Numizmaticka Skripta

http://vcrc.austincollege.
edu/search/
ODLIČNA USA http://numismatics.org/search/
XLS prepoynavanje http://www.forumancientcoins.com/dane/
WILD WIND http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/search.html
REPUBLIKA poi menu http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/rsc/i.html
REpublika sa sl I cenama I deo imperije http://davy.potdevin.free.fr/Site/home.html
CAPITALIS MONUMENTALIS LETTERING
Roman Imperial coin inscriptional letter forms are based on those of CAPITALIS MONUMENTALIS employed by stone cutters for edifices,
monuments, tombstones, etc. A fine extant example is found on Trajan's column in Rome and the essential constructs of these letter forms are the
models for all Majuscule (Capital) alphabets used in the western world. Stone cutters in particular still employ their distinctive proportions and
terminating serifs. It should be noted that only twenty letters were normally used in the ancient Roman alphabet: A B C D E F G H I L M N O P Q R S T
V X. Our modern J and U were not used, their equivalents being I and V respectively. Thus, our modern JULIUS was written IVLIVS. The letter K was
seldom used and then only before A. The letters Y and Z were only used when reproducing Greek words. W was not part of the ancient Roman
alphabet at all. It was Medieval scribes who formalized the construction models for the letters J K U W Y Z.
There are numerous excellent photographs of actual CAPITALIS MONUMENTALIS lettering (including that on Trajan's column) mostly
accompanied by location information, translations and analyses, at Bill Thayer's Latin Inscriptions section of his LacusCurtius web site
RIC Vol. II, TRAJAN, SESTERTIUS, Rome, No. 534, 98-117AD, (35mm, 22.6gm)
Obverse depiction: Trajan, head facing right, wearing aegis
Inscription: IMP CAES NERVAE TRIANO AVG GER DAC PM TRP COS V PP
Reverse depiction: Trajan galloping on horseback spearing a fallen Dacian soldier
Inscription: SPQR OPTIMO PRINCIPI - in exergue S C
Although in general the inscriptional letter forms employed by Roman Imperial coin die engravers, particularly those of the early Empire,
closely follow CAPITALIS MONUMENTALIS letter forms there are some subtle differences, mostly resulting from the limited space available on coins
for inscriptional lettering. Most notably, they were modified to produce closer spacing and a compaction of the wide letters C O Q and M resulting in
more uniform and "square" lettering. The essential letter form constructs were closely followed for coins of the early to mid Empire who's inscriptions are
generally stately and elegant: E and F have equal length horizontal bars; A has a sharp apex; V has a sharp junction; the bowls of B P R S are always
nicely formed. P is frequently rendered on Imperial coins with an open bowl, i.e. not touching the vertical stem at the bottom - especially on coins of the
early Empire.
Adaptation of Capitalis Monumentalis Letter forms by Coin Die Engravers
The coin die engravers used a selection of chisels (burins), stamps and punches -- the quality of the lettering may therefor have depended to
some extent on the skill of the tool makers. The size of the planchet and the quality of the coin metal would also be determining factors. Certainly
blundered letters did occur as evidenced by the S in CAES and COS on the following almost mint state Quadrans of Claudius. Rendering well
proportioned and constructed Capital Roman lettering has always demanded considerable skill and it seems there has always existed a disparity of
skills among the craftsmen who executed them -- regardless of the tools and media employed.
CLAUDIUS, RIC Volume I, No. 88
Examples of early Roman Empire coin lettering

Go to this page for detailed information relating to reading and attributing these coins
References:
 EXPLICATIO FORMARUM LITTERARUM (The Unfolding of Letter forms), Rutherford Aris, The Calligraphy Connection, St. Paul
(1990)
 ROMAN LETTER FORMS (How to Render), Tommy Thompson, Holme Press, (1946)
 WRITING & ILLUMINATING & LETTERING, Edward Johnston, Pitman Publishing (various Publishers), Bath, (1973-various
dates)
 LETTERING, Graily Hewitt, Seely, Service & Co. Ltd. (various Publishers), London, (1930-various dates)
TASTATURE https://www.cointalk.com/threads/ancient-coin-visual-
keyboard-update-old-italic.327306/
NAUKA O PISANJU http://guindo.pntic.mec.es/jmag0042/LATIN_PALEOGRAPHY.pdf
READING ANCIENT ROMAN COINS
by Michael S. Swoveland
In setting out to write this article, I have the modest goal of helping new
collectors of Roman Imperial coins to interpret the inscriptions on their coins. I must
state at the outset that there will be nothing new here, I travel the well marked path of
the great numismatists who have gone before me. The two who have had the greatest
influence on me have been David R. Sear and Zander H. Klawans. Reading and Dating
Roman Imperial Coins by Zander Klawans has been the starting point for more Roman
collectors than perhaps any other book of the last half century and the fact that it is
still in print is a testament to it's value.
Many new collectors and even advanced students of Latin shy away from
attempting to decipher the seemingly cryptic inscriptions found on most Roman coins.
The reason for this initial apprehension is that the ancient Romans were excessive
abbreviators and that the legends were run together without stops or breaks. However,
by learning less than a dozen abbreviations and developing a familiarity with that
names used on Imperial coins the collector can easily attribute most coins that he will
encounter (provided the inscriptions are legible). First we will look at the meaning of
the more common abbreviations and then examine the names of the emperors as they
appear on the coins.
ABBREVIATIONS
The ancient Romans were great lovers of titles. In order to fit the many titles of
an emperor on a medium as small as a coin, it proved necessary to abbreviate those
titles heavily. Often a title of several words will be trimmed to just a few letters. In the
table below I have listed the most commonly encountered titles and briefly explained
their meaning. While some of the following titles may sometimes appear on the reverse
of coins, generally reverse inscriptions are beyond the scope of this article.
IMP IMPERATOR - Emperor.
AUGUSTUS - The name of the first emperor bestowed upon

him by the Senate in 27 BC. It became a title for all successive
AVG
emperors. During the later empire, senior emperors were called the
"Augustus" while junior emperors were the "Caesar."
CAESAR - The family name of the first imperial dynasty, it

became a title used by later emperors. During the later empire,
CAES
senior emperors were called the "Augustus" while junior emperors
were the "Caesar."
PONTIFEX MAXIMUS - Highest priest of the Roman religion.

PM
This title once conferred was held for life.
TRP TRIBUNICIA POTESTATE - Tribune of the Roman people,

literally the representative of the people in the government. This
title was held for one year and is often followed by a numeral which
indicates which term as Tribune the emperor was then serving. It is
a useful tool in dating coins.
PP PATER PATRIAE - Father of his country.
CONSUL - The consuls was the chief magistrates of the

Roman government. Two were appointed each year. This title is
COS often followed by a numeral which indicates the number of times
the emperor had held this position. It is another useful tool in dating
coins.
CENSOR - A title often held for life. The Censor determined

CENS
the size of the Senate.
GERMANICUS, BRITANNICUS et cetera - Conqueror of the

GERM, BRIT, et cetera
Germans, Britons et cetera.
DN DOMINUS NOSTER - Our Lord.
NOB NOBILISSIMUS - Noble.
IVN JUNIOR - The younger.
PIVS, PF PIUS FELIX - Dutiful, patriotic.
FIL FILIUS - Son of...
OPT OPTIMO PRINCIPI - The greatest ruler.
VC VIR CLARISSIMUS - The most illustrious ruler.
SENATUS CONSULTUS - Usuailly appears on the reverse of

bronze coins of the early empire. Bronze coins were issued under
SC
the authority of the Senate while gold and silver was issued under
imperial authority.
EXAMPLES
The following examples will demonstrate how some of the above titles appear on
actual Roman coins.
Vespasian AE As issued AD 74
The inscription IMP CAESAR VESP AVG COS V CENS could be loosely
translated "The Emperor Caesar Vespasianus, Augustus, Consul for
the fifth time, Censor of the Roman people."
Trajan Decius AR Antoninianus issued AD 249-251

The inscription IMP CMQ TRAIANVS DECIVS AVG could be translated
"The Emperor Caius Messius Quintus Trajanus Decius, Augustus."
Constantine II AE3 issued AD 320-324
The inscription CONSTANTINVS IVN NOB C could be translated

"Constantine the Younger, Noble Prince, Caesar." This coin was issued while
Constantine was junior emperor (Caesar) under his father Constantine the Great, who
was the senior emperor (Augustus).
NAME TYPES
The Following table presents, in chronological order, the common name of the
emperors along with the manner in which they often appear on his coinage.
COMMON
NAME ON COINS:
NAME:
Augustus C CAESAR AVG
Tiberius TI CAESAR
Caligula C CAESAR
Claudius TI CLAVD CAES
Nero NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR
Galba SER GALBA
Otho M OTHO CAESAR
Vitellius A VITELLIVS
Vespasian CAES VESP
Titus T CAES
Domitian CAES DOMIT
Nerva NERVA CAES
Trajan NER TRAIANO
Hadrian TRAIANVS HADRIANUS
Antoninus Pius ANTONINVS PIVS
Marcus Aurelius AVRELIVS CAES
Commodus L AVREL COMMODVS
Pertinax P HELV PERTIN

Didius Julianus DID IVLIAN
Septimius Severus L SEPT SEV
Geta P SEPT GETA
Caracalla M AVR ANTONINVS
Elagabalus M AVR ANTONINVS
Severus Alexander ALEXANDER PIVS
Maximinus Thrax MAXIMINVS PIVS
Gordian I M ANT GORDIANVS
Gordian II M ANT GORDIANVS
Balbinus C D CAEL BALBINVS
Pupienus C M CLOD PVPIENVS
Gordian III M ANT GORDIANVS
Philip the Arab M IVL PHILIPPVS
Trajan Decius C M Q TRAIANVS DECIVS
Trebonianus Gallus VIB TREB GALLVS
Aemilian AEMILIANVS PIVS
Valerian VALERIANVS
Gallienus GALLIENVS
Postumus C POSTVMVS
Victorinus C VICTORINVS
Tetricus I C TETRICVS
Tetricus II ESV TETRICVS
Claudius Gothicus C CLAVDIVS
Aurelian C AVRELIANVS
Tacitus C M CL TACITVS
Florian C FLORIANVS
Probus C M AVR PROBVS
Carus CARVS
Numerian C NVMERIANVS
Carinus M AVR CARINVS
Diocletian DIOCLETIANVS
Maximianus C MAXIMIANVS
Constantius Chlorus C CONSTANTIVS
Galerius MAXIMIANVS
Flavius Severus FL VAL SEVERVS
Licinius I C LIC LICINNIVS
Licinius II VAL LICIN LICINIVS
Carausius CARAVSIVS
Allectus C ALLECTVS
Constantine I CONSTANTINVS
Crispus FL IVL CRISPVS
Constantine II CONSTANTINVS IVN

Constans CONSTANS
Constantius II CONSTANTIVS
Magnentius CAE MAGNENTIVS
Constantius Gallus CONSTANTIVS
Julian II CL IVLIANVS
Jovian IOVIANVS
Valentinian I VALENTINIANVS
Valens VALENS
Gratian GRATIANVS
Valentinian II VALENTINIANVS IVN
Theodosius THEODOSIVS
Magnus Maximus MAG MAXIMVS
Eugenius EVGENIVS
Arcadius ARCADIVS
Honorius HONORIVS
UNREADABLE COINS
Many Roman coins will have incomplete or unreadable legends, however it is still
possible to identify many of these coins. The Romans of the early imperial period were
know for their veristic portraiture and until about AD 250 most coins can be identified
by the style of the portrait alone. In fact many first century coins are so realistic that
emperors are portrayed with wrinkles, warts and even double chins. By the later
empire, artistic sensibilities had evolved to a more philosophical expression. It had
become fashionable to depict a representation of the emperor rather than a true
portrait and thus we rely more heavily on the inscriptions on the later imperial
coinage. As an aid in doing this I recommend Reading and Dating Roman Imperial
Coins by Zander H. Klawans.
2003 WNCCOINS.COM. All rights reserved.
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Common Roman Reverse Inscriptions with Translations.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
A....
ADVENT AVG (or AVGG) Arrival of the emperor or emperors.
Felicitations of the Roman people upon the
ADVENTVI AVG FELICISSIMO
return of the emperor.
AETERNAE MEMORIAE Eternal remembrance.
APOLLONI SANCTO Holy Apollo.
AR AD Arabia Adiabenius.
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B....
BEATA TRANQUILLITAS Blessed Peace.
BONO GENIO PII IMPERATORIS The good genius of the emperor.
BONUS EVENTUS Good events or happenings.
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C....
CERERI FRUGIF The fruit bearing Ceres.
CALRITAS REIPVB Brightness of the Republic.
CLEMENTIA TEMP Clemency of the emperor.
COLONIA BOSTRA Colony of Bostra (Arabia).
CONCORD AEQUIT Concord of Equity.
CONCORDIA AVG(G) Concord of the emperor or emperors.
CONCORD MILI or CONCORDIA Military concord or with the agreement of the
MILITVM army.
CONSERV VRB SUAE Conservator of Rome.
COMITI AVGG NN Retinue of emperors.
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D....
DACIA A country.
DEO VVLCANO The god Vulcan.
DIANA LVCIFERA Diana the bringer of light.
DIS GENITALIBVS For having children.
DOMINOR NOSTROR CAESS Caesars our lords.
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E....
A decree of the Senate bestowed for having
EX S C OB CIVES SERVATOS
saved the lives of citizens.
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F....
FECVND AVGUSTAE Fertility of the empress.
FEL TEMP REPARATIO Restoration of happy times.
FELICITAS AVGG NN Happiness of our emperors.
FELICITAS REIPUBLICAE Happiness of the Republic and its people.
FELIX ADVENT AVGG N N Happy arrival of both our emperors.
FIDES EXERC or FIDES
Fidelity (loyalty) of the soldiers or army.
EXERCITUM
FIDES MVTVA AVGG Mutual faith of our emperors.
FORT RED or FORTUNA REDVX Fortunate return of our emperor.
FORTVNAE REDVCI AVGG N N The fortunate return of our emperors.
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G....
GENIO ANTIOCHENI Genius of Antioch.
GENIO AVGG ET CAESARVM N
The genius of the emperors and our Caesars.
N
GENIO AVGUSTI or GENIO
The genius of the emperor.
IMPERATORIS
GENIO POP ROM The genius of the Roman people.
GENIVS SENATVS Genius of the Senate.
GERMANIA A province.
GLORIA NOVI SAECVLI The glory of the new age.
GLORIA ROMANORVM The glory of Rome.
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H....
HERCVLI VICTORI Hercules the victor.
HILARITAS AVG(G) Mirth or joy of our emperor (or emperors)
HOC SIGNO VICTOR ERIS By this sign shalt thou be the victor.
HONOS Honor
HONOS ET VIRTUS Honor and virtue.
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I....
INDVLGENTIA AVGG IN CARTH Indulgence of the emperor to Carthage.
Jupiter, conservator of our emperor (or
IOVI CONSERVATOR AVG(G) NN
emperors).
IOVI EXSVP Jove who excels in all things.
IOVI PROPVGNATORI Jupiter the defender.
IOVI STATORI Jupiter the stabilizer.
Vows to Jupiter by the senate and the Roman
IOVI VOT SVSC PRO SAL CAES
people for the restoration of the health of the
AVG SPQR
emperor.
IVN Junior
IVNO FELIX Happy Juno.
IVNO LVCINA Goddess of light.
IVNO REGINA Juno the Queen.
IVNONI MARTIALI The war like Juno.
IVPPITOR CVSTOS Jupiter the custodian.
IVSTITIA Justice
IVVENTVS AVGVSTVS The young Augustus.
ISIS FARIA Isis, the protector of the island of Pharos.
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J....
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K....
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L....
LAETIT FVNDATA LAETITIA
Well founded rejoicing.
FVND
LEG I, LEG II, LEG III......... The number of the legions (armies).
LIB AVG(G) Liberality of the emperor (or emperors).
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M....
MAG PIVS Great and pious.
MARS VLTOR Mars, the avenger.
MARS VICTOR Mars, the victor.
MART PAC, MATI PACIF or
Mars, the pacifier.
PACIFERO
MARTIA CONSERVATORI Mars, the conserver.
MARTI PROPVGT Mars, the defender.
MAVRETANIA A province.
MILIARVM SAECVLUM Commencement of a new age or era.
MINER FAVTR Minerva who gives favors.
MONETA AVG Money of the emperor.
MVNIFICENTIA AVG Munificence of the emperor.
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N....
N.F. Nobilissima Femina (noble woman).
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O....
ORIENS AVG Rising Sun (of the emperor).
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P....
PACATOR ORBIS Pacifier of the Earth.
PACE PR UBIQ PARTA IANUM
Portal of Janus being closed (indicates peace).
CLUSIT
PACI AVGUSTAE The peace of the emperor.
PAR Parthia
PAX FVNDATA CVM PERSIS Firm peace with the Persians.
PIETAS MVTVA AVG The mutual piety of the two Augusti.
PIETAS ROMANA Roman piety.
POPVL IVSSV By the order of the Roman people.
PRIMI DECENNALES First period of 10 years.
PROFECTIO AVG The emperor embarking on a trip or visit.
PROV DEOR, PROVID DEOR,
Providence of the gods.
PROVIDENTIA DEORVM
PROVIDENTIAE CAESS Foresight of the Caesars.
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Q....
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R....
RECTOR ORBIS Master of the world.
REGI ARTIS King of the Arts.
RELIG AVG Religion of the emperor.
RELIG VETERA H S NOVIES Refers to the liberality of Hadrian in remitting
MILL ABOLITA debts.
REPARATIO REIPVB Restoration of the Republic.
RESTITVTOR AFRICAE Restitutor or ruler of Africa.
RESTITVTOR ORBIS Restitutor or ruler of the world.
RESTITUTOR VRBIS Restittutor or ruler of the city (Rome).
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S....
SAC MON VRB AVGG ET CAES N
Sacred money or Rome, our emperors and our
N or SACRA MONET AVGG ET
Caesars.
CAES NOSTR
SAEC FEL Happy age (era).
SAECVLI FELICITAS Happy age.
SAECVLO FRVGIFERO The fruitful age.
SAECVLVM NOVVM The new age.
Salus Generis Humani (Lasting health to all
SAL GEN HVM
humans).
SALVS DD NN AVG ET CAES The health and Augustus and Caesar, our lords.
SALVS REIPVBLICAE The health of the Republic.
SANCT DEO SOLI ELAGABAL Holy Sun-God Elagabalus (Elagabal ?).
SARMATIA DEVICTA Victory over Sarmathia.
SECVRIT IMPERII Security of the empire.
SECVRIT PERP Eternal security.
SERAPI COMITI AVG Serapis, companion and god of the emperor.
SOLI INVICTO COMITI The unconquerable Sun-God.
SENATVS POPVLVSQVE
The senate and the Roman people (SPQR).
ROMANVS
The senate and the Roman people to the
SPQR OPTIMO PRINCIPI
highest prince.
SPES PERPETVA Eternal hope.
SPES ROMANORVM Hope of the Romans.
SVMMVS SACERDOS AVG Highest prince (or priest) Augustus.
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T....
TEMPOR FELIX The happy times.
TIBERIS The river Tiber as a personification.
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U....
VBERTAS Fertility.
VNDIQVE VICTORES Victory everywhere.
VRBS ROMA FELIX The happy city, Rome.
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V....
VBERTAS Fertility.
VENERI VICTRICI Venus the Victress.
VENVS COELESTIS Heavenly Venus
VENVS FELIX Happy Venus.
VICTORIA AETERNA AVG N Eternal victory for our emperor.
VICTORIAE D D AVGG N N Victory to our emperors.
VIRTVS EXERCITI Courage of the army.
VIRTVS MILITVM Virtue or the army.
VIRTVS ROMANORVM Virtue of the Romans.
VOT SVSC or VOTA SVSCSPTA Sacrificial vows.
VOTIS DECENNALIBVS Vows of the tenth year or the tenth year.
VOTA PVBLICA Public vows.
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W....
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X....
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Y....
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Z....
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Mints and their marks
I am giving you here, in addition to the information already given in the chapter "Reading and understanding legends and marks",
under the heading "Mints Marks", a simple list of the most well-known marks for each mint. As well as the periods of activity of the mints. I do
not list here all the symbols and all possible variants, because this is the subject of a complete article. This chapter is just to familiarize you
with the letters written for each workshop.
Mints marks:
Alexandria (Egypt): 294 to 421 then 457 to 474 after J-C.
AL, ALE, ALE●, ALEA, ALEB, ALEX, ALEΔ, ALEΓ, CONSA ,

SMAL, SMAL● SMALA, SMALA●, SMALB, SMAL●B, SMALB●, SMALΔ, SMALΔ●, SMALