force members and JICA experts.
Target
The individual or group involved in a needs assessment or training program.
Population
Task Analysis Finds the best method and sequence of steps to complete a specific task.
Trainer A term used in a corporate setting for a teacher. Also instructor.

Training Needs The method of determining if a training need exists and, if it does, what training
Assessment is required to fill the gap.
3


What is Training Needs Assessment?

1

Planning is the first step of the
training management cycle. At
the planning stage, the steps are
divided into two: i) Training
Needs Assessment (TNA) and ii)
Training Planning. This manual
takes up TNA.

Definition
“Training Needs Assessment” (TNA) is the method of determining if a
training need exists and, if it does, what training is required to fill the gap.
TNA seeks to identify accurately the levels of the present situation in the
target surveys, interview, observation, secondary data and/or workshop.
The gap between the present status and desired status may indicate
problems that in turn can be translated into a training need.
Training Needs = Desired Capability – Current Capability of the Participants
Training can reduce, if not eliminate, the gap,

by equipping the participants with knowledge
and skills and by encouraging them to build
and enhance their capabilities. The data on the
present status are vital to the evaluation or
impact survey in the latter part of the training
cycle. These shall serve as the baseline data.
The following are some techniques for
acquiring such data. These may be applied
independently or in combination.
4



TNA is also the process of collecting information about an expressed or
implied organizational need that could be met by conducting training. The
need can be a performance that does not meet the current standard. It
means that there is a prescribed or best way of doing a task and that
variance from it is creating a problem. The TNA process helps the trainer
and the person requesting training to specify the training need or
performance deficiency. Assessments can be formal (using survey and
interview techniques) or informal (asking some questions of those involved).
(Source: Jean Barbazette, 2006, Training Needs Assessment: Methods, Tools and Techniques)
Why do we need training?
Because training is a means to ensure that government officials have the

knowledge and right skills to be able to do their work effectively and
competently. Training may be needed when there is a gap between the
desired performance, and the current performance, and the reason for that
gap is lack of skill or knowledge. Training may only be able to resolve part of
the problem. Thus we need to analyze the problem and find out whether
training will be able to resolve it. If training is necessary, we also need to
define the objective of the training and how it will help the staff member(s)
become more effective. This process is called a Training Needs Assessment
shown above or Training Needs Analysis.
It is important to note that, despite many reasons to conduct training

shown above, training may sometimes not be the only solution to a problem.
There are many other means that impact on someone’s ability to do their
work, as pointed out in the “Report on Training Needs Assessment” by PILAC.
The following are other examples.
 Lack of skills or knowledge, or experience

 Not having the right equipment or resource
 Not being encouraged by managers and colleagues to do the right thing
 There are no standards or expectations that are set and communicated
 Bad workplace morale or conditions
(Source: MOI/DOLA, 2004, Training Needs Assessment)
5


Why do we need a Training Needs Assessment?
First, identify dissatisfaction with the current situation and desire for
change as similarities among the requests. Each request implies that a gap
or discrepancy exists between what is and what could be or should be. A
learning or performance gap between the current and desired condition is
called a need. TNA aims at the following situations.
 Solving a current problem
 Avoiding a past or current problem
 Creating or taking advantage of a future opportunity
 Providing learning, development or growth
The purpose of TNA is to answer some familiar questions: why, who, how,
what, and when. The following are descriptions of the questions and what
analysis can be done to answer them.
Figure 1: The Purpose of TNA
Why conduct the training: to tie the performance deficiency to a working need and be
sure the benefits of conducting the training are greater than the problems being
caused by the performance deficiency. Conduct two types of analysis to answer
this question: (1) needs versus wants analysis and (2) feasibility analysis.
Who is involved in the training: involve appropriate parties to solve the deficiency.
Conduct a target population analysis to learn as much as possible about those
involved in the deficiency and how to customize a training program to capture
their interest.
How can the performance deficiency be fixed: training can fix the performance
deficiency or suggest other remediation if training is not appropriate? Conduct a
performance analysis to identify what skill deficiency is to be fixed by a training
remedy.
What is the best way to perform: there is a better or preferred way to do a task to get
the best results. Are job performance standards set by the organization? Are
there governmental regulations to consider when completing the task in a
required manner? Conduct a task analysis to identify the best way to perform.
When will training take place: the best timing to deliver training because attendance at
training can be impacted by work cycles, holidays, and so forth. Conduct a
contextual analysis to answer logistics questions.
6


Five Steps of Training Needs Assessment

2

Five Steps:
The processes of Training Needs Assessment can be divided into five
steps: i) identify problem and needs; ii) determine design of needs
assessment; iii) collect data; iv) analyze data; and v) provide feedback.

7


3 Step 1: Identify Problem and Needs
The first step in TNA is to identify problems and needs. Before TNA is
conducted, it should be probed whether training is needed. In the public
sector, it is important to identify organizational context in such aspects as
policy, goal, roles and responsibilities.
Realizing the policy direction of the organization, performance analysis

known as “gap” analysis is conducted to look at an official’s current working
performance and knowledge and identify whether an official is performing
as desired based on given roles and responsibilities. Then the more explicit
the standard for current performance and knowledge, the easier it will be to
describe the gap in performance or knowledge deficiency.
During the preliminary study of PILAC, the current problem was identified
PILAC as follows: “Training officials is urgently needed to implement D&D reform

and improve local administration, because the efficient and effective
implementation of the D&D Framework requires deep understanding of the
Framework among public officials at the national, provincial, and district
levels who are in charge of local administration.”
After identifying problems and needs, set up overall objectives for a training
course. In PILAC, the following objectives of the training course were already
set up through discussion between JICA and the Ministry of Interior (MOI)
prior to project implementation, i.e., during the preliminary study.
 Public officials improve their understanding of D&D policy.
 Public officials improve their skills to apply D&D policy to their daily
duties and functions assigned.
8


4 Step 2: Determine Design of Needs Analysis
The second step in TNA is to determine the following: i) target groups to be

trained; ii) interviewees; iii) survey methods; iv) survey plan including
schedule to be conducted TNA and persons in charge of TNA. Those items
become the basis for a training course designer to either create a new
training course, identify an existing one that can fulfill the need, or obtain
one externally.
Sometimes it may be impossible to fulfill the need, but that is not the
decision of the person conducting TNA. Actually, knowing exactly what
elements of information are required can serve as a guide –a road map- for
your analysis.
The survey must clearly define the target group of the training, i.e., target
Target population. Although no strict rules for defining exist, the target population
Group must be defined in line with the objectives of TNA. The survey should
produce the following elements in its report: training subject(s); importance
of the training; time requirements; current target group; potential target
group; frequency of training; and required outputs of the training.
In PILAC, target groups and the number to be trained were also determined
PILAC during the preliminary study of PILAC through discussion between MOI and
JICA. Top managers in local administration of MOI and officials of the
General Department of Local Administration (GDLA) were primarily
identified as target group. During TNA, the selection criteria of trainees were
to be set up. The details determined by MOI/JICA are as follows:
9



Table 1: Training Course of PILAC Phase 1
i
Once a target group for the training, i.e., target population, is identified,
Selection of interviewees for the survey are selected. It is likely that all the officials of the
Interviewees target group cannot be interviewed due to time constraints. Thus, sampling
of the target population which will be addressed in the next section should be
used.
In TNA conducted in PILAC Phase 1, MOI officials who were involved in D&D
PILAC policy and local administration of GDLA and local administration in Phnom
Penh Municipality and Kampong Cham Province from five model provinces
were selected for the survey. The time factor was crucial in deciding how the
target officials should be sampled in the five model provinces. The survey was
also intended to compare the Municipality and the Province and see the
differences and similarities between them that apply to all five model
provinces and cities.
10


Survey
Methods
The following figure indicates types of needs analysis and contents. It is
suggested that those analyses be used in combination depending on the
Types of
Needs needs, time availability and manpower.
Assessment

Figure 2: Types of Needs Assessment
Types of Needs Assessment

Type of Needs Analysis What the Analysis Answers

Performance analysis or gap analysis  Is this issue a skill/knowledge deficiency?
 How can the deficiency be addressed?
 Is training the appropriate way to fix this deficiency?

Feasibility analysis  Why should this training be done?
 Is the benefit of training greater than the cost of the
current deficiency?

Needs versus wants analysis  Why should this training be done?
 Is the deficiency tied to a need?

Goal analysis  What is the specific behavior improvement behind a
vague desire?

Job/task analysis  What is the best and correct way to do this work?
 How can this job and task be broken down into
teachable parts?

Target group analysis  Who is the trainee for this training?
 What is known about them to help design and
customize this training
 What other groups mgiht benefit from training?

Contextual analysis  When will the training be presented?
 What are the other requirements to deliver the training
successfully?

11


Data collection and analysis are essential parts of needs assessment. The
Survey
Methods following table describes the most commonly used methods of data
collection. TNA is optimized when a combination of data collection methods
is used to analyze quantitative and qualitative data. Regardless of which
methods are used to collect and analyze data, it is important to consider the
reliability, validity and trustworthiness of the data.

Table 2: Survey Methods
Method Concept
 Quantitative research method commonly employed in survey research to ensure that
each interviewee is presented with the same questions in the same order and that
answers can be reliably aggregated and that comparisons can be made with
Structured
confidence between sub-‐groups or between different survey periods.
Interview
 Interviewers read the questions exactly as they appear on the survey questionnaire.
The choice of answers to the questions is often fixed (close-‐ended) in advance, though
open-‐ended questions can also be included within a structured interview.
 Unlike the structured interview, more general questions or topics. Relevant topics are
initially identified and the possible relationship between these topics and the issues
become the basis for more specific questions which do not need to be prepared in
Semi-‐Structured
advance allowing both the interviewer and the person being interviewed the flexibility
Interview
to probe for details or discuss issues.
 New questions can be brought up during the interview as a result of what the
interviewee says, so the interview flows more like a conversation.
 Observation of working environment and performance of officials (office materials,
Observation
communication tool, IT system, means of circulating the information)
 A questionnaire is a survey instrument consisting of a series of questions and other
Questionnaire
prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. They are often
Survey*
designed for statistical analysis of the responses.
 Qualitative research method whose purpose is to obtain in-‐depth information on
ideas and perceptions of a group and also to be more than a question-‐answer
Focus Group interaction.
discussion  A relatively small meeting (generally six to twelve participants) convened for a specific
purpose under the direction of a facilitator, during which group members talk freely
and spontaneously about a certain topic.
 An educational seminar or series of meetings emphasizing interaction and exchanged
of information among a usually small number of participants developing skill or
Workshop common understanding through some types of application
 Discussion on verification of identified staff training needs in the returned TNA
questionnaires and interview results
*Details are shown below
12


The following table shows benefits and weaknesses of survey methods.

Selection of the survey methods should be done according to availability of
time and manpower for conducting the survey. It is recommended to
combine several methods to quantitatively and qualitatively analyze the
survey results.
Table 3: Benefit and Weakness of Survey Methods
METHOD BENEFIT WEAKNESS WHEN TO USE
May be out of date

Factual information May be inaccurate or
When you need factual
Review of Objective inconsistent
information about
References Can collect a lot if you Need cooperation of
performance
have resources others to obtain
information
May not get important

Simple Have to know much
information
Quick about your topic first
Questionnaire People may not send
Easy Combine with other
Survey back survey
Can collate a lot of processes to encourage
May be hard to
data response
understand responses
Obtain information
Takes time of yourself
about attitudes When you know little
and others
Obtain a lot of about the topic or area
More difficult to organize
Interviews qualitative data When the training is
May be shy to respond
Can have greater about something
depending on
understanding of complicated
interviewer
issues

Can be easy and
People may be shy to be When the training is
Focus quick
honest in group impacted by team work
Group Can understand
People may dominate When there is not much
Discussion responses more
discussion time for other methods
easily
Can take observer a lot of

Does not interrupt When the training is
time
work about simple skills
Observation Need time to collate
Can be more reliable When you know about
Need to know what you
than other sources the topic yourself
are looking for
(Source: MOI/DOLA, 2004, Training Needs Assessment, Phnom Penh)

13


Along with the selection of interviewees, survey methods are also selected
Sampling
considering availability of time and manpower. The following are sampling
Methods
methods to be used for social survey. However, to make it simple, it is
recommended that random sampling and stratified sampling methods be
used for TNA in PILAC.
Table 4: Sampling Methods
Method Concept
 Purest form of probability sampling.

 Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of
Random
being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often
sampling
difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so
the pool of available subjects becomes biased.
 Often used instead of random sampling.
 It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required
sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a
Systematic
list of the target population on members. As long as the list does not
sampling
contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the
random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random
sampling technique is simplicity.
 Commonly used method that is superior to random sampling because
it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that
Stratified shares at least one common characteristic. The surveyors identify the
sampling relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population.
 Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in
the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.
(Source: Access to http://www.statpac.com/surveys/sampling.htm, July 31, 2007)
14


Questionnaire survey design proceeds in an orderly and specific manner.

Process of
Questionnaire Each item in the flow chart shown below depends upon the successful
Survey completion of all the previous items. Therefore, it is important not to skip a
single step. Notice that there are two feedback loops in the flow chart to
allow revisions to the methodology and instruments.
Figure 3: Steps for Conducting a TNA

By using a systematic approach, you can ensure that gaps in performance

are identified correctly. Usually only those gaps caused by lack of knowledge
or skills can be improved through training. Performance deficiencies that
occur because of lack of motivation, environmental problems, or systems
issues require non-training interventions such as changes in the selection
process, the performance appraisal process, or the reward system.
15


In creating questionnaires, it is important to consider the type, content,

Creating a
Questionnaire wording, and order of the questions that they include.
For the type of questions, there are two types of questions to be asked:
Type of
Questions close-ended questions and open-ended questions.
Closed-ended questions limit respondents' answers to the survey. The

participants are allowed to choose from either a pre-existing set of
dichotomous answers, such as yes/no, or multiple choice with an option for
"other" to be filled in, or ranking scale response options. The most common
of the ranking scale questions is called the scale question. This kind of
question asks the respondents to look at a statement and then "rank" this
statement according to the degree to which they agree (strongly agree;
somewhat agree; no opinion; somewhat disagree; strongly disagree).
Open-ended questions do not give respondents answers to choose from,

but rather are phrased so that the respondents are encouraged to explain
their answers and reactions to the question with a sentence, a paragraph, or
even a page or more, depending on the survey. If you wish to find
information on the same topic, but would like to find out what respondents
would come up with on their own, you might choose an open-ended
question like "What kinds of training do you want to attend?" rather than
the scale question.
However, keep in mind that you do not have to use close-ended or

open-ended questions exclusively. Many researchers use a combination of
closed and open questions; often researchers use close-ended questions at
the beginning of their survey, and then allow for more expansive answers
once the respondent has some background on the issue and is
"warmed-up."
When considering the content of your questionnaire, the most important

Content of
Questionnaire consideration is whether the content of the questions will elicit the kinds of
questions necessary to answer your initial research question. You can
gauge the appropriateness of your questions by pre-testing your survey, but
you should also consider the following questions as you create your initial
questionnaire.
16


Figure 4: Wording of the Questions

Wording of
 Does your choice of open or close-‐ended questions lead to the types of answers you
the
Questions would like to get from your respondents?
 Is every question in your survey integral to your intent? Superfluous questions that
have already been addressed or are not relevant to your study will waste the time of
both the respondents and the researcher.
 Does one topic warrant more than one question?
 Do you give enough prior information/context for each set of questions? Sometimes
lead-‐in questions are useful to help the respondent become familiar and comfortable
with the topic.
 Are the questions both general enough (they are both standardized and relevant to
your entire sample), and specific enough (avoid vague generalizations and
ambiguousness)?
 Is each question as succinct as it can be without leaving out essential information?
 Finally, and most importantly, write a survey that you would be willing to answer
yourself, and be polite, courteous, and sensitive. Thank the responder for participating
both at the beginning and the end of the survey.

(Source: Kavita Gupta, 2007, A Practical Guide to Needs Assessment)

To write effective questions, researchers need to keep in mind these four

important techniques: directness, simplicity, specificity, and discreteness.

Figure 5: Order of the Questions
Order of the
 Questions should be written in a straightforward, direct language that is not caught
Questions
up in complex rhetoric or syntax, or in a discipline's slang or lingo. Questions should
be specifically tailored for a group of respondents.
 Questions should be kept short and simple. Respondents should not be expected to
learn new, complex information in order to answer questions.
 Specific questions are for the most part better than general ones. Research shows
that, the more general a question is, the wider the range of interpretation among
respondents. To keep specific questions brief, researchers can sometimes use longer
introductions that make the context, background, and purpose of the survey clear so
that this information is not necessary to include in the actual questions.
 Avoid questions that are overly personal or direct, especially when dealing with
sensitive issues.
Kavita Gupta, 2007, A Practical Guide to Needs Assessment)

(Source:
17


Although there are no general rules for ordering survey questions, below are
Setting Up a
Questionnaire a few suggestions that researchers can follow when setting up a
questionnaire.
Figure 6: Points of Setting Up a Questionnaire
 Use warm-‐up questions. Easier questions will ease the respondent into the survey
and will set the tone and the topic of the survey.
 Sensitive questions should not appear at the beginning of the survey. Try to put
the respondent at ease before addressing uncomfortable issues. You may also
prepare the reader for these sensitive questions with some sort of written preface.
 Consider transition questions that make logical links.
 Try not to mix topics. Topics can easily be placed into "sets" of questions.
 Try not to put the most important questions last. Respondents may become bored
or tired before they get to the end of the survey.
 Be careful with contingency questions ("If you answered yes to the previous
question . . . etc.").
 If you are using a combination of open and close-‐ended questions, try not to start
your survey with open-‐ended questions. Respondents will be more likely to answer
the survey if they are allowed the ease of closed-‐questions first.


18


Figure 7: Types of Question-‐and-‐Answer Format for Questionnaire

 Objective Response: These are questions that can be answered with a
simple yes or no

Example:
Q1) Have you ever attended any training course on D&D?
_______Yes______ No

 Multiple Choice: Each question provides several possible answers
from which to choose
Example:
Q2) How many times have you attended training course?
____1 time, _____2 times, _____3 times, _____4 times

 Scale Response: Each question has a descriptive and/or numerical
scale for responding
Example:
Q3) How important do you feel it is for newly recruited officials to participate in an
orientation program?
 Very important
 Somewhat important
 Neither important nor unimportant
 Somewhat Unimportant
 Not important

In the process of planning the survey, a Survey Plan, which will be attached

Survey to formal letter for interviewees, will be formulated and will be distributed to

Plan concerned agencies and interviewees. The outline of the Survey Plan

includes the following: i) background; ii) objectives; iii) schedule; iv) survey
team; and v) methodology (data collection and analysis).
Once you have constructed a questionnaire, you will need to make a plan
that outlines how and to whom you will administer it. A number of options
are available in order to find a relevant sample group amongst your survey
population. In addition, various considerations are involved with
administering the survey itself.
19


In PILAC, the following methods were used for data collection. A stratified
PILAC sampling method was used by selecting respondents. The following

analyses were used.
 Review of Secondary Data/Information

Review of i) existing data and information on the decentralization process,
regulations (PRAKAS and LAW), and policy paper (Strategy on D&D) in the
realms of training materials produced by the MOI; and ii) research papers
produced by research institutes and other donors, especially UNDP and
GTZ, on capacity development for the MOI officials and commune council
members in the area of D&D.

 Individual Survey (See Appendix 1)
The TNA Questionnaire was designed to make it both simple and relatively
quick to complete by providing boxes to tick in most categories rather than
requiring written responses. Such design increased staff participation. The
TNA Questionnaire covers the following: i) individual job description; ii) level
of knowledge on D&D; iii) training attended; iv) training needs for specific
knowledge and skills; and v) problems identified in terms of performing the
duties more effectively. Filled copies of the questionnaire were collected
after group interviews.
 Group Discussion (See Appendix 2)

In addition to the TNA Questionnaire, a total of 39 group discussions on a
variety of training needs were held with officials. A document titled “Guide
Questions” was prepared to obtain an organizational perspective on training
requirements and verify the results of the TNA Questionnaire. The following
were the main topics for discussion: i) tasks and jobs; ii) level of knowledge
on D&D; iii) training sessions attended; iv) training need; and v) problems
identified in terms of performing the work duties.
20


5 Step 3: Collect Data
The third step in TNA is to collect data through: i) reviewing documents on

existing training (secondary data and information); and ii) conducting
survey including interviews and observation at work.
It is important to collect and review secondary data and information prior to

Review conducting interview surveys. It will lead GDLA Task Force members to
Secondary
Data/ understanding and utilizing existing knowledge and experiences in the
Information areas of D&D reform and local administration. Experiences of DOLA/MOI in
particular, which has significant experiences engaged in capacity
development at the commune level, can be referred to probe the
applicability to PILAC.
Based on the questionnaire for individual survey and guide question for
group discussion developed during the preparation stage (step 2), pre-test of
the questionnaires should be conducted with officials who will be the target
population to see the applicability of the questions. If tested interviewees
seem to have any difficulty in answering those questions, it should be noted
those points and modified the questions to make it easier to answer. After
testing, the GDLA Task Force should revise and formulate the
questionnaires based on the results of the pre-test.
The following five steps are to be taken in conducting a group discussion: i)
Conduct orientation on objectives and contents of the survey for interviewees; ii)
Survey explaining questionnaires (individual survey); iii) conducting a group
discussion with a guide question; iv) wrapping up the interview; and vi)
modifying methods, process and questionnaires if needed. A proto-typed
cycle of conducting a group discussion is shown the figure below. However,
those cycle and process can be modified according to a survey plan.
21


It is important to note that the survey team will: i) introduce yourself; ii)
explain the objectives and contents of the survey and the reasons for
selecting interviewees; iii) show appreciation for taking their time; iv) obtain
permission to record the interview. In doing so, the interviewees can be
prepared and feel more conformable to answer questions.
Figure 8: Prototype of Process of Group Discussion
Below are tips for developing interview questions.

Figure 9: Tips for Developing Interview Questions
 Place easy-‐to-‐answer, open-‐ended questions at the beginning. This will help the
interviewee to begin talking and can help to develop trust and rapport.
 Place important questions near the beginning of the interview.
 Ensure that each question matches a stated objective.
 Sequence questions from general to specific.
 Sequence and cluster question in a logical order.
 Ensure that questions are clear, concise, and jargon-‐free.
 Be sure that questions are appropriate for the skill and experience levels of the target
audience.
 Provide adequate space between questions to record information.
 Pilot-‐test interview questions.
 Make appropriate revisions.


22


Figure 10: Tips for Conducting an Interview
 Begin with a few rapport-‐building questions.

 Obtain permission to record the interview.
 Avoid adhering rigidly to the question sequence. Be flexible, but ensure that all
questions have been covered by the end. If they have not been, schedule a
follow-‐up interview, if necessary.
 Give all participants an equal amount t of time to respond to each question.
 Clarify responses when necessary.
 Ask for concrete examples to support statements.
 Separate facts from opinions, if possible.
 Maintain a neutral attitude.
 Avoid discussing results with other interviewees.
 Ask whether interviewees have additional questions or comments at the end.
 Offer appreciation for participation.
 Summarize key points.
 Ask whether interviewees can be contacted again if necessary

In conducting the group discussion, the GDLA Task Force members were
PILAC divided into three groups according to target groups (GDLA officials in MOI,
Phnom Penh Municipality and Kampong Cham Province). It took three days
for one target group. The process of the survey was followed as shown in the
above figure “Proto-type of Process of Group Discussion.” As a result, 39
group discussions were conducted and 171 samples of the questionnaires
were collected. The interviewees are shown below.
In the MOI headquarters, all four departments, Departments of Local

Administration, General Administration, Political Affairs and Personnel and
Vocational Training were covered, though not all the offices were covered.
In Phnom Penh Municipality, offices to be covered were: i) Municipality Local

Administration Unit (MLAU) (all offices), and ii) Offices of Cabinet (offices of
administration, international relations, accounting, urbanization &
construction, investment, general administration, inspection, IT, Civil
Registration and Personnel).
23


In Kampong Cham Province, selected offices relatively concerned with D&D

PILAC were surveyed: i) Provincial Local Administration Unit (PLAU) (all offices); ii)
Finance Unit; iii) General Secretariat (land registration); and iv) Offices of
Cabinet (offices of personnel, information, general administration, political
affairs public relationship, administration and document). In addition, only
a group discussion with officials of Kampong Cham District Office covering
all sections was also conducted to deepen a level of understanding of local
administration. No questionnaire survey was done.
24


6 Step 4: Analyze Data
The fourth step in TNA is to analyze data gathered. The collected data and
information were composed of: i) secondary data/information; and ii) survey
results of the questionnaires; and iii) survey results of the group discussion.
The following figure shows the process of activities from data analysis to
training planning. Based on the results of group discussion and
questionnaire survey, date analyses are done. Then, analyzed data are used
for training needs to identify. Based on the identified training needs,
training planning which contains training module and curriculum,
schedule, and trainees, is done.

Figure 11: Flow of Activities from Data Analysis to Training Planning
25


There are two kinds of data: quantitative and qualitative. Numerical data
are quantitative. All other kinds of data are qualitative. Quantitative data
include age of the interviewee, and the numbers of training attended.
Qualitative data include words, graphics, and photographs.
Quantitative data can be gathered, scored, and analyzed more easily and
Quantitative quickly than qualitative data. They may be summarized and presented
Data
Analysis using various kinds of tables, charts, and graphs. In contrast, qualitative
data are more difficult and time-consuming to collect and analyze, but they
provide rich and detailed information.
The computer software for analyzing quantitative data such as Excel

improves the ease, accuracy and speed of data analysis. Quantitative data
analyses are limited to descriptive statistics. These analyses basically
describe the survey data. To analyze quantitative data, create a spreadsheet
that includes all the items for which such data were collected. The following
table shows an example of such a spreadsheet.
Table 5: Sample Spreadsheet
26


The following table shows a sample tally sheet for analyzing the quantitative
data obtained from a survey question. You can create a similar tally sheet
for quantitative data obtained through other methods such as observation
and interview.

Table 6: Sample Frequency and Percentage Calculation
Frequency
and
Percentage
The example shows the response choices for the item, the frequency of each
response, which was obtained by counting the actual responses, and the
percentage of individuals who selected each response. How to calculate
frequencies and percentages is shown below
Figure 12: Frequency and Percentage for Quantitative Analysis
Frequency: This measure counts the number of times each response choice was selected.
A quick glance at the frequency column in Figure reveals that the greatest number of
interviewees (59) is working at MOI from 0 to 9 years, but only one interviewee is working
at MOI for more than 40 years.

Percentage: This measure is useful for comparing the categories of responses. To
calculate the percentage for a response, divide its frequency by the total frequency. For
example, the percentage for those working at MOI for 20-‐29 years is calculated by its
frequency (46) by the total (171) and then rounding the number (26.9 percent).

(Source: John H. McConnell, 2003, How to Identify Your Organization’s Training Needs)
In addition to reporting the frequencies and percentages for each category,

Other
Measures you can report a single value that provides information on what is typical for
a question. This value is called a “measure of central tendency.” Here are
the three measures of central tendency: mode; median; and mean or
27


average.
Figure 13: Measure of Data Analysis
The mode is simply the most frequent response. In “Sample Frequency and
Percentage Calculation,” the mode, or most frequent response, is “0-‐9 years.”

The median represents the middle-‐most point, or the point that would divide the
distribution into the top 50 percent and the bottom 50 percent. Taking the above
case, add the percentages from the bottom of the scale (0.6+7.0+26.9+31.0), 50
percent would fall into the category of “10-‐19 years.” This, then, is the median.

The mean is the average for the question. The steps for calculating the means for as
follows:
i) For each response, multiply the response value by the number of respondents.
The calculations for the responses in the above figure are as follows.
0-‐9 years 59 x 1 = 59
10-‐19 years 53 x 2 = 106
20-‐29 years 46 x 3 = 138
30-‐39 years 12 x 4 = 48
>40 years 1 x 5 = 5
358
ii) Add the products for all responses (in this case, 59 + 106 + 138 + 48 + 5 = 358)
and divide this total by the number of respondents (that is, 358/171 = 2.081). In this
example in Figure, the mean or average is thus 2.08, the category of “10-‐19 years.”

（Source: John H. McConnell, 2003, How to Identify Your Organization’s Training Needs)
Tabulation displays the joint distribution of one or more variables. They are
Cross
usually presented as contingency table in a matrix format. Whereas a
Tabulation and
Graphing frequency distribution provides the distribution of one variable, a
contingency table describes the distribution of two or more variables
simultaneously. Each cell shows the number of respondents who gave a
specific combination of responses. In other words, each cell contains a
single cross tabulation.
Tables and graphs are ways to organize and arrange data so that it is more
easily understood by the viewer. Tables and graphs are related because the
28


information used in tables is frequently used as the basis of graphs.
Table 7: Tables and Graphs

Type Content
 Advantages: i) they are easy to prepare; ii) they can include a lot of
information; and iii) they can be used to compare many variables over
Table multiple dimensions
 Disadvantages: i) you can easily include too much information in them; and it
can be difficult to identify exactly what is important
 It can be used to compare the size of several variables
 Lines on a graph can be straight lines to each point
Line Graph
 It shows a trend line or a “line of best fit.” Note that the line graph can give
you a visual appreciation of average values over all variables.
 Bar charts run horizontally across the page, while column charts are vertical.
Bar and  Typically that means that you can have more bars than columns on a chart
Column but otherwise there is little to choose between these two formats.
Charts  They convey less information than tables or graphs, but do give a larger
impact.
 While line graphs and bar charts compare size; pie charts show proportion.
Pie Charts  Pie charts are divided into slices which make up the whole, preferably not
more than five or six. To emphasize one particular slice, cut it out of the pie.
29


The following table shows a sample of tables and generated circle graphs
and bar graph. Those are examples of distribution of interviewees by gender,
age, training attended, and knowledge about D&D.

Figure 14: Sample Tables and Graphs
30


In PILAC, the quantitative analysis was done as follows.

PILAC
Figure 15: Steps to Be Taken for Quantitative Analysis
Graphs created are shown in the figure below.

Figure 16: Sample Graphs
Figure a: Academic Degree Figure b: Major at School

dministration
Figure c: Training Attended Figure d: Means to Gain Knowledge on D&D
31


Qualitative Qualitative modes of data analysis provide ways of discerning, examining,

Data comparing and contrasting, and interpreting meaningful patterns or themes.
Analysis
Qualitative data analysis is the range of processes and procedures whereby
we move from the qualitative data that have been collected into some form of
explanation, understanding or interpretation of the people and situations
we are investigating. Qualitative data analysis is usually based on an
interpretative philosophy. The idea is to examine the meaningful and
symbolic content of qualitative data.
Content analysis is a procedure for organizing narrative, qualitative data

Content
into emerging themes and concepts. Usually associated with a quantitative
Analysis
form of analysis in which the themes are counted or measured. In practice,
it is often combined with qualitative thematic analysis to produce a broadly
interpretive approach in which quotations as well as numerical count are
used to summarize important facets of the analysis.
In PILAC, the qualitative analysis was done as follows.
PILAC
Figure 17: Steps to Be Taken for Qualitative Analysis
32


Upon reading the questionnaires generated and interview notes in a group

PILAC discussion, a matrix was created as revealed in the following table,
categorizing in themes and concepts such as: i) office they belong to; ii) roles
and responsibilities; iii) difficulties encountered in their work; iv) level of
knowledge on D&D; v) training needs; and vi) other remarks. “Remarks”
were added to take notes on important points, picking up from open-ended
questions during group discussion.
Table 8: Sample Matrix for Qualitative Analysis

Roles and Difficulties Knowledge on
Office Training Needs Remark
Responsibilities encountered D&D
Personnel & Transfer and Lack of staff to be 2 officials out of 5 D&D in details Criteria of promotion
Vocation promote officials at assigned the have knowledge on Human resource is based on law on
(provincial and provincial & district office D&D through management civil servant and
municipal office offices, punish training course in Trainees should be assessment by
(3) officials who don’t Japan and Thailand, managers at each achievement and
obey roles and through PLAU. office academic degree
After careful reading, the survey results in a same category such as

“difficulties encountered,” “knowledge on D&D,” “training needs on D&D or
skill development,” common characteristics and particularities in the
category were summarized. Then, based on those findings of the summary,
applicable points especially in the areas of D&D policy and other specific
skill development to conduct training for the Project were identified. The
following tables show an example of the quantitative analysis for the GDLA
group discussion conducted by the survey team of PILAC.
33



Figure 18: Sample Difficulties Encountered in GDLA
PILAC
Figure 19: Sample Training Needs in GDLA
34


After analyzing both qualitative and quantitative data, you can draw
Consolidated
findings from each analysis, see the consistency and contradictions, and
Data
Analysis draw common findings and conclusions. If there is any contradiction, try to
identify the reasons for it. Then you can write a Report on Training Needs
Assessment. A suggested outline of the Report is as follows

Figure 20: Outline of Report for Training Needs Assessment
 Background and Rationale

 Objectives
 Schedule
 Methodology (survey methods and analytical tools)
 Target Group and Interviewees
 Survey Process
 Findings of the Results
 Conclusion and Recommendations
 References and Appendixes
35


7 Step 5: Provide Feedback
The fifth and final step of TNA is to provide the GDLA Task Force members
and concerned officials with feedback on the survey results, then to receive
the members’ comments to reflect on the report.
In the group discussion among the GDLA Task Force members, it is

important to clarify the following points.
 Are there any other important findings?
 What are other suggestions to improve the methodology for the next
TNA?
 Is there any recommendation for the training course in such aspects as
participants, methods, module and curriculum, and schedule?
After finalizing the report, the GDLA Task Force members discuss and
determine the next steps for training preparation.
To be continued………………..
“Manual on Training Planning”
36


References:

Barbazette, Jean. Training Needs Assessment: Methods, Tools, and Techniques. San
Francisco: Pfeiffer, 2006.

Frank, Darlene. Terrific Training Materials: High Impact Graphic Designs. N.p.: HRD Press,
1996.

Gupta, Kavita. A Practical Guide to Needs Assessment. San Francisco: Pfeiffer, 2007.

Hassell-‐Corbiell, Rives. Developing Training Courses: A Technical Writer’s Guide to
Instructional Design and Development. Tacoma, Washington: Learning Edge Publishing,
2001.

McConnell, John H. How to Identify Your Organization’s Training Needs. New York:
AMACOM, 2003.

Training Needs Assessment. Phnom Penh: MOI/DOLA, 2004.
37


Appendix 1
Questionnaire for Training Needs Assessment

*Please complete this Questionnaire and return it to the Project (Contact Persons: Mr. So Munyraksa and Mr.
Prak Vannarith [Tel: ; E-‐mail: ]). The objectives of this survey are as follows: i) to assess the
level of your knowledge on decentralization and deconcentration; ii) to find out your needs for skill and
knowledge development; and iii) to formulate a training program at the Ministry of Interior.
Date when the Form was filled: /2007
A. Personal Information
A1. Name of Interviewee:________________________A2. Date of Birth:
A3. Highest academic qualification obtained (institute, year of graduation, major/title):
*_
*
A4. Major field/s of your study:

B. Job Description
B1. Present Position (title, office, department:

B2. Years of working at the Government: B3. Years of working at the present position:
B4 Number of staff members that you supervise, if any:
B5. Please explain the mandate and functions of your office briefly. Then please summarize your main
task in your office (e.g., Office is responsible for preparing annual plans…………………….)
*
*
*
*
*
B6. Please explain your main tasks (e.g., Responsible for preparing annual training and…….)
*
*
*
*
*
38



C. Training experience
*If you have attended more than three training sessions, please describe them on the reverse side.

D. Knowledge of Decentralization and Deconcentration (D&D)
D1. Do you know anything about D&D? Please choose “YES” or “NO” and tick the answer that applies to
you.
YES NO  If NO, STOP. If YES, Please tick all that you know in the choices below.
Basic structure of administration
Roles and responsibilities of local administration (province/city)
Roles and responsibilities of local administration (district)
Roles and responsibilities of local administration (commune)
Roles and responsibilities of commune council and other committees
Relations and roles between central government and local administration
Principles on decentralization and deconcentration
( participation, democratic representatives, accountability)
39


Public financial system (source of income and budgeting at central and local)
Taxation System (tax collection at central and local)
Please explain any other aspect of D&D that you know.

D3. How did you learn what you know about D&D as you indicate above? (e.g., training, seminar, your
own study, briefing or orientation from your office)

D4. Do you know anything about the following PRAKAS and Decree?
YES NO  If NO, STOP. If YES, please tick all that you know in the choices below.
Declaration on Roles, Duties and Rights of a Commune/Sangkat Clerk (2001)
Delegation of Powers to Provincial/Municipal in support of Commune/Sangkat Councils (2002)
Organization and Functioning of the Provincial/Municipal Local Administration Unit (2004)
Roles Duties and Structures of the Department of Local Administration (2002)
Sub-‐decree Commune/Sangkat Financial Management System by NCSC (2002)
Others related to decentralization and deconcentration, if any

D5. How did you learn the above? (e.g., training, seminar, your own study, briefing or orientation
from your office)

40


D6. Do know anything about the ORGANIC LAW? Please tick the below
YES NO  If NO, STOP. If YES, please describe what you know and how you have learned it.

E. Needs for Training
E1. Which of the following do you want to learn? Please tick all that apply.
Basic structure of administration
Roles and responsibilities of local administration (province/city)
Roles and responsibilities of local administration (district)
Roles and responsibilities of local administration (commune)
Roles and responsibilities of commune council and other committees
Relations and roles between central government and local administration
Principles on decentralization and deconcentration
( participation, democratic representatives, accountability)
Public financial system (source of income and budgeting at central and local)
Taxation System (tax collection at central and local)
Perspective of the Organic Law
Others: please explain any other knowledge you want to acquire.

E2. Is there any work-‐related skill you want to enhance to perform better at work?
YES NO  If NO, STOP, If YES, Please tick things you want to learn.
Computer skills
Office management (filing system, Information technology)
Project Management
Planning and Budgeting
Monitoring and Evaluation
Human Resource Management
41


Please specify any other skills you want to acquire.

F. Other your comments and suggestion for the Project

Thank you very much for your cooperation. Your inputs will help the Project Team
make the project more effective.

1. Project Objectives
The D&D reform in Cambodia is at the initial stage, and officials who implement the D&D reform
need to improve their capacity. The current project will contribute to further advancement of the
D&D reform through practical approaches to capacity building of those officials.
2. Overall Goal
・ Human resources involved in local administration will be developed through training
3. Project Purposes
* Officials of General Department of Local Administration (GDLA) will improve the capacity of
training management; and
* Officials in charge of local administration at national and provincial levels will improve the
knowledge of local administration.
4. Outputs
・ GDLA has ability to conduct training management based on the progress of D&D and needs
・ GDLA officials acquire the knowledge of D&D policy and local administration;
・ Provincial Governors and Vice Governors understand the D&D policy and the roles of local
administration; and
・ Officials of provincial offices understand the D&D policy and the roles of local administration.
5. Project Duration
February 2007 -‐ January 2010 (3 years)
42


Appendix 2
Guide Questions for Training Needs Assessment

Interviewer:
Accompanied:
Date: / /2007 （） Time: -‐ , （Hours）
Place:

B. Interviewees (Name, Title, Office, Department)
Name Title, Office, Department
1
2
3
4
5
6

C. Introduction
・ Explain to interviewees the PILAC, objectives of the Survey, and the Survey Process.
・ For Province, inform them that they are selected as model sites.

C. Job Description
Please explain the mandate and function of your office briefly. Then please summarize your main
task in your office (e.g., Office is responsible for preparing of annual plans…………………….)
*
*
*
*
*

43


D. Training
D1: Training experience

D2. How were the trainees selected?
D3. Are you applying in your work the knowledge and skills that you have acquired in training?
D4: Did you learn anything about D&D? If YES, what? Where?
D5: Did you learn anything about the Organic Law? If YES, what? Where?
D6: Which areas of D&D policy do you want to know more about (please provide examples in
questionnaires)?
D7. Are there any knowledge and skills you want to acquire to perform better in your work? If YES, what?
D8. Have you encountered any difficulties in your work? If YES, how have you solved them?
D9. Any comments and suggestions for our project?

44

 Three Steps of Training

Preparation
 Step 1: Work Breakdown

Structure
 Step 2: Schedule
 Step 3: Budget



Table of Contents
 Three Steps of Training Preparation ………………… 4

 Step 1: Work Breakdown Structure …….………….. 5
 Step 2: Schedule ………………………………………... 9
 Step 3: Budget ………………………………………………… 14
2



Glossary
Activity Activity sequencing is to identify dependencies and logical

Sequence: relationships among activities.
The budget for something is the amount of money that a person or

Budget:
organization has available to spend on it.
Budgeting is to aggregate the estimated costs of individual

Budgeting:
activities to establish a cost baseline.
Cost estimating is to develop an approximation of the costs of the

Cost Estimate:
resourced needed to complete activities.
A schedule is a plan that gives a list of events or tasks and the times
Schedule:
at which each one schedule happen or be done.
Schedule development is to analyze activity sequences, durations,

Schedule
resource requirements, and schedule constraints to create the
Development:
project schedule.
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is a tool to identify what must be

Work
done in order to accomplish project objectives. Using WBS, project
Breakdown
objectives can be decomposed into many smaller tasks required to
Structure:
achieve the objectives.
3



1 Three Steps of Training Preparation
Training Preparation
Within the three steps of the
training management cycle
shown on the right, training
preparation is part of the “Step
2: Implementation.” Training
preparation includes logistical
arrangements necessary for
conducting training courses.
Three Steps of Training Preparation

The processes of training preparation can be divided into three steps: Work
Breakdown Structure, schedule, and budget.
Step 1: Work Breakdown Structure

We will first identify necessary tasks to prepare for a training course using a
tool called Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).
Step 2: Schedule
Then, we will consider time and costs for those identified tasks. For time,
sequence and schedule of carrying out tasks will be developed.
Step 3: Budget
For costs, the cost of each task will be estimated and budget will be prepared.
The following sections explain how to develop a WBS, schedule and budget.
4



2 Step 1: Work Breakdown Structure
Work Breakdown Structure
What is the Work Breakdown Structure?

The Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is a tool to identify what must be done
in order to accomplish project objectives. Using a WBS, we can decompose the
project objective into many smaller tasks required to achieve the objective. In
training preparation, we can use a WBS to identify necessary preparatory
tasks in order to conduct the training courses.
How is a WBS useful?

A WBS is a useful tool to plan and manage projects.
The following is some of the reasons why it is useful.
1. A WBS identifies all the tasks to be done in the

project visually, so it can be reviewed by all
stakeholders to understand the overview of the
project tasks.
2. A WBS helps us ensure that no significant task has been forgotton to

achieve the project objectives.
3. A WBS allows us to estimate necessary times to complete each task.
4. A WBS allows us to identify materials, equipment and other costs

associated with each task.
5



How do you make a WBS?

We can begin by identifying major tasks necessary to achieve the project
objective. The next step is deviding each major task into tasks, and each task
into smaller tasks. This process will continue with all tasks until we reach a
point where we think everything has been covered. A WBS typically consists of
three to six levels of subdivided activities. The more complex the project, the
more levels it will have.
Suggestions for making WBS

Here are some suggestions for making a good WBS.
1. Involve the people who will implement the tasks. They know best what is
involved in each task and how these tasks can be decomposed into
manageable subtasks.
2. PostItTM is useful to write tasks and put on a white board or a piece of

paper to develop a WBS. Tasks writen on PostItTM cards can be easily
moved around as we develop a WBS.
3. A WBS from a previous project can be used as a template for a new

project, since some projects will resemble a previous project to some
extent.
6



Sample WBS
The example below is the WBS for a top management seminar in 2007. The
project “training preparation” is devided into major three tasks:
“arrangements about trainers/facilitators,” “arrangements about
participants,” and “arrangements about venue, materials, etc.” For each of the
major tasks, severeal sub-tasks are identified.
7



References
 “5 Work Breakdown” (pp. 69-79), Managing Project Large and Small.
 “Chapter 8 Implementation Planning” (pp. 224-245), Project
Planning, Scheduling, and Control: A Hands-On Guide to Bringing
Projects in on Time and on Budget.
 “Chapter 5 Project Scope Management” (pp. 112-122), A Guide to
the Project Management Body of Knowledge.
8



3 Step 2: Schedule
How much time will it take?

After developing a WBS, the next step is to think how much time it will take to
carry out all the tasks identified in the WBS. The following are the major
actions in developing the training preparation time schedule.
Activity Sequence
What is an activity sequence?

An activity sequence involves identifying dependence and logical relationships
among tasks that have been identified in a WBS. Many tasks are related in
some way, and those tasks need to be performed in a particular sequence.
How do you develop an activity sequence?

The Precedence Diagram Method (PDM) is a method of creating a project
schedule network diagram using boxes to represent activities and connect
them with arrows that show the processes of activities. Post-ItTM cards are
useful to write tasks and put on the board to brainstorm an activity sequence.
Sample activity sequence

The chart on the next page is the activity sequence for the top management
seminar in 2007.

9



10



Schedule Development
How do you develop a schedule?

A schedule includes at least a planned start date and a planned finish date for
each of the tasks whose sequence has been developed. Estimates can be
developed based on past experiences of similar tasks. The more familiar we
are with a particular task, the more accurate our estimate will be. Padding
estimate is acceptable as a way to reduce the risk of a task taking longer than
the schedule allows. On the other hand, recognizing opportunities to carry out
different tasks in parallel is one of the ways that can reduce overall time.
Sample schedule
Bar charts, with bars representing tasks, show task start and end dates, as
well as expected durations. Bar charts are easy to read and often used to
present a task schedule.
Every task should have a person responsible for it, and the name can be
indicated in the bar charts so that everyone can tell who is responsible for
each task. The chart on the next page is a revised bar chart of preparation
tasks for the top management seminar in 2007.
11



12



References
 “6 Scheduling the Work” (pp. 81-92), Managing Project Large and
Small.
 “Chapter 6 Project Time Management” (pp. 123-156), A Guide to the
Project Management Body of Knowledge.
13



4 Step 3: Budget
How much will likely be the cost?

After developing a WBS, another question is how much it will cost to carry out
all the tasks identified in the WBS. The following are the major actions in
developing a training budget.
Cost Estimating
How do you estimate the cost?

Cost estimating involves developing an estimate of the costs of the resources
needed to complete the training. These resources include, but are not limited
to, the following: labor, materials, equipment, services, and facilities. We can
estimate the cost of each task at the lowest level of a WBS. Cost estimate can
be made based on previous actual costs or cost estimates.
14



Cost Budgeting
How do you develop a budget?

Cost budgeting involves aggregating the estimated costs of individual tasks to
establish a total cost baseline. We may add some buffer or padding to deal
with anticipated, but not certain, events. These costs are called contingencies.
The table on the next page is the expenditure summary of the top
management seminar in 2007. The unit prices and quantities for items such
as facilities, refreshments, lecturers, stationery and other materials will be
useful records when estimating costs and developing a budget for new
training courses.
15



16



References
 “Chapter 7 Project Cost Management” (pp. 157-171), A Guide to the
Project Management Body of Knowledge.
17

 Five Steps of Training Evaluation
 Step 1: Identify the Purposes of

Evaluation
 Step 2: Select Evaluation Method
 Step 3: Design Evaluation Tools
 Step 4: Collect Data
 Step 5: Analyze and Report Results


Table of Contents
Five Steps of Training Evaluation ...................................... 4

Step 1: Identify Purposes of Evaluation ............................. 6
Step 2: Select Evaluation Method ...................................... 9
Step 3: Design Evaluation Tools ...................................... 13
Step 4: Collect Data ........................................................ 29
Step 5: Analyze and Report Results ................................. 32
Appendices
Appendix 1: Sample Questionnaire Forms

Appendix 2: Sample Pre/Post Test Forms
Appendix 3: Impact Survey Questions
Appendix 4: Sample Data Input Sheet
Appendix 5: Evaluation Report Checklist
2


Glossary
An evaluation is a systematic determination of merit, worth, and

Evaluation: significance of something or someone using criteria against a set of
benchmark standards.
Evaluation is a methodologically diverse terms involving the use of

Evaluation both qualitative and quantitative methods, including case studies,
Methods: survey research, statistical analysis, and model building among
others.
Evaluation tools are used to collect data. These come in varied

Evaluation forms and can be divided into categories such as questionnaires,
Tools: surveys, tests, interviews, focus groups, observations, and
performance records.
An impact survey is an evaluation tool to measure the extent to

which skills and knowledge learned in the program have translated
Impact Survey:
into improved behavior and the final results that occurred because
the participants attended the training program.
The pre/post test is a common form of evaluating training

programs in terms of knowledge improvement of the participants.
Pre/Post Test:
Identical tests may be used for pre- and post-tests to compare
scores before and after the training respectively.
The questionnaire is one of the most common tools used to evaluate

Questionnaire: training programs. Questionnaires can be used to obtain subjective
information about participants’ feelings.
A semi-structured interview is an interview with an individual or

Semi-structured individuals that follows a pre-defined set of questions. It is flexible,
Interview: allowing new questions to be brought up during the interview as a
result of what the interviewee says.
3


1 Five Steps of Training Evaluation
What is an Evaluation?

Several definitions of evaluation have been offered, and the following are some
of those most commonly used:
An evaluation is the systematic and objective assessment of an ongoing or

completed project, program or policy, its design, implementation and results.
The aim is to determine the relevance and fulfillment of objectives, development
efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability.
Source: Glossary of Key Terms in Evaluation and Results Based Management
A program evaluation is the systematic collection of information about the

activities, characteristics, and outcomes of programs to make judgments about
the program, improve program effectiveness, and/or inform decisions about
future programming.
Source: Patton, M.Q. (1997). Utilization-focused Evaluation: The New Century Text (3rd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Training Management Cycle

A training management cycle can be divided into three major steps: Step 1:
Planning; Step 2: Implementation; and Step 3: Evaluation. The evaluation is the
final step of the training
management cycle. The results
of the training evaluation are
reflected in the next phase of
training planning to improve
future training programs as
shown by the arrow in the
figure.
4


Five Steps of Training Evaluation

The processes of training evaluation can be divided into five steps: identify
purposes of evaluation; select evaluation methods; design evaluation tools,
collect data; and analyze and report results.

Step 1: Identify the Purposes of Evaluation
Before developing evaluation systems, the purposes of evaluation must be
determined.
Why do we want to evaluate training programs?
Step 2: Select Evaluation Method

Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluating training programs
Reaction, learning, behavior, and result
Step 3: Design Evaluation Tools

Questionnaire
Pre/Post Test
Impact Survey
Step 4: Collect Data

Who, when, how to collect data?
Step 5: Analyze and Report Results

Evaluation data analysis
Reporting
5


2 Step 1: Identify Purposes of Evaluation
Why do we want to evaluate training programs?

Before developing evaluation systems, the purposes of evaluation must be
determined. These will affect the types of data and the data collection
methods.
Learn from Experience for Future Improvement

The most common reason for evaluating training programs may be to
determine the effectiveness of training programs in order to improve future
programs. Evaluation can help us learn from experience of past training
programs. For example, we may want to know which parts of the training were
successful and which not, or whether the approach
to the training should be changed. We can use these
lessons learned to improve plans for future training
programs.
Purposes identified by the GDLA Task Force

The GDLA Task Force has identified the following as the purposes of
evaluating training programs planned and implemented by the Task Force for
public officials in charge of local administration:
To determine whether the objectives of the training were achieved.

To see how the knowledge and skills learned in the training are put into
practice.
To assess the results and impacts of the training programs.
To assess the effectiveness of the training programs.
To assess whether the training programs were properly implemented.
6


To identify the strengths and weaknesses of the training programs.

To assess whether the training programs were suitable in terms of the
training contents, timing, participants and other aspects.
To find problems of the training programs and solutions for
improvement.
Accountability Issue
In addition, accountability may be one of the reasons for
evaluating training programs. Evaluation can increase
the accountability of implementing agencies to
concerned stakeholders. In the GDLA Task Force, it can
improve accountability as a training agency by reporting
the evaluation results of training programs to MOI and
JICA.
Other Reasons for Evaluation

Depending on the objectives, contents, participants, and other factors, each
training program might have different purposes of evaluation. Therefore, the
evaluation design can be adjusted for each training program to meet the
specific purposes of the evaluation. Some examples of the reasons for
evaluating training programs are shown as follows:
To determine success or otherwise in accomplishing program

objectives.
To identify the strengths and weaknesses in the human resource
development process.
To compare the costs and benefits of a human resource development
program.
To decide who should participate in future programs.
To test the clarity and validity of tests, cases and exercises.
To identify which participants were the most successful with the
program.
To reinforce the key points made to the participants.
To gather data to assist in marketing future programs.
To determine whether the program was an appropriate solution for the
specific need.
To establish a database that can assist management in making
decisions.
7


Source: Handbook of Training Evaluation and Measurement Methods
References
 “Chapter 2 Reasons for Evaluating” (pp. 16-20), Evaluating Training
Programs: The Four Levels.
 “Developing a Results-Based Approach” (pp. 36-38), Handbook of
Training Evaluation and Measurement Methods.
 “1. Overview of Evaluation” (pp. 1-11), Building Evaluation Capacity.
8


3 Step 2: Select Evaluation Method
Four Levels of Evaluation

The four levels of evaluation is one of the most commonly used methods for
evaluating training programs. The four sequential levels of evaluation were
originally proposed by Donald L. Kirkpatrick, Professor Emeritus at the
University of Wisconsin. This concept has been increasingly adopted in
private companies to evaluate their training programs, and gradually applied
for training programs under technical assistance projects of the Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA). According to his concept, capacity
development is realized by the four sequential steps: (i) Reaction; (ii) Learning;
(iii) Behavior; and (iv) Results.
Level 4: Results What occurred as the final

results?
How has the behavior of

Level 3: Behavior participants changed after
the training program?
Level 2: Learning What have participants

learned?
Level 1: Reaction How do participants react to the

training program?
9


Level 1: Reaction
Evaluation on this level measures how participants react to the training

program. It is important to get a positive reaction. Although a positive reaction
may not ensure learning, if participants do not react favorably, they probably
will not be motivated to learn.
“Evaluating reaction is the same thing as measuring customer satisfaction. It

training is going to be effective, it is important that trainees react favorably to
it. Otherwise, they will not be motivated to learn.” Kirkpatrick (2006)
Evaluating Training Programs
Level 2: Learning
Evaluation on this level measures the extent to which participants change

attitudes, improve knowledge, and/or increase skills as a result of attending
the training program. One or more of these changes must take place if a
change in behavior is to happen.
Level 3: Behavior
Evaluation on this level measures the extent to which change in participants’

behavior has occurred because of attending the training program. In order for
change to take place, four conditions are necessary:
The person must have a desire to change.
The person must know what to do and how to do it.
The person must work in the right climate.
The person must be rewarded for changing.
Level 4: Results
Evaluation on this level measures the final results that occurred because the
participants attended the training program. Examples of the final results
include increased production, improved quality and decreased costs. It is
important to recognize that these results are the reason for having some
training programs.
10


Some Other Evaluation Models
The following are some of the evaluation models and approaches mentioned in
the evaluation literature. (“5. Evaluation Models, Approaches, and Designs”
Building Evaluation Capacity)
Behavioral Objectives Approach

Focuses on the degree to which the objectives of a program have been
achieved.
The major question is “is the program achieving its objectives?”
Responsive Evaluation
Evaluators are responsible for the information needs of various
audiences or stakeholders.
The major question is “what does the program look like to different
people?”
Goal-Free Evaluation
Focuses on the actual rather than intended outcomes of a program.
The major question is “what are all the effects of the program, including
any side effects?”
Expertise/Accreditation Approaches
The purpose is to provide professional judgments of the quality of
programs based on expert opinions.
The major question is “how would professionals rate this program?”
Participatory/Collaborative Evaluation
Emphasize the engagement of stakeholders in the evaluation process so
that they may better understand the evaluation, the program be
evaluated and ultimately use the
evaluation findings for decision-making
purposes.
The major question is “what are the
information needs of those closest to the
program?”
11


Organizational Learning
Views evaluation as a social activity in which evaluation issues are
constructed by and acted on by organization members.
The major question is “what are the information and learning needs of
individuals, teams, and organization in general?”
References
 “Chapter 3 The Four Levels: An Overview” (pp. 21-26), Evaluating
Training Programs: The Four Levels.
 “Chapter 4 A Result-Based HRD Model” (pp. 51-65), Handbook of
Training Evaluation and Measurement Methods.
 “5. Evaluation Models, Approaches, and Designs” (pp. 101-180),
Building Evaluation Capacity.
12


4 Step 3: Design Evaluation Tools
Evaluation Tools
Various evaluation tools can be selected depending on the purposes and
methods of evaluation.
Questionnaires
Surveys
Tests
Interviews
Focus group discussions
Observations
Performance records
For the training programs targeting local administration officials, a

questionnaire may be used for “Level 1: Reaction”; a pre/post test may be
used for “Level 2: Learning”; and an impact survey may be used for “Level 3:
Behavior” and “Level 4: Results.”
Level 3: Behavior
Level 1: Reaction Level 2: Learning
& Level 4: Results
Questionnaire Pre/Post Test Impact Survey
13


Five Steps of Questionnaire Design
The questionnaire is probably the most common form of evaluating training

programs. Questionnaires to evaluate the reactions of training participants
can be developed through the five steps shown above.
Step 1: Determine what we want to find out
The first step of questionnaire design is to determine the information we

would like to know. This largely depends on the purposes of the evaluation.
The following are some common types of information we may want to ask
participants.
Contents: Was the content appropriate?

Materials: Were the materials useful?
Teaching method: Was the teaching method appropriate?
Trainer/Facilitator: Was the trainer/facilitator effective?
Motivation to learn: Were you motivated to learn the contents?
Program relevance: Was the program relevant to your needs?
Level of understanding: Did you understand the contents?
Time: Was the time and length of program appropriate?
Length: Was the program length appropriate?
Facilities: Were the training facilities appropriate?
Overall evaluation: What is your overall rating of the program?
Planned improvements: How will you apply what you have learned?
Questions are developed later, but it might be useful to develop this

information in outline form so that related questions can be grouped together.
14


Step 2: Select the type(s) of questions
The second step in questionnaire design is to select the type(s) of questions.

Questions that might be asked in a questionnaire can be classified into two
major categories: open-ended and close-ended.
Open-ended questions have an unlimited answer. The question is followed by

a blank space for response. Open-ended questions give participants the
opportunity to express their own thoughts. They produce varieties of answers
and more difficult to analyze. The following are some examples
of open-ended questions:
Which part of the contents of the training program

interests you more than others?
How do you think we can improve the contents of the
training program?
On the other hand, close-ended questions ask respondents to select one or

multiple responses from the list. Below are several types of close-ended
questions.
Two-option response: Respondents are asked to choose one out of two

options, such as yes-no, true-false, disagree-agree. The following is an
example.
Did you like the training program?
Yes ✓ No
15


Rating scale: Respondents are asked to choose the most appropriate

answer to reflect their opinion from the complete range of possible
answers. The range can be presented in numbers (e.g., 1 to 10), or in
words (e.g., strongly agree to strongly disagree). The following is an
example.
How do you rate the contents of the training?

(1 = poor, 10 = excellent)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
✓
Checklist: It is a list of items. Respondents are asked to check those

that apply to the situation. The following is an example.
Please check one session from the list below that you liked
most in the training program.
1. Local Administration System ✓

2. D&D Policy
3. Organic Law
Ranking scales: It requires the participant to rank a list of items. The

following is an example.
Please rank the following sessions in order of preference.
1. Local Administration System 2

2. D&D Policy 1
3. Organic Law 3
16


Step 3: Design the questionnaire
The third step in questionnaire design is to develop the questions based on

the types of questions planned and the types of information needed.
Good Questions
Good questions are simple, short, specific and straightforward in order to
avoid confusing respondents, or leading respondents to a desired response.
Well-designed Questionnaires
Well-designed questionnaires are easy to understand and answer to
encourage respondents to complete the questionnaires and also make few
mistakes when doing so.
Sample Questionnaires
Questionnaire forms for the Top Management Seminar and the GDLA
Officials’ Training are attached in the Appendix 1 as a reference. Some other
sample questionnaires are available in the reference books.
Step 4: Pretest the questionnaire
The fourth step in questionnaire design is to test the questions. It is ideal if

the prepared questions can be tested on a sample group of participants. If this
is not feasible, they can be tested on a group of people at approximately the
same job level as the participants.
17


The following are some of the points to be checked when pre-testing the
questionnaire.
Does he/she understand all the questions?

Does he/she have any difficulty in answering
the questions?
Do all close-ended questions have an answer
applicable to each respondent?
Are the skip patterns followed correctly?
Does any part of the questionnaire suggest bias on your part?
Does the questionnaire create a positive impression to motivate people
to respond?
Step 5: Finalize the questionnaire
Based on the result of pretest in Step 4, the questionnaire forms will be

finalized.
For sample questionnaire forms, please refer to Appendix 1.
18


Five Steps of Pre/Post Test Design

The pre/post test is a common form of evaluating training programs in terms

of improving the knowledge of the participants. Identical tests may be used for
pre- and post-tests to compare scores before and after the training. Pre/post
tests can be developed through the five steps shown above.
Step 1: Determine what knowledge and understanding we want to

measure
The first step of pre/post test design is to determine what knowledge and
understanding we want to measure. Normally this means the key concepts
and ideas taught in the training. For example, in the GDLA Officials’ Training
conducted in July 2007, the following are the issues used for the pre/post
tests.
Local Administration System

Structure of local administration system
Function of provincial and district governments
Composition of commune councils
D&D Theory and Practice
Definition of decentralization and
deconcentration
Definition of democratic representation,
participation of people, and public sector
accountability as principles for D&D
reform
19


Organic Law
Official documents based on which the Organic Law is drafted
Responsible agency for drafting the Organic Law
Composition of the draft Organic Law
Definition of urban/rural areas in the draft Organic Law
Sub-national councils in the draft Organic Law
One Window Service
Model districts
Functions of the One Window Service Office
Services provided by the One Window Service Office
Step 2: Select the type(s) of questions
The second step in pre/post test design is to select the type(s) of questions.
Questions that might be asked in a pre/post test can be classified into three
major categories: true-false questions, multiple choice questions, and
open-ended short-answer questions.
True-false questions: Respondents are requested to choose

appropriate answers from true and false. The following is an example.
The local administration system in Cambodia is divided into three

levels: province/city, district/khan, and commune/sangkat.
True ✓ False
20


Multiple choice questions: Respondents are requested to choose

appropriate answers from multiple choices. The following is an example.
How is the local administration system in Cambodia structured?

a) The local administration system in Cambodia is divided ✓
into three levels: province/city, district/khan, and
commune/sangkat.
b) The local administration system in Cambodia is divided
into two levels: province/city, and district/khan.
c) The local administration system in Cambodia is divided
into four levels: province/city, district/khan,
commune/sangkat, and village.
d) The local administration system in Cambodia is not
legally divided into different levels.
Open-ended short-answer questions: Respondents are requested to

explain their answers in short sentences. The following is an example.
Please explain how the local administration system in Cambodia

is structured.
The local administration system in Cambodia is divided

into three levels: province/city, district/khan, and
commune/sangkat.
21


Step 3: Design the pre/post test
Based on the result of the pretest in Step 4, the pre/post tests will be finalized.
Good Questions
Good questions are simple, short, specific and straightforward in order to
avoid confusing respondents.
Well-designed Pre/Post Test

Well-designed pre/post tests are easy to understand and answer so as to
encourage respondents to complete the tests and also make few mistakes in
doing so.
Sample Pre/Post Tests

Pre/post test forms for the GDLA Officials’ Training are attached in the
Appendix 2 as a reference.
Step 4: Pretest the pre/post test
The fourth step in questionnaire design is to test the questions. It is ideal if

the prepared questions can be tested on a sample group of participants. If this
is not feasible, they can be tested on a group of people at approximately the
same job level as the participants.
22


questionnaire.

For multiple choice questions, does he/she understand all the possible
answers?
Does he/she have any difficulty in answering the questions?
Step 5: Finalize the pre/post test
Based on the result of the pretest in Step 4, the pre/post test forms will be
finalized.
For sample pre/post test forms, please refer to the Appendix 2.
23


Five Steps of Impact Survey Design
An impact survey can be carried out as a follow-up evaluation within several

months of completing the training program. The main purpose of the impact
survey is to assess the behavioral change of participants (Level 3) and
improvements or outputs on their work that can be linked to the training
program (Level 4).
Step 1: Determine what impact we want to find out
The first step of the impact survey design is to determine what impact of the
training we would like to find out. The following are some common topics that
we might want to ask training participants.
Level 3: Behavior
Evaluation on this level measures whether the knowledge and skills that the
training participants have learned in the training are applied to their work.
The amount of time required for the change to manifest itself will depend on
the type of training, how soon the participant has an opportunity to practice
the skill, how long it takes participants to develop a new behavioral pattern,
and other aspects of the job.
Level 4: Results
Evaluation on this level measures the final results that
occurred because the participants attended the training
program. Examples of the final results include increased production,
improved quality and decreased costs. It is important to recognize that these
results are the reason for having some training programs. However, it is
difficult to isolate the training effect from other factors affecting the results.
24


Step 2: Select the data collection method(s)
The most common data-collection method for the impact survey might be the
follow-up questionnaire. Interviews and/or focus group discussions can also
be used especially when qualitative information is needed about the impact of
the training program.
Interviews have the following advantages and disadvantages that should be

considered when selecting them as the data collection method.
Advantages of interviews:
• Good for uncovering feelings and hidden causes.
• Non-verbal signals can indicate key issues.
• Spontaneity – follow the unexpected issues.
Disadvantages of interviews:
• Time-consuming.
• An unrepresentative sample can skew the results.
• Can be difficult to quantify.
• Very dependent on the skills of the interviewer.
Interviews have three types from which a suitable one will be selected for each
survey.
1. Structured interview: the questions are set in advance.

2. Semi-structured interview: the general content is pre-determined but
additional exploration is allowed. This form of interview is particularly
useful in situations where there are key issues to be investigated, but
there is less certainty about the range of respondents' reactions to them.
3. Unstructured interview: free-flowing conversation rather than a specific
set of questions
25


Step 3: Design the questionnaire / questions
The third step of the impact survey design is to develop questions based on
the kinds of impact to be found out and the data collection methods selected.
The following are some examples of questions for an impact survey

questionnaire.
Relevance of the training program
Please rate on a scale of 1-10, the relevance of each session to your job, with (1)
indicating no relevance and (10) indicating very relevant.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D&D Policy ✓
Organic Law ✓
One Window Service ✓
Use of training materials
Have you used the materials since you participated in the training program?
❑ Yes ❑ No
If yes, please explain what materials you have used and for what purpose.
26


Knowledge application
Is there any specific knowledge of D&D policy and organic law that you have used
on your work after the training program?
❑ Yes ❑ No
If yes, please explain what knowledge and how you have used it.
The following are some of the interview questions used in the impact survey
conducted in June 2008. For more details, please refer to the Appendix 3 for
the questionnaire used in the survey.
1. Is there any specific knowledge of D&D policy and organic law that you
have used in your work after the training course/seminar?
2. Have you used the materials since you participated in the training
course/seminar?
3. Did you incorporate anything else you learned in the training
course/seminar into your work?
4. Is there anything which has changed your perception, attitude or behavior
as a result of the training course/seminar?
Step 4: Present the questionnaire / questions
The fourth step is to test the questions/questionnaire. It is ideal if the

prepared questions/questionnaire can be tested on a sample group of
participants. If this is not feasible, they can be tested on a group of people at
approximately the same job level as the participants.
27


questionnaire/questions.

Does he/she have any difficulty in answering the questions?
Do all close-ended questions have an answer that applies to each
respondent?
Are the skip patterns followed correctly?
Does any question suggest bias on your part?
Do the questions create a positive impression to motivate people to
respond?
Step 5: Finalize the questionnaire / questions
Based on the result of the pre-test in Step 4, the questionnaire/questions will

be finalized.
References
 “Chapter 9 Collecting Data: Application and Business Impact
Evaluation” (pp. 136-164), Handbook of Training Evaluation and
Measurement Methods.
 “7. Questionnaire Design” (pp. 101-135), How to Conduct Your Own
Survey.
 “Part Two: Case Studies of Implementation” (pp. 117-360), Evaluating
Training Programs.
28


5 Step 4: Collect Data
Questionnaire
The following are some helpful guidelines to improve the effectiveness of
questionnaire data collection.
Keep responses anonymous

If there is no specific reason why you would like to identify
each participant’s questionnaire, it is recommended to keep
responses anonymous. It allows the participants to feel open
and comfortable to give comments that can help improve future programs.
Distribute questionnaire forms in advance

For lengthy evaluations for training programs that span several days, or if you
want the participants to evaluate each individual session, it is helpful to
distribute questionnaire forms early in the program. This will allow the
participants to familiarize themselves with the questions, and to answer
specific questions as they are covered in the program. Please note, however,
that the participants should wait until the end of the program to reach a final
conclusion on general issues. For this reason, questionnaire forms for general
questions could be distributed at the end of the program.
Explain the purpose of the questionnaire and how the information will
be used
The purposes of the questionnaire and how the data will be used should be
explained clearly to the participants. This will help improve the response rate
and encourage them to make comments that can be useful to improve future
programs.
29


Allow enough time for completing the questionnaire

If we ask the participants to fill in the questionnaire forms at the end of the
program, they may be in a hurry to leave and may provide incomplete
information. It is recommended to set aside enough time to fill in the
questionnaire forms as a scheduled session before the end of the program.
Pre/post Tests
The same set of questions prepared in step 3 will be given to the training
participants on the first day of training before all the sessions start (pre-test),
and on the last day of training after all the sessions have been completed
(post-test).
Pre-Test
First Day of Training
Before all the sessions
Sessions
Post-Test
Last Day of Training
After all the sessions
30


Semi-‐Structured Interview for Impact Survey
The following are some helpful guidelines to conduct effective interviews.
Introduction
• [Appreciation] Thank you very much for taking time for the interview.
• [Self introduction] My name is ______ from GDLA, MOI.
• [Purpose of interview] I would like to ask you several questions about our
training course/seminar that you attended last year. Your information will
be useful to evaluate and improve our future training programs.
Positive attitude
• Face the interviewee.
– The interviewee knows that you are paying attention to him/her.
– The interviewee feels accepted.
– Sit straight. Do not cross arms or legs.
• Smile and be friendly.

– The interviewee feels comfortable and at ease to talk.
– The interviewee will be willing to give more information.
• Give positive feedback.

– The interviewee feels that their information is useful.
– The interviewee would like to contribute more.
– Make eye contact, repeat the answers, and rephrase them.
Ways to probe answers on open-ended questions

• When you do not understand the interviewee’s reply:
– “What do you mean?”
– “Could you tell me what you mean by that?”
– “Would you tell me more about your thinking on that?”
• When you would like to know more about details about the answer:
– “Would you explain to me more about that?”
– “What?”, “Who?”, “When?”, “Where?”, “How?”
31


6 Step 5: Analyze and Report Results
Data Input
Before summarizing and analyzing the questionnaire or pre/post test data that
are collected in Step 4, the data need to be entered into a computer. Many
statistical software programs are available for such data. Unless you have
extremely large data sets or must conduct highly sophisticated analysis, a simple
program like Excel may be enough. A sample data table is in the Appendix 4.
Data Analysis
There are many ways to analyze data, but the analysis should be as simple as
possible and limited to what is necessary to draw the required conclusions
from the data.
Frequency distribution and average

Frequency distribution and average are two basic ways of presenting data.
The following are examples of frequency distribution and average of rating for
the session on the progress on D&D at the Top Management Seminar in July
2007.
Progress on D&D 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 total

contents 0 0 0 0 3 2 10 23 63 127 228
materials 0 0 2 2 1 6 14 33 57 115 230
level of understanding 0 0 0 1 5 6 33 62 65 56 228
Progress on D&D Average

contents 9.29
materials 9.04
level of understanding 8.50
total 8.94
32


Using figures to present data

Figures are useful tools to present statistical and complex data fairly quickly
and easily. Pie charts and bar charts are among commonly used figures.
Pie charts are useful to show the components of something that add up to
100%. As a general rule, a pie chart becomes hard to read as the number of
categories increases. The following is an example of a pie chart presenting
popularity of lecture sessions at the Top Management Seminar in July 2007.
Source: Top Management Seminar Implementation Report, GDLA Task Force, October 2007
Bar charts work better when many categories are compared, and relative
magnitude is to be shown. The following is an example of a bar chart
presenting distribution of the pre/post test scores of the GDLA Officials’
Training in July 2007.
Source: GDLA Officials’ Training Implementation Report, GDLA Task Force, October 2007
33


Reporting
Who needs to know what?
Before writing an evaluation report, we need to identify the primary evaluation
users. Primary users are specific individuals or organizations whose
information needs you have to serve. They might be a program director, a
funding agency, program decision makers, or policy makers. Primary users
such as program directors and funding agencies usually require the most
technical and detailed information because they are making crucial decisions
about the training programs.
Forms of communicating evaluation findings

The next step is to consider what forms of communication will be most
effective to present evaluation findings to the primary users. The following
questions may be used as guidance to choose appropriate forms of
communication.
To what extent and in what specific ways is the information relevant to

the user’s real and compelling problems?
To what extent is the information practical from the user’s perspective?
To what extent is the information useful and immediately applicable in
the user’s situation?
What information will the user consider credible and what reporting
practices will support that credibility?
Source: Morris, Lynn Lyons, et al. (1987). How to Communicate Evaluation Findings. SAGE
Publications.
Evaluation report outline

After knowing what kind of information will be relevant and useful to the
primary users, you can develop an evaluation report outline. The following is a
sample report outline.
Summary
Purpose of evaluation
Evaluation audiences
Major findings and recommendations
Program Description
Program background
Program goals/objectives
34


Program participants
Program activities
Evaluation Design and Methods
Purpose of the evaluation
Evaluation designs
Data collection methods
Findings and Results
Description of how the findings are organized (e.g., by evaluation
questions, themes/issues)
Results of analyses of quantitative and/or qualitative data collected
Recommendations
Recommendations for action based on these conclusions
Appendices
List of participants
Seminar/training materials
Questionnaires, pre/post tests
Program expenditure summary
For more details about evaluation reports, please refer to the evaluation report
checklist in the Appendix 5.
References
 “Chapter 14 Data Analysis” (pp. 237-254), “Chapter 19 Communicating
Program Results” (pp. 337-359) Handbook of Training Evaluation and
Measurement Methods.
 “8. Analyzing Evaluation Data” (pp. 267-308), “9. Communicating and
Reporting Evaluation Processes and Findings” (pp. 309-326) Building
Evaluation Capacity.
 “9. From Questionnaires to Survey Results” (pp. 175-200), “10.
Reporting Survey Results” (pp. 201-214) How to Conduct Your Own
Survey.
 “4. Selecting Commonly Used Statistical Methods for Surveys” (pp.
77-121) How to Manage, Analyze, and Interpret Survey Data.
 How to Communicate Evaluation Findings.
 Evaluation Strategies for Communicating and Reporting.
35


Appendix 1
Sample Questionnaire Forms
Top Management Seminar

36


37


Appendix 2
Sample Pre/Post Test Forms (GDLA Officials’ Training)
GDLA Officials’ Training Pre/Post Test Answer
This test consists of 20 multiple choice questions concerning local administration system,
decentralization and de-concentration policy, organic law, and one window service. Each question
has four choices of answers. Please choose ONE answer that is most appropriate.
Session 3: Local Administration System in Cambodia & Japan
1. How is the local administration system in Cambodia structured?

a) The local administration system in Cambodia is divided into three levels: province/city, ✓
district/khan, and commune/sangkat.
b) The local administration system in Cambodia is divided into two levels: province/city,
and district/khan.
c) The local administration system in Cambodia is divided into four levels: province/city,
district/khan, commune/sangkat, and village.
d) The local administration system in Cambodia is not legally divided into different levels.
2. Which one of the following is the function of the provincial/municipal government?

a) Preparation of commune development plans
b) Appointment of village chief
c) Certification of civil registration
d) Developing provincial/municipal development programs ✓
3. Which one of the following is the function of the district/khan government?

a) Protection of cultural heritage and natural environment
b) Certification of civil registration ✓
c) Reporting to Central Government
d) Approval of commercial activities
38


4. How is the commune chief selected?

a) Appointed by the Ministry of Interior
b) Elected by voters in the commune/sangkat
c) Selected from village chiefs in the commune/sangkat
d) Selected from the candidate on the top of the candidate list that receives majority of votes ✓
5. How many councilors does each commune/sangkat council have?

a) Each commune/sangkat council has 8 councilors.
b) Each commune/sangkat council has 11 councilors.
c) Each commune/sangkat council has 8 to 12 councilors depending on its demography and
geography.
d) Each commune/sangkat council has 5 to 11 councilors depending on its demography and ✓
geography.
Session 4: D&D Theory and Practice
6. What is decentralization?
a) To transfer power and responsibilities from central administration to local authority to ✓
manage self responsibility including financial resource, asset and human resources.
b) To transfer power and responsibilities from central administration to the
commune/sangkat councils to manage self responsibility including financial resource,
asset and human resources.
c) To distribute power from central administration to local administration to apply their
power or their function on behalf of the central administration by means of providing the
resources, service fee, and capacity building.
d) To distribute power from central administration to the commune/sangkat councils to
apply their power or their function on behalf of the central administration by means of
providing the resources, service fee, and capacity building.
39


7. What is de-concentration?
a) To transfer power and responsibilities from central administration to local authority to
manage self responsibility including financial resource, asset and human resources.
b) To transfer power and responsibilities from central administration to the
commune/sangkat councils to manage self responsibility including financial resource,
asset and human resources.
c) To distribute power from central administration to local administration to apply their ✓
power or their function on behalf of the central administration by means of providing the
resources, service fee, and capacity building.
d) To distribute power from central administration to the commune/sangkat councils to
apply their power or their function on behalf of the central administration by means of
providing the resources, service fee, and capacity building.
8. What does democratic representation mean as one of the principles for decentralization
and de-concentration reforms?
a) The reforms will strengthen the roles of councils at provincial/municipal, district/khan ✓
and commune/sangkat administrations to be established in accordance with the
principles of democracy by expanding their powers, duties, responsibilities and
resources.
b) The reforms will introduce systems and procedures to ensure that people, especially
women, vulnerable groups and indigenous minorities can participate in decision-making
at provincial/municipal, district/khan and commune/sangkat levels.
c) The reforms will strengthen accountability at all levels of administration and facilitate
citizens’ oversight of the administrative and financial affairs of those administrations.
d) The reforms will bring public services closer to users by allowing citizens to participate
in planning and monitoring public services in order to meet local needs and priorities.
40


9. What does participation of people mean as one of the principles for the decentralization
and de-concentration reforms?
a) The reforms will strengthen the roles of councils at provincial/municipal, district/khan
resources.
b) The reforms will introduce systems and procedures to ensure that people, especially ✓
c) The reforms will strengthen accountability at all levels of administration and facilitate
10. What does public sector accountability mean as one of the principles for the
decentralization and de-concentration reforms? (4)
a) The reforms will strengthen the roles of councils at provincial/municipal, district/khan
resources.
b) The reforms will introduce systems and procedures to ensure that people, especially
c) The reforms will strengthen accountability at all levels of administration and facilitate ✓
41


Session 5: Organic Law on Sub-National Democratic Development
11. What official document is the Organic Law drafted based on?
a) Royal Decree on Establishment of the National Committee for the Management of
Decentralization and De-concentration
b) Strategic Framework for Decentralization and De-concentration Reforms ✓
c) Law on Commune/Sangkat Administrative Management
d) Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia
12. Which organization is responsible for drafting the Organic Law?

a) Ministry of Interior
b) National Committee for the Management of Decentralization and De-concentration ✓
c) Council of Administrative Reform
d) Council of Ministers
13. What is the composition of the preliminary draft Organic Law?

a) (1) councils, ( 2) personnel, (3) elections
b) (1) councils, (2) council committees, chief councilor, governor, (3) personnel
c) (1) councils, (2) council committees, chief councilor, governor, (3) personnel, (4)
national council, implementation, functions & resources
d) (1) councils, (2) council committees, chief councilor, governor, (3) personnel, (4) ✓
national council, implementation, functions & resources, (5) elections
14. According to the preliminary draft Organic Law, urban areas will be treated differently
from rural areas. Where are urban areas?
a) Phnom Penh
b) Phnom Penh, Shihanoukville, Kep, and Pailin
c) Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, and Battambang
d) Phnom Penh and other urban areas like Shihanoukville, Battambang, Siem Reap and ✓
Poipet
42


15. Which one of the following statements about sub-national councils is NOT consistent with
the preliminary draft Organic Law?
a) For large councils, a Council Management Committee must be selected by the council
among its councilors.
b) Every council must have a Technical Advisory Board.
c) Every council must establish a Procurement Committee.
d) Every council must establish a Women’s Consultative Committee. ✓
Session 9: Case Study: One Window Service
16. Which districts are designated as the model districts in the Decision 47?
a) Siem Reap District
b) Battambang District
c) Siem Reap District and Battambang District ✓
d) Siem Reap District, Battambang District, and Kampong Cham District
17. Under which administrative structure is the One Window Service Office established?
a) National administration
b) Provincial administration
c) District administration ✓
d) Commune administration
18. What does the One Window Service Office do?

a) Deliver public services to the people, enterprises and organizations that are carrying out ✓
the activity within the territory of the districts.
b) Design district budget and examine the implementation of district budget
c) Oppose to the local officials’ corruption and contribute to constructing the good
relationship and truth between the district administration and citizens’ enterprises located
in the district
d) Solve all the citizens’ problems depending on the existing laws and regulations.
43


19. Which one of the following statements explains best about the services provided by the One
Window Service Office?
a) Services have become faster and cheaper. ✓
b) Services have become faster than before, but service fees are same as before.
c) Service fees have become cheaper than before, but the processing time is same as before.
d) Service fees and processing time are same as before.
20. Which one of the following statements about strengths about the One Window Service
Office is NOT correct?
a) The One Window Service Office is located in the central area where people have easy
access.
b) The One Window Service Office opens from 7:30 to 9:30 in the morning, and 2:00 to ✓
4:00 in the afternoon to provide good customer services.
c) The prices of different services are written on the wall so that everyone can see them.
d) The working group of the One Window Service Office is modest and helpful with the
people.
44


Appendix 3
Im pact Survey Questions
1. Was the overall training course/seminar beneficial to your work? (Yes, No)
2. If “yes,” please explain why it was beneficial. If “no” or “don’t know,” please try to explain why
not.
3. Is there any specific knowledge of D&D policy and organic law that you have used on your work
after the training course/seminar? (Yes, No)
4. If “yes,” please provide at least one concrete example. If “no” or “don’t know,” please try to
explain why not.
5. Have you used the materials since you participated in the training course/seminar? (Yes, No)
6. If yes, please explain what materials you have used for what purpose. If “no” or “don’t know,”
please try to explain why not.
7. Did you incorporate anything else you learned in the training course/seminar into your work?
(Yes, No)
8. If “yes,” please provide at least one concrete example. If “no” or “don’t know,” please try to
explain why not.
9. Is there anything which has changed your perception, attitude or behavior as a result of the
training course/seminar? (Yes, No)
45


10. If “yes,” please provide at least one concrete example.
11. What kind of follow up support would help you do your work better?
12. Do you have any recommendation or other comments on the training course/seminar?
46


Appendix 4
Sample Data Input Sheet (GDLA Official Training)
47


Appendix 5
Evaluation Report Checklist
1. Title Page
❑ Title identifies what was evaluated, including target population, if applicable.
❑ Title is sufficiently clear and concise to facilitate indexing.
❑ Authors’ name and affiliations are identified.
❑ Date of preparation is included.
❑ Text and material on title page are clearly and properly arranged.
2. Executive Summary
❑ Description of program/project
❑ Evaluation question and purpose of evaluation
❑ Concise summary of main findings
❑ Recommendations, if applicable
❑ Overview and description of structure of report
3. Table of Contents and Other Sections That Preface the Report

❑ Table of contents contains at least all first- and second-level headers in the reports.
❑ Titles and page numbers are accurate.
❑ Lists of tables, figures, and appendices are included, if applicable.
❑ List of acronyms or abbreviations is included, if appropriate.
❑ Acknowledgement section with reference to sponsors, data collectors, informants,
contributors to the report, etc., is included.
4. Program Description
❑ Description of the program being evaluated (including historical context, if
appropriate)
❑ Identification of target population for program
❑ Description of program activities
5. Evaluation Design and Methods

❑ Purpose of evaluation and evaluation questions
❑ Evaluation approach or model being used, as well as rationale for the approach or
model
48


❑ Methods of data collection

❑ Design of the evaluation including timing of data collection and use of specific data
collection methods
❑ Sources of information and data

❑ Limitations of the evaluation
6. Findings and Results

❑ Details of the evaluation findings are clearly and logically described.
❑ Charts, tables, and graphs are appropriately labeled and understandable.
❑ Discussion of evaluation findings is objective and included both negative and
positive findings.
❑ All evaluation questions are addressed or an explanation is included for questions
that could not be answered.
❑ Findings are adequately justified.
7. Conclusions and Recommendations

❑ Discussion and interpretation of findings are included.
❑ Summary and conclusion fairly reflect the findings.
❑ Judgments about the program that cover merit and worth are included.
❑ If appropriate, recommendations are included and they are based on findings in the
report.
8. References and Appendices

❑ A suitable style or format is used consistently for all references.
❑ References are free of errors.
❑ References cover all in-text citations.
❑ All appendices referenced in the text are included in the appendices section, and
vice versa.
❑ Data and information in the appendices are clearly presented and explained.
Adopted from Torres, Rosalie T., et al. (2005). Evaluation Strategies for Communicating and Reporting.
Sage Publications.
49

 What Are Required Skills for
Training?
 Tips for Conducting Training


Table of Contents
1. What Are Required Skills for Training?

Concept of Facilitation ………………………… 4
Adult Learner ……………………………………. 6
2. Tips for Conducting Training
Tips Before Training

Advance Information Dissemination ………..9
Venue and Environment ………………………10
Table and Chair Arrangement ……………….11
Pre-Work (Pre-Assignment) …………………..12
Tips in Training
Behavior of a Facilitator ………………………14
Rapport and Communication ……………….15
Group Discussion ……………………………..16
Ice-Breaking …………………………………….17
Energizer …………………………………………18
Tips After Training

Review of Own Facilitation …………………..20
Appendices

Appendix 1: Cases for Group Discussion
Appendix 2: Exercises for Ice-Breaking
Appendix 3: Exercises for Energizer
2


Glossary
Facilitation is the activity and process to help a group do

Facilitation: something more easily by such means as discussing a problem,
and giving advice, rather than commanding them what to do.
The word “Adult Learner” is used to emphasize the difference

between conventional training and training for changing the
Adult Learner: behavior and habit of adult training participants. The word
“Andragogy” is used as a disciplinary framework of the Adult
Learner.
Rapport means a friendly relationship in which people understand

Rapport: each other very well. This is an important precondition to facilitate
a group.
Case Method is a group training technique for analyzing and

Case Method: making decision with narrative documents that explain an actual
event. Case Study (Method) is also used with the same meaning.
Ice-Breaking is a short activity designed for helping participants

overcome initial anxiety in a training session and/or to bring
Ice-Breaking:
familiarity among participants. In most cases, this activity is
conducted at the beginning of a training session.
Energizer is a short activity that develops a feeling of readiness and

Energizer: recovers faded tension for the next session or learning event. Many
involve some form of physical activity.
3


 1 What Are Required Skills for Training?
What Are Required Skills for Training?

To cover all required skills for training is far beyond the scope of any
comprehensive manuals. Required skills for training are infinite, and new skills
are developing in the field day by day.
Therefore this manual covers selected basic and general topics for beginners
who need to conduct some training without any relevant background.
“Concept of Facilitation” and “Adult Learner” are particularly important ideas

for organizing training. They are abstract and not necessary practical, but it is
useful to know them.
Concept of Facilitation
“A person who helps a group do something more easily by discussing problem,

giving advice, etc. rather than telling them what to do.”
Cited from Oxford Advanced Dictionary
To give a unanimous
definition to the word
“facilitation” is not an
easy task. This word
includes various
functional meanings
and it is not possible
to find another word
that can replace this
word wholly.
To understand the
word “facilitation,” a definition is cited above from a popular English dictionary.
The definition includes three important characteristics.
First, a facilitator does not command a concerned group to do something but
4


help them do something by various means. When the group needs some skills
and knowledge, the facilitator works as a trainer to help its members acquire
them. When the group does not work well due to internal conflicts, the
facilitator holds a workshop as a catalyst to promote a discussion to solve such
conflicts. In other cases, the facilitator advises the group on how to solve a
problem. However, the advice is not a direct solution but the process or method
to find a solution.
Second, a facilitator is required for group work. If an individual needs help and
advice to solve a difficult situation, other methods like Coaching or Mentoring
would be applicable.
Third, although the definition above does not mention explicitly, a facilitator is
not a member of the concerned group. Neutrality is an important precondition
for facilitating the group. However, this condition is not necessarily applied in
real cases. A manager or team leader may be asked to work as a facilitator.
Facilitation may be applied in many situations, and training is one of the

situations that require facilitation.
5


Adult Learner
When organizing a training session or course, the characteristics of the adult

learner should be well understood. This is particularly important if a training
designer wants to help adult participants learn through the training course.
One core understanding is that the adult learner should be treated differently
from a primary school student and a school-like approach is not appropriate for
the adult learner.
The following are good starting points for reflecting some distinctive
characteristics of the adult learner in the training course.
Personal Experience
 Adult learners come to training with various and vast experiences. It is critical
to use such experiences in the process of learning.
 An active use of such experiences is to compare the learner’s previous
experience with new knowledge or an expected new situation.
Motivation
 The adult learner learns best when the contents of training meet his or her
needs and interests.
 The training designer should make sure how the contents of training link with
the participants’ needs and interests before conducting the training.
Various Learning Styles

 The learning styles of adult learners vary because they have developed their
own.
 To manage that characteristic, the training designer should prepare different
styles of learning opportunities such as lecture, discussion, group work, and
individual exercise.
6


Further Study for Adult Learners
Malcolm Knowles, a prominent scholar and practitioner on adult education,

puts forth the following model as foundation stones of adult learning theory.
1. The need to know. Adults need to know why they need to learn something
before undertaking to learn it.
2. The learners’ self-concept. Adults have a self-concept of being responsible

for their own decisions, for their own lives. They resent and resist situations
in which they feel others are imposing their wills on them.
3. The role of the learners’ experiences. Adults come into an educational

activity with both a greater volume and a different quality of experience from
that of youths. This difference in quantity and quality of experience has
several consequences for adult education.
4. Readiness to learn. Adults become ready to learn those things they need to
know and be able to do in order to cope effectively with their real-life
situations.
5. Orientation to learn. In contrast to children’s and youths’ subject-centered

orientation to learn (at least in school), adults are life-centered (or
task-centered or problem-centered) in their orientation to learn.
6. Motivation. Adults are responsive to some external motivations (better jobs,

promotions, higher salaries, and the like), but the most potent motivators are
internal pressures (the desire for increased job satisfaction, self-esteem,
quality of life, and the like).
7


References
 “Part 1: The Roots of Andragogy,” The Adult Learner, Malcolm S.
Knowles and others, Sixth Edition, 2005, Elsevier Inc.
8


2 Tips for Conducting Training
Tips Before Training
The role of a facilitator starts before conducting a training course. It is a

responsibility of the facilitator to prepare a good environment for the training.
The following is some knowledge required before starting the training course.
Advance Information Dissemination
Training participants must have certain information on a training course before

attending it. They have a variety of
expectations for the training course that
determine their seriousness. In other
words, the training participants must be
prepared to accept new knowledge and
information in the training course. If the
participants have the wrong idea about
the training course, they will have
difficulties in accepting what is taught in
the course.
The following information should be

given to the training participants with
the invitation.
 Objectives and outputs of the training course

 Schedule of the course
 Topics and applied methods in the course
If a topic of the training course seems to be little-known, some reference
document should be distributed in advance.
Although it would be helpful to distribute textbooks and handouts to the
training participants in advance, this may not be practical due to the very poor
9


state of postal and parcel delivery service in Cambodia. In addition, a certain

number of training participants may forget to bring such materials to the
training course when they are distributed in advance. Thus enough spare
materials should be prepared for the training course.
Venue and Environment
The selection of an appropriate venue for the training course is a very important
part of training preparation. It is strongly recommended to select the venue and
room carefully considering the required conditions for conducting the training
course.
The following are general points to consider for selecting the appropriate venue
and room in Cambodia.
Room size: Room size should be appropriate for the expected number of
training participants. Although a room that is too small is not an option, one
that is too large is also problematic.
Tables and chairs: The venue should be equipped with enough tables and
chairs. Simple pipe chairs that are easily moveable are preferable. Tables are
not necessary indispensable, but a sufficient number of tables are required
when some exercise using the table is planned.
The available number of whiteboards and boards for flipchart also must be
checked.
Tidy environment: The room should be tidy and well maintained. Items that
are not required for training must be put away.
Power supply: A computer and a LCD are indispensable for training these days.
Thus the venue should have an alternative power source in case of power
failure.
Air conditioning and lighting: The venue should be equipped with air
conditioning and lighting. It is particularly important to check air conditioning
in advance and see if it works. If the air conditioner is weak or poorly
maintained, the training course is seriously spoiled.
Location of the room: It is better to choose a room on the ground or first floor
as the training venue. When the room is located on the third floor or a higher
level, it is ideal to have an elevator in the building.
Catering service: If the training supplies lunch and coffee during breaks, they
are part of the training course. It should be checked whether there is enough
10


and comfortable space for a lunch and coffee break in the venue.
Parking: When the training participants are high-ranking officials or high
profile people, it is necessary to make sure that the venue has enough parking
space for their cars.
Table and Chair Arrangement
When the training course is planned, the facilitator should give enough
consideration on the table and chair arrangement. To promote learning in the
training, the table and chair arrangement should be appropriate for promoting
the participants’ communication.
The following examples are for around 20 training participants. If the training
participants are more than 30, alternative measures to promote participants’
communication must be applied in addition to the table and chair arrangement.
1) Traditional Classroom Table Arrangement
This arrangement is popular but not very effective for promoting mutual
communication among the training
Facilitator
participants. The facilitator often
dominates the training and the training
participants become passive.
11


2) Open Meeting Style Table Arrangement
Facilitator This arrangement allows the participants to

learn and communicate with each other.
However, much of the learning process still
depends on one-way communication, i.e.,
the presentation and instruction by the
facilitator.
3) Round Table Arrangement

This arrangement is effective for
Facilitator promoting mutual communication
among the training participants. In this
example, a round table is located in the
center, but the table itself is not always
necessary. When the facilitator expects a
more informal and relaxing atmosphere,
only chairs are needed.
Pre-Work (Pre-Assignment)
The training course is likely to be more effective when the training participants
prepare by themselves well before the training course. A helpful means for this
purpose is to give the training participants pre-work.
This is also to help establish supportive expectations for the training course.
The following pre-work would be given to the training participants.
12


 The participants are requested to collect the information and data to use in
the training like sample letters and reports for an effective writing course or
some project documents for a project evaluation course.
 The participants are requested to analyze and produce data on a certain issue
as preliminary work for further analysis in the training
 The participants are requested to read complex or long documents that are
close references to the main topic of the training.
 The participants are requested to identify existing problems that are closely
related to the theme of the training course.
Meanwhile, pre-work is not effective in the following situations.
 Expected participants are extremely busy.

 Expected participants are top management persons who may feel
uncomfortable with any enforced tasks.
 Expected participants are expected to react negatively to the pre-work.
13


Tips in Training
The facilitator needs various skills and knowledge in the training course apart
from the sector-specific knowledge that is treated in the course. The most
important one would be how to behave appropriately in the course. For this
purpose, the following sections show some theoretical knowledge, but the
appropriate behavior depends on each person’s personality and no universally
applicable style exists. In other words, each facilitator can behave differently in
the training course and different styles can be appropriate.
Some tips are closely related to the skills and knowledge to promote the learning
of the participants in the training course. When the facilitator wants to use
those tips in the course, it would be better to use them repeatedly in actual
training courses. Although it may not be easy to use them effectively at first, one
would recognize the effect of the tips gradually.
Behavior of a Facilitator
Friendly but Serious Behavior

Friendly behavior is important, but do not forget seriousness. In particular,
when any problems and hindering manners by the training participants are
recognized, the facilitator should stop them decisively but politely. Time
management is also one of the important roles for the facilitator. The facilitator
should be punctual. When the participants look sleepy or seem to lose
concentration, the facilitator should insert Energizers without hesitation.
Catalytic Behavior
The facilitator should behave as a catalyst: the person who promotes an
important change for the training participants. The facilitator is neither a
commander nor a schoolteacher. When the facilitator behaves like a
schoolteacher, the participants may feel less inclined to cooperate.
Learning Behavior
The facilitator should be always ready to learn from the training participants.
This attitude helps the facilitator react to various situations in the training
14


course flexibly. It also sends a good message to the training participants by

showing the facilitator’s openness and respect.
Rapport and Communication
Communication with others has two types: non-verbal communication and

verbal one. Experienced facilitators can use them appropriately and establish
good rapport with the training participants.
Non-verbal communication is done through such means as facial expression,

standing position, and tone of voice.
Look/Facial A smile or calm facial expression is effective for
Expression establishing good rapport with the training
participants.
Eye Contact The facilitator should maintain frequent eye contact
with the training participants.
Standing Position Sometimes the facilitator may want to bend the
body slightly to the training participants. That
shows that the facilitator is paying attention to the
participants.
Voice A calm and stable voice is preferable. It also helps to
speak slowly when appropriate.
Verbal communication is done through exchanging words and sentences with

others. The following techniques are popular ones.
Closed Question This question can be answered with a yes or no.
When the facilitator wants to know a specific fact,
this is a useful technique.
Open Question This uses an open question word like “what,”
“how,” and “why.” This question can help inquire
some topic and issue in depth. It is a useful
technique to draw information that is not clearly
explained by the respondent.
15


Paraphrase and The paraphrase is to repeat a statement using

Rephrase different words. Sometimes it has almost the same
effect to rephrase the statement as it is.
This technique has two merits. First, when the
training participant reacts positively to the
paraphrase by the facilitator, the facilitator can
make sure of his or her own correct understanding.
Second, the paraphrase or rephrase can increase
familiarity between the facilitator and the
participant. It is a popular technique to establish
rapport.
Group Discussion
To disseminate knowledge and information, a lecture or classroom-style

training is efficient but not always effective. Although trainees can acquire new
knowledge at the time, such knowledge may quickly fade out from their memory.
Given an opportunity to utilize such new knowledge in a positive way, trainees
can retain the knowledge more effectively to a certain extent. A popular means
is to organize a group discussion in the training course.
The simplest way to organize a group discussion is to give key questions to the
participants and facilitate the discussion. When a group discussion is applied
in the training course, the following matters should be considered.
Size of Each Group: To promote maximum participation of the participants,

the size of each group shall be around six to eight members.
Key Question: The key questions should be open-ended. Questions that can be
answer with a yes or no or have only one correct answer are not appropriate.
Process Management: The purpose of a group discussion is not to look for one
exact correct answer. Thus it is not necessary to intervene and correct the
discussion. However, some kind of intervention will be helpful when the
discussion stagnates.
Presentation: It is good to present results of the group discussion to the
participants. However, the facilitator should not spend too much time in such
presentation.
16


The Case Method is also applicable to the group discussion. Instead of key
questions, documents containing information and data are given to the
participants. This is an effective method to deepen the understanding of the
participants and develop management skills. This method was developed and
used at Harvard University in the 1980s.
It is a useful method but has the following advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages:
Reality: The participants can discuss the topic in a more specific and realistic
way.
Analysis: The participants are encouraged to analyze the situation without any
risk to one’s present status.
Objectivity: The participants understand that other people see situations in
different ways and grasp the need to see problems from various perspectives.
Disadvantages:
Experienced Discussion Leader: To apply the Case Method properly, it is
necessary to appoint an experienced discussion leader. The leader should know
well how to phrase the questions to stimulate and keep the discussion on track.
Frustration: The participants tend to feel frustrated at first when they find
there are no specific conclusions, answers, or recipes in their discussion.
For a reference on the Case Method, a sample set that was actually applied in
the training course is shown in the Appendix 1.
Ice Breaking
Ice-breaking is a useful tool at the beginning of a training course. It is

considered to have the following effects.
a. Creates an intimate feeling among the training participants.

b. Creates an atmosphere to be ready for the training.
c. Detaches the training participants’ mindset from their routine work.
Below are descriptions of the effects above.
17


a. When the training participants do not know each other, ice-breaking for
knowing each other is strongly recommended. This is meant to “Create an
intimate feeling among the training participants.”
b. When the training participants know each other well, some easy group work
related to the training is effective. This is to “Create an atmosphere to be
ready for the training.”
c. When the training participants know each other well but seem to be still
preoccupied with their office work, some physical activity can help change
their mindset. This is to “Detach the training participants’ mindset from their
routine work.”
The simplest and most common exercise for Ice-Breaking is Self-Introduction.

When the facilitator wants to conduct self-introduction in an effective way, the
following sequence is useful.
1) Ask training participants to write their names and expectations for the
training on sheets of paper.
2) Those sheets of paper are posted in the room.
3) Each training participant is requested to introduce himself or herself in front
of those sheets.
4) At the end of the training course, the facilitator can use those sheets of paper
to review the training. One simple question is good enough: “Whether their
expectations are fulfilled or not?”
Other sample exercises are shown in the Appendix 2.
Energizer
An energizer is applied when the facilitator wants to change the atmosphere in

the room. This is especially useful after a long lecture and presentation, dull
topics, and lunch break. It is sometimes considered a type of ice-breaking.
No general rule exists on when the Energizer should be done in the training.
However, it is appropriate to insert an energizer when the facilitator observes
that the training participants lose concentration, interest, creativity, and any
positive response.
Here is a simple and common exercise.
18


 Just ask the training participants to stand, straighten the back, and stretch
arms.
 Ask the participants to move around the room like from one end of the room to
the other.
When the facilitator gives some instructions to the training participants, he or

she is recommended to speak loudly and clearly. In addition, the facilitator
should not forget a sense of humor and fun.
If there is enough time, other intensive exercises are recommended as shown in

the Appendix 3.
References
 The Winning Trainer, Forth Edition, Julius E. Eitington, 2002,
Butterworth-Heinemann
 Participatory Workshops, A source book of 21 sets of ideas & activities,
Robert Chambers, 2002, Earthscan Publications Ltd.
19


Tips After Training
Review of Own Facilitation
One important task for the facilitator is to make sure of the effect of his or her
own facilitation in the training course. This is a bit different from the monitoring
and evaluation of the training course.
For this purpose, self-reflection after the training course is a useful tool. One
simple question is enough: Do you find any issues to address for the next time?
If the answer is “Yes,” it is a positive indication and the facilitator should take
notes on identified issues and solutions. Such a facilitator is on the right track.
If the answer is “No,” the situation is alarming. If possible, the facilitator should
check the training participants’ responses to questionnaires. If this cannot be
done, the facilitator should ask some training participants how they feel about
his or her facilitation in the training course. It should be a rare case that some
person’s facilitation is perfect and there is no room for improvement.
It is recommended that the questionnaire include questions about the facilitator,

if one to evaluate the training course is applied.
20


Appendix 1

The following cases are prepared to organize Group Discussion after delivering
the lecture on the internal rule of council.
(Orientation Seminar on Basic Principles for the Sub-National Administration
Management conducted from June 15 to July 01, 2009)
Case 1
“Council A” approved the calendar of its ordinary meetings for the period of 12
months with the clear information of date and venue of the meeting at the
second ordinary meeting. After conducting the 4th Ordinary Meeting, the
citizens within its jurisdiction complained that the venue of the meeting is too
small and so many citizens lost the chances to observe the ordinary meetings.
After receiving such claims, one councilor decided to bring this issue in the 5th
Ordinary Meeting to solve this claim.
Please discuss what kinds of actions and decisions should be taken by the
Chairperson and above-mentioned Councilor?
Case 2
Based on the local need, one Provincial Council had a meeting about the need
for preparation of Deyka on preparing and managing electricity to lighten the
public place in the provincial center. After the preparation of draft by consulting
with relevant people, Council prepared its ordinary meeting to review and
approve this Deyka. A total of Council members is 19 persons and during the
meeting, there were 18 councilors attended with the chief of Council being the
chairperson of the meeting. When the chairperson of the meeting had asked
councilors to raise hand for supporting, there were only 09 persons supported.
Even the supported voices were not more than half of the councilors, the
chairperson of the meeting said approve this Deyka.
After implementation for a period, there are 05 councilors consulted with the
Chief of Council to amend some provisions in the Deyka. The Chief of Council
agreed and decided to include it in the agenda of the next ordinary meeting’s
Council. Even though there has not had a meeting to amend the Deyka, three
(03) councilors of the five who had asked to amend that Deyka had a meeting
with citizens and told them that ‘On behalf of Provincial Council, I would like to
inform citizens that in the near future, the Provincial Council shall expand the
21


preparation of electricity in every place of the our provincial center.

Questions:
1. Does the approval of Deyka of the meeting chairperson made appropriately?
Why?
2. Is the agreed decision of the Chief of Council to include the agenda of Deyka
amendment in the ordinary meeting of Council made appropriately? Why?
3. What do you think about the performance of the above-three councilor?
Case 3
Provincial Council “A” established a “Citizen Well-being Committee” to provide
advice and recommendations to concerned ministries in order to enhance the
well-being of citizens under its authorities. In order to facilitate its work, this
committee invited a professor from a provincial faculty to work as its consultant.
During meeting with local citizen, a member of the council talked to a group of
citizens. Finally, the citizens requested the council to improve the garden at
riverside so that citizens can go to take a rest there. To respond to this request,
council members asked the provincial governor to study and if possible the
garden shall be improved immediately according to citizen’s request. The study
showed that the provincial office can do that. Therefore the provincial governor
issued order to improve the garden according to the request of the above council
members.
Questions: Among these above activities, which points are not consistent with
the spirit of the sample of internal rules of MOI? And how to do to make that be
consistent with these internal rules?
Case 4
“Council D” held 8th Ordinary Meeting. The draft meeting report was prepared
by the Administrative Director and distributed to all council members in 5 days
prior to the next meeting. After the discussion at 9th Ordinary Meeting, the
council concluded that some important information was not included and the
draft report needed to be revised.
Please discuss what kinds of actions and decisions should be taken by the
Chairperson and Council?
Case 5
This provincial council was reviewing the annual budget plan at an ordinary
meeting. One councilor began stating his opinion on the draft annual budget
22


plan, and he did not seem to finish his comments after half an hour.
What the chairperson can do to manage this situation?
After a while, the same councilor and another councilor started a quarrel about
some budget issues, and they did not seem to stop for over half an hour. Other
councilors just kept quiet.
What the chairperson can do?
After this meeting, some councilors decided to request for revision to internal
rules in order to ensure that no one dominates the meeting, and all the
councilors can have equal opportunity to share their ideas and opinions at the
meetings.
What kind of articles could possibly be added to the internal rules?
23


Appendix 2
1. Creative Introduction
When the facilitator wants to conduct the self-introduction in more creative

way, following process is recommended.
1) The facilitator asks the training participants to group into pairs.

2) The pairs are requested to interview one another for five (5) minutes or so.
3) One participant introduces another partner to the group members: name,
organization, partner’s expectation from the training, etc.
This exercise also contributes to enhancing the behavior to listen to the

opinions from other training participants. If it seems that the training
participants are not familiar with listening to others, this is worthy to do at
the beginning of the training course.
2. Common Concerns Checklist1
The training participants are given an opportunity to express their feelings

about the training course at the beginning of the training course. Following
process is applicable.
1) The facilitator requests the training participants to give their negative

concerns that may occur in the training course. It may be possible to give
some examples at first.
Example
 Lecture is boring.
 The content of the training is too difficult.
2) The concerns suggested by the training participants are listed on the

whiteboard or flipchart. (10 minutes)
1This idea comes from The Winning Trainer, Forth Edition, Julius E. Eitington, 2002,
Butterworth-Heinemann.
24


3) The facilitator asks the training participants to choose the most

important three from the listed concerns based on participants’
consensus. (10 minutes)
4) The facilitator and training participants agreed to avoid chosen concerns.
This is also effective to increase the satisfaction of the training participants.

The facilitator can know negative concerns born by the training participants
in advance. Meanwhile, the training participants will also appreciate the
acceptance of their negative concerns, if the facilitator shows certain respect
for their concerns in the training course.
3. Paper Tower Game2
The training participants are given an opportunity to work together. This

exercise includes some physical work, so it is also applicable as the
Energizer.
The model process is as followings.
1) The facilitator requests the training participants to form groups. One

group is adjusted to be around four (4) members.
2) Thirty sheets of A4 size paper, scotch tapes, and a pair of scissors are
delivered to each group.
3) Ten (10) minutes are allocated to discuss how to make a paper tower as
tall as possible only by A4 size paper and scotch tape. During this period,
actual work is not allowed.
4) Ten (10) minutes are allocated to make a tower per group. During the
actual work, the participants are prohibited to use verbal communication
each other.
5) The facilitator checks which group builds a tallest tower.
6) If time is enough, the facilitator can ask the comments on this exercise to
the training participants like a difficult point to work together.
This exercise is also effective to lean the teamwork including leadership,

cooperation, participation, communication, etc.
2This idea comes from Team Building, written in Japanese, Kimitoshi Hori and others, 2007, Nikkei
Publishing Inc.
25


Appendix 3

One basic rule should be kept when the exercise for the Energizer is
conducted. Anyone who is not willing to join the exercise can observe the
exercise. One of main purposes is relaxation. The facilitator never gives any
tension to the training participants.
1. Gentle Rain3
1) The facilitator asks the training participants to stand and follows his/her
instruction.
2) The facilitator asks to tap the palm of one hand with one finger of other
hand.
3) Then two fingers are tapped with the palm of other hand, then, three, four
(4), and whole hand.
4) At beginning, the action is conducted slowly. Then, the action is speeding
up gradually.
5) When every participant can’t speed up any more, this is the end of this
exercise.
2. Trust Fall4
1) The facilitator asks the training participants to form a circle of around

eights (8).
2) One volunteer is selected and stand the center of the circle. The volunteer
is requested to close eyes and stand stiffly.
3) The facilitator asks the volunteer to fall back and the members of circle
catch the volunteer.
4) One member who catches the volunteer gently passes the volunteer to the
next person of the circle.
5) When the volunteer returns to the first member of the circle, this exercise
is end.
3 This idea comes from Participatory Workshops, A source book of 21 sets of ideas & activities,
Robert Chambers, 2002, Earthscan Publications Ltd.
4 This idea comes from The Winning Trainer.
26


6) If the time is enough, the facilitator asks another volunteer and repeat
above-mentioned process.
7) Before completing this exercise, the facilitator is better to ask the
volunteers how they feel during this exercise; frightened, comfortable,
etc.
3. All move who….5
1) The facilitator asks the training participants to form the circle with their
own chairs.
2) The facilitator stand the center of the circle and say “All persons who is
wearing something blue”
3) The participants who wearing something blue should move to other
vacant seat. The facilitator also moves to some vacant seat.
4) The person who doesn’t get a vacant seat gives another instruction.
5) 15 to 20 minutes may be good enough for the refreshment.
Example of the instructions

 Wearing neck tines
 Get to the training venue before 7 o’clock
 Participants out of Phnom Penh or certain province
Attention
This exercise is energetic one, so this may be appropriate for rather younger
training participants. Of course, anyone can be an observer.
5 This idea comes from Participatory Workshops, A source book of 21 sets of ideas & activities.
27

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Project on Improvement of Local Administration in Cambodia

Manual o n Training Management

Table of Contents

2. What is Training Management?.............5

3. How to Use the Manuals………………………16

A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product,

Training The application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to

The following sections first introduce an overview of training management. The

The second part is a guide to the manuals on training operation and

2 What is Training Management?

What is Training Management?

The meaning of project management is a useful start to examine training

Before discussing the meaning of project management, however, it makes sense

“A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product,

It is also possible to treat training as a variety of project. Here is a definition of

“Training is a temporary endeavor to create unique service in relation to

Elements of Training Management

In the previous section, the meaning of the training is examined in view of

Similarly, it is possible to define training management as follows.

The definition raises a

1 Ibid., A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Third Edition.

CULTURE – Although culture is a part of interpersonal relations, it should be

ORGANZATION- Each organization has a different setup on authority,

CONTRAL – PLANNING – INFORMATION

Project management is the art of balancing the seven of a project management

Concept of Training Management Cycle

Characteristics of Endless Cycle

When do we start considering training?

Here are the steps in this exercise.

Lack of Lack of No salary Room that is

Too hot (no air Inadequate Inadequate Inadequate

Too hot (no air

In another case, if “inadequate skills” instead of “inadequate budget” is

After Needs Assessment, Training Planning is done. A training designer sets a

Training Preparation is often not seen as substantial because it is considered

Implementation means to execute pre-fixed activities according to a pre-fixed

If planning is well done, it is not difficult to implement training. We can only

Evaluation is often ignored or conducted just as a formality. Some do not want

Second, we should be accountable to concerned stakeholders and evaluation is

For evaluating training and other programs related to capacity development,

3 How to Use the Manuals

How to use the manuals

1. Manual on Training Management (This manual)

For the staff members involved in PILAC

1. Manual on Training Management (This manual)

2. Manual on Training Planning

3. Manual on Training Needs Assessment

4. Manual on Training Preparation

5. Manual on Training Evaluation

For the person who wants to learn more

Figure 3: Manuals and Training Management Cycle

Manual on Training Management

As explained in the Introduction, this manual is intended to show an overview

Manual on Training Planning

This manual includes the following four main components.

Manual on Training Needs Assessment

2 Report on Training Needs Assessment Survey, January 2009

Manual on Training Preparation

Manual on Training Evaluation

Manual on Training Skills

Manual on Training Planning

Table of Contents

A person who designs a training program based on a needs

(Source: Hassell-‐Corbiell (2001). Developing Training Courses)

(Source: Hassell-‐Corbiell (2001). Developing Training Courses)

(Source: Hassell-‐Corbiell (2001). Developing Training Courses)

(Source: Hassell-‐Corbiell (2001). Developing Training Courses)