1

1. Display and control panel

2. Process tank with safety valve
3. Discharge and filling Valve
4. Temperature Sensor
5. Heater
6. Water Connections
7. Throttle Valve for Cooling Water
8. Temperature Sensor
9. Flow Rate Sensor for Cooling Water
10. Condenser
11. Pressure Switch
 3

BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

TWO PHASE HEAT TRANSFER

Introduction:

Heat transfer to a boiling liquid is a necessary step in evaporation and distillation and
also in steam generation, petroleum refining, and control of the temperature of a
chemical reaction. The boiling liquid may be contained in a vessel equipped with a
heating surface fabricated from horizontal or vertical plates or tubes, which supplies the
heat necessary to boil the liquid. Or the liquid may flow through heated tubes, under
either natural or forced convection, and the heat transferred to the fluid though the walls
of the tubes. An important application of boiling in tubes is the evaporation of water from
solution.

In processing plants, liquids are boiled either on submerged surfaces or on the inside of
vertical tubes. Mechanical agitation may be applied in the first case and, in the second
the liquid may be driven through the tubes by means of an external pump. The boiling
of liquid under either of these conditions normally leads to the formation of vapors first
in the form of bubbles and later as a distinct vapor phase above a liquid interface.

When boiling is accomplished by a hot immersed surface, the temperature of the mass
of the liquid is the same as the boiling point of the liquid under the pressure existing in
the equipment. Bubbles of the vapors are generated from the surface of the liquid. Vapor
accumulates in the vapor space over the liquid; a vapor outlet from the vapor space
removes the vapor as fast as it is formed. This type of boiling can be considered as pool
boiling of saturated liquid since the vapor leaves the liquid in equilibrium with the liquid
at its boiling temperature.

When a liquid is boiled under natural circulation inside a vertical tube, relatively cool
liquid enters the bottom of the tube and is heated as it flows upward at a low velocity.
The liquid temperature rises to the boiling point under the pressure prevailing at that
particular level in the tube. Vaporization begins, and the upward velocity of the two –
phase liquid – phase vapor – phase mixture increases enormously. The resulting
 4

pressure drop causes the boiling point to fall as the mixture proceeds up the tubes at
very high velocity.

With forced circulation through horizontal or vertical tubes the liquid may also enter at a
fairly low temperature and be heated to its boiling point, changing into vapor near the
discharge end of the tube. Sometimes a flow control valve is placed in the discharge line
beyond the tubes so that the liquid in the tube may be heated to a temperature
considerably above the boiling point corresponding to the downstream pressure. Under
these conditions there is no boiling in the tube: the liquid is merely heated, as a liquid,
to a high temperature, and flashes into vapor as it passes through the valve. Natural –
and forced – circulation boilers are called calandrias.

In some types of forced – circulation equipment the temperature of the mass of the liquid
is below that of its boiling point, but the temperature of the heating surface is
considerably above the boiling point of the liquid. Bubbles form on the heating surface
but on release from the surface are absorbed by the mass of the liquid. This type of
boiling is called sub cooled boiling.

Conditions for Boiling:

For a bubble to be formed in a liquid, for instance stream in water, it is necessary for a
surface of separation to be produced. Kelvin has shown that, as a result of the surface
tension between the liquid and vapor, the vapor [pressure on the inside of a concave
surface will be less than that at a plane surface. As a result, the vapor pressure Pr inside
the bubbles is less than the saturation vapor pressure Ps at a plane surface. The relation
between Pr and Ps is:

Pr = Ps – (2 *  / r)

Where r = radius of curvature of bubble, and

 = Surface tension.
 5

Hence the liquid must be superheated near the surface of the bubble, the extent of the
superheat increasing with decrease in the radius of the bubbles. On this basis it follows
that very small bubbles are difficult to form without excessive superheat. The formation
of bubbles is made much easier by the fact that they will form on curved surfaces or on
irregularities on the heating surface, so that only a small degree of superheat is normally
required.

Nucleation at much lower values of superheat is believed to arise from the presence of
existing nuclei such as non-co0ndensing gas bubbles, or from the effect of the shape of
the cavities in the surfaces. Of these, the current discussion on the influence of cavities
is the most promising. In many cavities the angle  will be greater than 900 and the
effective contact angle, which includes the contact angle of the cavity , will be
considerably greater [=  + (180 - ) / 2], so that a much – reduced superheat is required
to give nucleation. Thus the size of the mouth of the cavity and the shape of the cavity
plays a significant part in nucleation.

It follows that for boiling to occur a small difference in temperature must exist between
the liquid and the vapor.

The nature of the surface will make a marked difference to the physical form of the
bubbles and the area actually in contact with the surface, as shown in figure.

(a) Screen surface (b) Chromium plated and (c) Screen surface
Thin oil layer polished surface Clean
Thin oil layer

Figure: Shape of Bubbles

 6

Non – wettable surface:

Here the vapor bubbles spread out thus reducing the area available for the heat
transfer from the hot surface to the liquid.

Partially wettable surface:

Which is the commonest form. Here the bubbles rise from a larger number of sites
and the rate of transfer is increased.

Entirely wetted surface:

Such as that formed by a screen. This gives the minimum area of contact between
vapor and surface and the bubbles leave the surface when still very small. It will
therefore follows that if the liquid has detergent properties this may give rise to
much higher rates of heat transfer.

Types of Boiling:

Interface Evaporation:

In boiling liquids on a submerged surface it is found that the heat transfer coefficient
depends very much on the temperature difference between the hot surface and the
boiling liquid. NUKIYAMA who boiled water on an electrically heated wire first
presented the general relation between the temperature difference and heat transfer
coefficient. This relationship is complex and is best considered in stages.

In interface Evaporation, the bubbles of vapors formed on the heated surface move
to the vapor – liquid interface by natural convection and exert very little agitation on
the liquid. The results are given by:

Nu = 0.61 (Gr * Pr) ¼

Which may be compared with the expression for natural convection:

Nu = C’ (Gr * pr) n

Where n = 0.25 for streamline conditions and n = 0.33 for turbulent conditions.
 7

Nucleate Boiling:

At higher values of T the bubbles form more rapidly and form more centers of
nucleation. Under these conditions the bubbles exert an appreciable agitation on the
liquid and the heat transfer coefficient rises rapidly. This is the most important region
for boiling in industrial equipment.
Film Boiling:

With a sufficiently high value of T, the bubbles formed so rapidly that they cannot
get away from the hot surface, and they therefore form a blanket over the surface.
This means that the liquid is prevented from flowing on to the surface by the bubbles
of vapors and the coefficient falls. The maximum coefficient occurs during nucleate
boiling but in an unstable region for operation. In passing from the nucleate boiling
region to the film-boiling region, two critical changes occur in the process. The first
manifests in a decrease in the heat flux, the second are the prelude to stable film
boiling. The intermediate region is generally known as the transition region. It should
be noted that the first change in the process is an important hydrodynamic
phenomenon which is common to other two – phase systems, for example, flooding
in counter current gas – liquid or vapor – liquid system.

With very high values of T, the heat transfer coefficient rises again because of the
heat transfer by radiation. These very high values are rarely achieved in practice and
the aim will be to operate the plant at a temperature difference a little below the value
giving the maximum heat transfer coefficient.
 8

Heat Transfer Coefficients and Heat Flux:

The values of heat transfer coefficient for low values of temperatures difference have
been given by equation

Nu = 0.61 (Gr * Pr) ¼

The below figure shows the values of h and for q for water boiling on a submerged
surface. Whilst the actual values vary somewhat between observers, they all give a
maximum for a temperature difference of about 22 K. The maximum value of h is
about 50 kW/m2 K and the flux about 1100 kW/m2.

The below data for liquids boiling at atmospheric pressure show that the maximum
heat flux is much smaller with organic liquids than with water and the temperature
difference at this condition is rather higher. In practice the critical value of T may be
exceeded.

Critical T Maximum Flux

Liquid Surface
(K) (kW/m2)
Water Chromium 25 910
Ethanol – water
Chromium 29 595
50%
Ethanol Chromium 33 455
n - Butanol Chromium 44 455
iso - Butanol Nickel 44 370
Acetone Chromium 25 455
Iso – Propanol Chromium 33 340
Carbon – tetra
Copper - 180
Chloride
Benzene Copper - 170-230

The boiling phenomena can be distinctly divided into three regions.

 Natural Convection: This is simply the case of interface evaporation and occurs
at low temperature difference. In interface evaporation, the bubbles of vapor formed
on the heated surface move to the vapor liquid interface by natural convection and
exert very little agitation on the liquid.
 9

 Nucleate Boiling: At higher values of temperature difference the bubbles form

more rapidly and from more centers of nucleation. Under these conditions the
bubbles exert an appreciable agitation on the liquid and the heat transfer coefficient
rises rapidly. This is the most important region for boiling in industrial equipment.

