Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Weirs:
A comprehensive literature survey has been done pertaining to the
flow behavior of normal and side weirs; majority of these studies have
been reviewed in this chapter.

2.1.1 Normal Weirs:

Kandaswamy and Rouse (1975) was the first to provide the following
equation for the discharge Q over a normal weir:

2
Q = C d Lh 2 gh ...2.1
3

where C d = discharge coefficient; L = length of weir ; g= gravitational

acceleration ; and h = head above crest.

Bezin & Rehboc (1929) gave the following equation for discharge
coefficient:

C d = 0.6075 + 0.334[h/(h+w)] ...2.2

where w = height of the weir in question.

Frazer & Rehbock (1930) presented the following equation for

discharge coefficient:

C d = 0.615 + 0.338[h/(h + w)] 2 ...2.3

Swiss Society for Engineers and Architects, Rehbock proposed the

following equations for C d :

C d = 0.615 + 0.308[h/(h+w)] 2 ...2.4

Rehbock (1929) proposed the following formula for C d :

C d = 0.605 + 0.08 h/w ...2.5

Kandaswamy and Rouse (1975) proposed following equations for

weir and sill range respectively:

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

C d = 0.61 + 0.08h/w ; for 0 < h/w < 6 ...2.6

C d = 1.06[1 + w/h] 3 / 2 ; for 0 < w/h < 0.6 ...2.7

Govinda Rao and Muralidhar (1962) have conducted analysis of

experimental data on rectangular and triangular notch weirs and have
successfully established the curve between C d and wetted perimeter.

Smith and Liang (1969) carried out experimental study on

triangular broad crested weir and gave a plot of discharge coefficient Vs
H/L, in which, H in Head above crest and L is the length of broad crested
weir. This set of experiments proved vital in further studies.

Srinivasalu and Raghavendran (1970) proposed proportional weir with

parabolic bottom. An average discharge coefficient as obtained by them is
0.63. The profile obtained by the investigators is as shown in Fig.2.1. The
parabolic bottom remained to be analysed.

Rao and Shukla (1971) have established following equations for the
discharge coefficient for weir of rectangular cross section of finite crest
width as

h h
Cd = 0.482 + 0.02  ; For   = 0.08 ...2.8a
 p B

h h
Cd = 0.527 + 0.049  ; For   = 1.0 ...2.8b
 p B

h h
Cd = 0.578 + 0.061 ; For   = 1.6 ...2.8c
 p B

h h
Cd = 0.611 + 0.08  ; For   > 1.6 ...2.8d
 p B

where h = head over weir; p = weir height; B = weir width.

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

Fig. 2.1 Proportional Weir with Parabolic Base (Shrinivasalu et al.1970)

Chandrasekaran and Lakshmana Rao (1984) designed and carried out
experimental study on proportional weirs with a segment of a circle at
bottom and reported that circular bottom does not affect the value of the
coefficient of discharge.

Keshava Murthy and Pillai (1986) have designed linear proportional

weirs having compound base weir. The discharge coefficient is varying
from 0.625 to 0.631. Further, they have shown that C d increases as W/a
decreases for rectangular base weirs and the discharge coefficient has
minor variation with respect to head for quite a large range of head (0.15 ≤
H c / P ≤ 2.5).

Boiten and Pitlo (1982) have derived the head discharge relations
for different shapes of broad crested V-weir under free flow as well as
submerged flow conditions. In their study they have shown that C d
increases with h/l ratio with the increase in angle of V-notch.

Mansur, (1999) obtained the following equation in terms of

channel width to weir length ratio and head to weir height ratio for the

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

experimental values of Kindswater and Carter (1957) as

0.7 1.46
B  B 
0.611 + 2.23  -1  0.075 - 0.011  -1 
b  b  h ...2.9
Cd = 0.7
+ 1.46  w 
B  B 
1 + 3.8  -1  1 + 4.8  -1 
b  b 

Swamee (1988) obtained the following full range equation for sharp
crested weirs using the experimental data of Kandaswamy and Rouse
(1975):
-0.1
  14.14 w 10  h 15 
C d = 1.06    +   ...2.10
  8.15 w + h   h + w  

Swamee (1998) obtained the following expression for discharge

coefficient based on the experimental data on broad crested weir by
Govinda Rao and Muralidhar (1962).

Long Crested weir:

0.5
h h
Cd =0.5 + 0.1  ;   ≤ 0.1 ; ...2.11a
L L

Broad Crested Weir:

0.2
h h
Cd = 0.5 + 0.05   ; 0.1 ≤   ≤ 0.4 ; ...2.11b
L L

Narrow Crested Weir:

h h
C d = Cd = 0.5 + 0.11 ; 0.4 ≤   ≤ 1.5 ...2.11c
L L

Also gave full range equation to all types of rectangular weirs as

10 15
 1.140w   h 
Cd = 1.06   + 
 8.15w + h   h + w 
−10
   h 5 13 0.1 
 
0.1

  h
   + 1500    

  L L   
+ 1834 1 + 0.2   3    ...2.12
  1 + 1000 h    
    
   
L  

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

Keshava Murthy and Giridhar (1989) proposed a simple geometrical

weir called inverted-V-notch or inward trapezium as a practical
proportional weir. They gave an equation for discharge as follows.

Q =0.448 LW 2Cd 2 gd ( h − 0.0817 d ) ...2.13

for the head range of 0.22d ≤ h ≤ 0.94d and reported that average coefficient
of discharge as 0.61 with an indication error of ± 1.5%.

Keshava Murthy and Giridhar (1990) developed a linear head

discharge relationship for chimney weir of the form
1
Q = 0.5227 P 2
(H − 0.1112 P ) ; 0.2993 P ≤ H ≤ 3.3061P ...2.14

where P=p/W; H=h/W

in which p=height of trapezium; h=head above weir crest; W=half width of

weir crest; and reported that discharge coefficient varies from 0.6 to 0.61.

Swamee, P.K. et al.,(1994) proposed an equation for discharge for

the alternate linear weir by considering C d (=0.92), as

Q=0.166 π b 0 h

Q = 0.166π bo h gh* ; h ≥ hmin ...2.15

where h m i n is 4h * ;h * = length parameter, b 0 = weir base width, h=head over

weir crest and g= gravitational acceleration.

Ramamurthy and Vo Ngoc-Diep (1993) have shown that C d

increases with the increase in downstream slope ( β ) for circular crested
weir, whereas any change in upstream slope does not alter C d (See
Fig.2.2).

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Fig.2.2 Effect of Downstream Slope β On C d – (0<H 1 /R ≤ 25) (Ramamurthy

and Vo Ngoc-Diep.1993)

Chatterjee, et al., (2002) carried out experimental investigation for

chimney weir under submergence for different half vertex angle and half
crest width and found that the influence of w/y o is more than L/B on
discharge coefficient.

Jalili and Borghei (1999) have proposed the equation for discharge
coefficient for weirs in sub critical flow condition as

C d = 0.71-0.41F 0 - 0.22w/y 0 ...2.16

and pointed out that w/y 0 is an influential parameter, and as w/y 0 increases,
the outflow discharge decreases; hence w/y 0 should appear in the formula
with a negative sign.

Udaysimha, et al., (2000) investigated the effect of crest height and

width of IVN on coefficient of discharge using equation of discharge by
Murthy, Giridhar (1989). He reported that IVN attain a coefficient of
discharge of 0.59 to 0.60 for the range of widths and heights investigated
by them.

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

2.1.2 Side weir:

Flow through a channel having a side weir is in essence a spatially

varied flow problem. For a frictionless rectangular channel of bed width
B, the governing differential equation is

dy yQ dQ
= 2 2 3
...2.17
dx Q − gB y dx

where y = flow depth; and x = distance along the flow direction.

De Marchi (Henderson 1964) considered the following equation for

the discharge rate

dQ 2
= − C d ( y − w) 2 g ( y − w) ...2.18
dx 3

Further, using the following discharge equation expressed in terms of

specific energy E

Q = By 2 g ( E − y ) ...2.19

and using the above equation for dQ/dx, De Marchi Henderson (1964)
obtained the following differential equation:

dy 4 Cd ( E − y)( y − w)3
=− ...2.20
dx 3 B 2E − 3 y

Integrating between limits x = 0 and x = L, yielded the following solution:

2 E - 3w E - Ya E - Ya 2 E - 3w E - YO E - YO 2 Cd L
- 3sin -1 = - 3sin -1 + ...2.21
E - w Ya - w Ya - w E - w YO - w YO - w 3 B

where suffixes 0 and a denote the upstream and downstream ends of side
weir. Knowing Q 0 and Y 0 at the upstream end of side weir, Y a can be
obtained by trial and error and the discharge, Q a can be obtained. Thus, the
discharge over the side weir

Q = Q0 - Qa ...2.22

Q0
F0 = ...2.23
B. gy 3

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Subramanya and Awasthy (1972) conducted experiments in a

rectangular channel with horizontal bed and related C d with the upstream
Froude number as:

C d = 0.864 (1-F02 )/(2+F02 ) ; for F o < 0.8 ...2.24a

C d = 0.36 - 0.08F 0 ; for F o > 2.0 ...2.24b

Yu-Tek proposed the following relationship for C d :

C d = 0.622 - 0.222F 0 ...2.25

Nadesamoorthy and Thomson (1972) obtained the following

equation for C d :

Cd = 0.432 (2 − Fo2 ) / (1 + 2Fo2 ) ...2.26

Ranga Raju, et al., (1979) gave the following equation for C d for
side weir in rectangular channel.

 Y -W   y −W 
Cd = ( 0.81 − 0.6 Fo )  0.80 − 0.1 1  ; for  1  2.0 ...2.27
 L   L 

Where F 0 = u/s Froude number

Y 1 = flow depth in main channel at u/s end of weir

W = height of weir

L = length of weir crest.

Ranga Raju, et al., (1984) gave the following equation for C d :

C d = 0.54 - 0.4F 0 ...2.28

Uyumaz, Muslu (1985) based on the investigations of flow over

sharp edged side weirs in circular channels, proposed the following
equations for C d .

For sub critical regime:

 L   L 
Cd =0.21 + 0.094 1.75 − 1  + 0.22 − 0.08 1.68 − 1  1 − F1 ...2.29a
 D   D 

For supercritical regime:

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

 L   L 
Cd =0.046 + 0.0054 1.67 − 1  F1 + 0.24 + 0.021 1 + 35.3  ...2.29b
 D   D 

Singh, et. al. related C d with F o , Y 0 and w as :

C d = 0.33 - 0.18F 0 + 0.49w/Y 0 ...2.30

For a rectangular side weir with w = 0, Hager related C d with F 0 as:

(2 − F02 )
Cd = 0.485 ...2.31
(2 + 3F02 )

Kumar and Pathak (1987) have studied the discharge characteristics

of sharp and broad crested triangular side weirs of angles 60 o , 90 0 and
120 0 . Based on experimental investigation following equations have been
proposed.

Sharp crested weir of apex angle 60 0 :

Q = 0.5908C 2g tan θ /2 h 5 / 2 ...2.32a

Broad crested weir of apex angle 120 0 :

5
 h θ 2
Q = Q =0.5566  0.80 + 0.10  C 2 g tan h ...2.32b
 L 2

in which

θ θ  θ θ
C = 0.811 − 0.321tan +0.129tan 2 -  0.695-0.638tan +0.150tan 2  F ...2.32c
2 2  2 2
Cheong proposed the following equation for C d for a trapezoidal
main channel:

C d = 0.45 - 0.22 F02 ...2.33

Swamee et al., (1994) considered the variation of flow depth along

the side weir and introduced the concept of elementary discharge
coefficient, C e , i.e. the discharge coefficient for the element of length dx.
Swamee, et al., (2000) gave the following equation for C e for sharp crested
weirs as

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

-0.15
 44.7 6.67  h 6.67 
C e = 0.447   +
w
  ...2.34
 50+h w   h w +1  

Where ηw = (y-w)/w in which y = flow depth; w = weir height.

Borghei, et al., (1999) conducted experiments on sharp crested side

weir in sub critical flow in rectangular channel and related C d with the
variables F o , w/y 0 , L/B and S o . They proposed the first order polynomial
equation for discharge coefficient as

C d = 0.7 - 0.48F 0 - 0.3w/y 0 + 0.06L/B ...2.35

2.1.3 Skew Weir:

For a round crested skew weir, Aichel O.G. (1953) used the
equation for normal weir for computing the discharge and gave a table
relating the discharge coefficient of a skew weir to the discharge
coefficient of a normal weir. The tabular values can be converted to the
following equation:

 1 h
C d = 1 − 1.17  (Cd )e= π ...2.36
 1 + 3.7Q w  2

where θ = 2 θ / ( π -2 θ ). It is clear from the above equation that C d

increases with the increase in θ .

Considering the importance of existing broad crested skew weirs in

the field (Near Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India), Ganapathy, et al., (1964)
conducted experimental study and gave curves (See Fig.2.3) for C d versus
h with θ as third parameter, which are in conformity with the findings of
Aichel O. G. (1953).

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

Fig.2.3 Variation of C d with h (Ganapathy et al.1964)

Mohapatra P. K. (1964) presented an approach similar to Aichel O.

G. (1953) to determine the discharge coefficient for a rectangular sharp
crested skew terminal weir (weir followed by an outfall) and found that the
discharge coefficient of skew terminal weir is greater than the
corresponding discharge coefficient of skew weir.

Muralidhar D, (1965) conducted experiments on broad crested skew

weirs with θ = π /12, π /6, π /4, π /3 and 5 π /12 for 0.2066 ≤ h/w ≤ 0.902. He
considered the following discharge equation for a skew weir:
3/ 2
2  yF02 
Q = Cd Lh 2 gh 1 +  ...2.37
3  2h 

The experimental results were presented in the form of C d /(C d ) θ =

π/12 versus h/c curves with θ as third parameter, where c = crest width.
These curves adhere to the following equation:

 0.4 + 1.73Q c 0.2 + 1.7Q2 h 

Cd =  + 2  (Cd )θ = π ...2.38
 1 + 1.73Q c + h 1 + 1.7Q h + C  2

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

Jain S C, Fischer (1982) designed a skew side weir, i.e. a side weir
with its crest oblique to the approach flow, to obtain almost uniform
discharge distribution over it by proper reduction in the width of channel.
For a side weir discharge Q, the reduced channel width B r was obtained as:

Q -Q 
Br =  0 B ...2.39
 Q0 

2.1.4 Multifold Skew Weir:

A combination of skew weirs may be defined as multifold skew

weirs. Labyrinth weir is an example of a multifold skew weir.

Hay and Taylor (1970) studied various types of labyrinth weirs and
presented the results in the form of curves between the ratio of discharge
over labyrinth weir to corresponding normal weir and h/w.

Tullis, et al., (1995) studied labyrinth weirs having trapezoidal plan

forms with θ ranging from π /30 to 7 π /36 and presented the results in the
form of curves between C d and E/w with θ as third parameter.

2.1.5 Inclined Weir:

The papers published in journals mainly pertain to normal weir,

side weir, Skew weir and Multifold Skew weirs. Not enough work is
traceable in the literature on inclined weirs. Inclined weirs exhibit a
plethora of new characteristics which are yet to be studied and categorized.
Hence the present work is a leap in this area and sheds light on improving
discharge coefficient of geometrically simple but inclined weirs in
rectangular channels. Simple profiles have been considered in this work
because they can be fabricated easily and the mathematical model can be
built with simpler analytical methods.

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

2.2 Sluice Gate:

The review pertains to normal sluice gates, side sluice gates and
skew sluice gates.

2.2.1 Normal Sluice Gate:

The conventional sluice gate discharge equation is written as

Q = Cd aL 2 gy ...2.40

where a = gate opening; L=gate length; y=flow depth

Zohrab, S and Henry, M. (2000) gave C d versus y/a curves with y t /a

as third parameter, where Y t = tail water depth (See Fig.2.4 ).

Rajaratnam, N., and Subramanya, K.(1967) confirmed the findings of

Zohrab, S and Henry, M. (2000).

Swamee, P.K., et al., (1998) gave the following equations for

Henry’s curves for free and submerged flow respectively:
0.072
 y-a 
Cd = 0.611   ...2.41a
 y+15a 
-1
 y-a 
0.072   0.72

0.7

0.7   yt  0.7 
Cd = 0.611   ( y-yf )  0.32  0.81y t  -y  + ( y-y t )  ...2.41b
 y+15a    a  

Ramamurthy, et al., (1978) through the limited experimental

investigation showed that the discharge coefficient C d increases (up to 1.5)
with an increase in Reynolds number for all values of d/a (range of R
studied is between 1.6x10 4 and 6.6x10 5 ) when cylindrical lip was attached
to the bottom of sluice gate. Where ‘d’ is the dia. of cylindrical lip and
‘a’ is the gate opening.

Swamee, P.K. et al., (1988) based on his experimental investigation

on rectangular slots, proposed a generalised flow equation as

2   a 1.5 
Q =   Cd bh 2 gh 1 −  1 −  U ( h − a )  ...2.42a
3   h  
where C d = discharge coefficient given by

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

1
 k ( h − a ) U ( h − a ) Cd + a C n  n
m m

 g dw 
...2.42b
 m
k (h − a) U (h − a) + a m 
 

wherein k, m and n = constants to be determined experimentally ; U = unit

step function; a=sluice gate opening ; b=gate length; g=gravitational
acceleration; h= operating head and C d g = gate discharge coefficient; C d w
= weir discharge coefficient.

Fig.2.4 Discharge Characteristics of Normal Sluice Gate.(Zohrab, S and

Henry, M.2000)

2.2.2 Side Sluice Gate:

Panda and Tanwar ( ) related the discharge coefficient to the

Froude number, the ratio of flow depth to the side sluice gate opening, and
the ratio of tail water depth to the side sluice gate opening. Panda studied
velocity distribution and water surface profile in main and side channels
under free and submerged flow conditions.

Mansoor, (1999) obtained experimental curves for C d , which is a

similar to Henry’s curve. Hager W H, Volkart P U (1986) proposed the

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following equation for discharge variation along the side sluice gate for a
prismatic rectangular channel with nearly horizontal bed
0 .5
dQ a  2g 
=
E  3 (4 E − 3 y ) 

dx
...2.43

in which a=gate opening; E=specific energy; y=flow depth;

g=gravitational acceleration; dQ/dx = discharge variation along the channel
length.

Using the concept of elementary discharge coefficient, C e , Swamee,

et al., (1991) gave the following equations for free and submerged flow
respectively:
0.216
 y−a
Cd = 0.611  ...2.44a
 y +a
-1
   yt   
0.67

0.216 
 y−a   2.5 yt  a  − y  
 
Ce = 0.611  1 + 0.24    ...2.44b
 y + a    y − yt  
   
 

Curves of C e are depicted in Fig.2.5

2.2.3 Skew Sluice Gate:

Swamee, et al.,(1993) using the functional form of C e as proposed by

Swamee for free and submerged flow conditions through a sharp crested
side sluice gate respectively as (See Fig:2.5)
k1
 y−a 
C e = k 0 Ce = ko   ...2.45a
 y + ka 
-k 7
  k5
 6
k
 y 
k   k 4 y t   -y  
t
 y-a  2   a  
And Ce = ko   1+k 3   
...2.45b
 y+k1a   y-y t
  
   

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

Fig.2.5 Discharge Characteristics of Side Sluice Gate (Swamee et al.,

1993)

and using fourth order Runge Kutta method subjected to the initial
condition, by trial and error, the constants k 0 through k 7 are determined.
The variation of C e against y/a is plotted with y t /a as a third parameter.
Fig.2.6 shows one such graph drawn for skew angle, θ = π /4.

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Fig. 2.6 Variation of C e with Y/A And Y t /a for θ = π /4(Swamee et

al., 1993)
2.2.4 Inclined Sluice Gate:

The review of literature failed to find any published work on

inclined sluice gate.

2.3 Concluding Remarks:

The reported literature on weirs mainly relates to broad crested
weirs and no substantial work has been reported in publication on sharp
crested weirs. It also reveals that no attempt is made on inclined sluice
gates by earlier investigators. This review clearly presents the fact that
inclined weirs have not been studied let alone implemented. This
emphasizes the importance of the present study. The work proposes to
design, implement and analyze inclined weirs with different profiles.

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Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

Manipal University, Manipal Page 24

Design and Analysis of Flow over Inclined weirs in Rectangular Open Channels

Manipal University, Manipal Page 25