 Film Boiling: With a sufficiently high value of T, the bubbles are formed so rapidly
that they cannot get away from the hot surface, and they therefore from a blanket
over the surface. This means that the liquid is prevented from flowing on to the
surface by the bubbles of vapor and the coefficient falls. The maximum coefficient
occurs during nucleate boiling but in an unstable region for operation.

The maximum heat flux obtained during the course of nucleate boiling is expressed
by empirical formula given by Zubber,

1/ 4
    l   v 
1/ 2
q  l 
    v  .g   
 A  max 24    v 
 l  v 
2

Where,
 latent heat of vaporization
l density of liquid
v density of vapor
 surface tension of vapor
 10

Boiling Heat Transfer

When a liquid at the saturation temperature is in contact with the surface of a solid
(usually a metal) at a higher temperature, heat is transferred to the liquid, and a phase
change (evaporation) of some of the liquid occurs. The nature and rate of this heat
transfer changes considerably as the temperature difference between the metal surface
and the liquid is increased.

Convective Boiling
When the metal surface is slightly hotter than the liquid, convective currents carry the
warmed liquid to the surface, and evaporation is largely at the surface with little ebullition
(turbulence).

Nucleate Boiling
As the metal surface temperature is increased, small bubbles of vapor appear on the
heating element surface. At first, some of these bubbles may collapse, giving up their
latent heat to the liquid. The rest of the bubbles rise to the surface where they burst and
release the vapor. As the temperature difference increases further, almost all of the
bubbles make it to the surface without condensing.

Surface tension in the liquid offers great resistance to the birth of a bubble. Initially the
bubbles form at nucleation sites on the surface where minute local cavities or gas
pockets exist. The ability of these vapor bubbles to form, expand, and rise to the surface
depends on the size of the surface cavity (note that for a given surface there is a unique
range or distribution of cavity sizes), the system pressure, the liquid vapor pressure and
surface tension, and the temperature difference between the heating element and the
liquid. The dependence of bubble formation on these variables can be seen by
combining a force balance on the gas-liquid interface of the bubble with the Clausius-
Clapeyron equation which you should recall from physical chemistry and
thermodynamics classes.

In full nucleate boiling, bubbles form vigorously with considerable turbulence. This action
leads to very high heat transfer rates. From an industrial point of view, this is by far the
most important and most used regime of boiling.
 11

Film Boiling
Above a critical surface-liquid temperature difference, the surface becomes “vapor-
locked” and the liquid is unable to wet the surface. When this happens, there is a
considerable reduction in the heat transfer rate. If the heat input to the metal is not
reduced to match the lower ability of the surface to transfer heat, the metal temperature
will rise until radiation heat transfer plus the limited film boiling heat transfer from the
surface is equal to the energy input. This condition can result in a failure or “burn-out.”
In this experiment, film boiling is reached and sustained for a limited period of time.

Heat flux
Q=V*I
Heat Flux = Q/ A

The heat transferred and the heat flux are calculated using the equations below.
Remember that Q is calculated in Watts. The exact dimensions of the heating element
will be required to calculate the area A. These dimensions are indicted on the experiment
casing.
h = Q / (A * ΔT)
The heat transfer coefficient (h) is then given by

Zuber and Tribus Correlation

Brock and Bird Method for Computing Surface Tension (σ)

 12

BOILING (VAPORIZATION) OF LIQUIDS

Boiling Mechanisms Vaporization of liquids may result from various mechanisms of

heat transfer, singly or combinations thereof.

For example, vaporization may occur as a result of heat absorbed, by radiation and
convection, at the surface of a pool of liquid; or as a result of heat absorbed by natural
convection from a hot wall beneath the disengaging surface, in which case the
vaporization takes place when the superheated liquid reaches the pool surface.
Vaporization also occurs from falling films (the reverse of condensation) or from the
flashing of liquids superheated by forced convection under pressure.

Pool boiling refers to the type of boiling experienced when the heating surface is
surrounded by a relatively large body of fluid which is not flowing at any appreciable
velocity and is agitated only by the motion of the bubbles and by natural-convection
currents. Two types of pool boiling are possible: sub cooled pool boiling, in which the
bulk fluid temperature is below the saturation temperature, resulting in collapse of the
bubbles before they reach the surface, and saturated pool boiling, with bulk temperature
equal to saturation temperature, resulting in net vapor generation.

The general shape of the curve relating the heat-transfer coefficient to Dtb, the
temperature driving force (difference between the wall temperature and the bulk fluid
temperature) is one of the few parametric relations that are reasonably well understood.
The familiar boiling curve was originally demonstrated experimentally by Nukiyama [J.
Soc. Mech. Eng. (Japan), 37, 367 (1934)]. This curve points out one of the great
dilemmas for boiling-equipment designers. They are faced with at least six heat-transfer
regimes in pool boiling: natural convection (+), incipient nucleate boiling (+), nucleate
boiling (+), transition to film boiling (-), stable film boiling (+), and film boiling with
increasing radiation (+). The signs indicate the sign of the derivative d(q/A)/d Dtb. In the
transition to film boiling, heat-transfer rate decreases with driving force. The regimes of
greatest commercial interest are the nucleate-boiling and stable-film-boiling regimes.
 13

Heat transfer by nucleate boiling is an important mechanism in the vaporization of

liquids. It occurs in the vaporization of liquids in kettle-type and natural-circulation
reboilers commonly used in the process industries. High rates of heat transfer per unit
of area (heat flux) are obtained as a result of bubble formation at the liquid-solid interface
rather than from mechanical devices external to the heat exchanger. There are available
several expressions from which reasonable values of the film coefficients may be
obtained.

The boiling curve, particularly in the nucleate-boiling region, is significantly affected by

the temperature driving force, the total system pressure, the nature of the boiling surface,
the geometry of the system, and the properties of the boiling material. In the nucleate-
boiling regime, heat flux is approximately proportional to the cube of the temperature
riving force. Designers in addition must know the minimum t (the point at which nucleate
boiling begins), the critical Dt (the Dt bove which transition boiling begins), and the
maximum heat flux (the eat flux corresponding to the critical Dt). For designers who do
not ave experimental data available, the following equations may be used.
 14

BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

EXPERIMENTAL MANUAL
Aim:
To observe a boiling phenomenon and to determine the heat flux and surface heat
transfer coefficient as a function of the temperature excess at constant pressure.
Procedure:
 Check all the electrical connections and fill the glass water bath with tap water to
almost 1/3 height, so that thermocouple is dipped in the bath.
 Fix Heater between the test heater connections and dip it into the water bath filled
with cold (ambient temperature) water.
 Switch on the bulk heater and observe the rise in temperature with the
thermocouple immersed in the bath.
 Carefully watches the liquid surrounding the heating element.
 Convection current will be observed and at the same time, liquid will be seen to
collect on the condenser coils, indicating that evaporation is proceeding at a low
rate.
 Now switch on the test heater, slowly increase the voltage across the test heater
in increments of around 15 watts and note the corresponding value of the current.
Adjust the power output to 100 – 150 watts.
 Observe the surface temperature of the heating element and the liquid
temperature at each increment.
 Nucleate boiling will be seen, and as the power input is increased, vigorous boiling
will occur. The temperature difference between the liquid and the heating element
surface at this point would be below 70OC.
 Increase the power in smaller increments and observe the liquid to heating and
75OC, the temperature of the heating element will rise quickly. This indicates that
film boiling occurring.
 At this point watch the temperature closely. As it approaches 100OC, reduce the
electrical power input to about 100 watts.
 Switch off the heater after the desired temperature (about 90oC) is reached.
 When film boiling occurs, the rate of evaporation falls to a low level. Observation
of the heater surface will show that it is now enveloped in an almost unbroken film
of vapor.
 Observe the boiling phenomena at the surface of the heater and when pool boiling
becomes predominant, slowly increase the power to the test heater and
simultaneously note down the temperature, Voltmeter, Ammeter readings also.
 15

Precautions:
 Keep the voltage regulator to 0 Watt position before switching on the main switch.
 Increase the Voltage gradually of the heater during initial set-up experimentation.
Never use the heater at full wattage for longer period of time.

Observation Table:

Sr. No.
Time min.
Nucleate/
Boiling
Film/
Phenomena
Pool
Condensation Drop wise/
Phenomena Film wise
Voltage
Volt
V
Current
Amp.
I
Heat Supplied
Watt
Q=V*I
Water
T1
Bath
Coil
T2
Surface
Coil o
C
Water T3
Inlet
Coil
Water T4
Outlet
Heat supplied
per unit Area w/m2
q/A
Cooling Water
Flow Rate LPM
QC
Heat Transfer
coefficient w/m2 OC
h
 16

Observation:

Length of Coil (L) LC = 500 mm

Diameter of Coil (d) dC = 10 mm
Area of Coil (A = 𝜋dL) AC = 0.0157 m2
Density of water at test temp. L = 958.4 kg/m3
Density of vapor at test temp. V = 0.59 kg/ m3
Latent heat of water  = 2257 kJ/ kg
Surface tension of vapor  = 0.0589N/m

Calculation:

1. Q = V * I
=
=
2. Heat Flux (Q/ A) =
=
=

3. Q = mw*Cp* (T6-T4)
=
= Watts

Where,
Cp = Specific Heat of water = 4.2 X 103 J/Kg K
Experimental heat transfer coefficient,
h = Q / A (Ts-Tw) W/m2 oC (For both film wise and drop wise condensation)
=
=
=
Where,
Ts = Temperature of Steam (T2)
Tw = Condenser wall temperature (T2 or T3)

Theoretically, for film wise condensation

 17

h = 0.943 [hfg *  2* g * k3 / (Ts -Tw) * µ * L]0.25

=
=
=
Where,
hfg = Latent heat of steam at Ts J/kg (Take from temperature tables in steam tables)
 = Density of water, kg/m3
g = Gravitational acceleration, m/sec2
k = Thermal conductivity of water W/m oC
µ = Viscosity of water, N.s/m2
L = Length of condenser = 500 mm = 0.5 m
Above values at mean temperature, Tm = (Ts + Tw) / 2

(For drop wise condensation, determine experimental heat transfer coefficient only)

Results:
Film wise condensation
Experimental average heat transfer coefficient =
Theoretical average heat transfer coefficient =

Drop wise condensation

Experimental average heat transfer coefficient =

Conclusion:

4.
qc = 0.131 λ [𝜎 g 9 (  1 -  v)  v2] (1/4)

4. h = 0.00122 [Kl0.79 Cl 0.45  l 0.49) / (𝜎 0.50  c 0.29 λ 0.24  v 0.24)] (Tw-Ts)0.24

Result:
 18

Sample Calculations:

Observation Table:

Sr. No.
Time min.
Nucleate/
Boiling
Film/
Phenomena
Pool
Condensation Drop wise/
Phenomena Film wise
Voltage
Volt 50.5
V
Current
Amp. 1.95
I
Heat Supplied
Watt 98.47
Q=V*I
Water
T1 25
Bath
Coil
T2 85
Surface
Coil o
C
Water T3 28
Inlet
Coil
Water T4 55
Outlet
Heat supplied
per unit Area w/m2 6272.29
q/A
Cooling Water
Flow Rate LPM 2
QC
Heat Transfer
coefficient w/m2 OC 1.53
h
 19

Observation:

Length of Coil (L) LC = 500 mm

Diameter of Coil (d) dC = 10 mm
Area of Coil (A = 𝜋dL) AC = 0.0157 m2
Density of water at test temp. l = 958.4 kg/m3
Density of vapor at test temp. v = 0.59 kg/ m3

Latent heat of water  = 2257 kJ/ kg

Surface tension of vapor  = 0.0589N/m

Calculation:

1. Q = V * I
= 50.5 * 1.95
= 98.47

2. Heat Flux (Q/ A) = 98.47 / 0.0157

= 6271.97

3. Q = mw*Cp* (T4-T3)
= 2 * 4.2 X 103 * (55 -28)
= 226.8 KW
Where,
Cp = Specific Heat of water = 4.2 X 103 J/Kg K
Film wise condensation
Experimental heat transfer coefficient,
h = Q / A (Ts-Tw) W/m2 oC (For both film wise and drop wise condensation)
= 226.8 / (85 - 25)
h = 3.78 KW
Where,
Ts = Temperature of Steam (T2)
Tw = Condenser wall temperature (T1)
 20

Theoretically, for film wise condensation

h = 0.943 [ hfg *  2* g * k3 / (Ts -Tw) * µ * L]0.25
= 0.943 [ 221.65 * (958.4)2 * 1.98 * (0.016)3 / (85 - 25) * 0.5036 * 0.5]0.25
h = 1.53 w/m2 OC
Where,
hfg = Latent heat of steam at Ts J/kg (Take from temperature tables in steam tables)
 = Density of water, kg/m3
g = Gravitational acceleration, m/sec2
k = Thermal conductivity of water W/m oC
µ = Viscosity of water, N.s/m2
L = Length of condenser = 500 mm = 0.5 m
Above values at mean temperature, Tm = (Ts + Tw) / 2 which is 55 oC

(For drop wise condensation, determine experimental heat transfer coefficient only)

Results:
Film wise condensation
Experimental average heat transfer coefficient = 3.78 KW
Theoretical average heat transfer coefficient = 1.53 w/m2 OC

Drop wise condensation

Experimental average heat transfer coefficient = 3.78 KW

Conclusion: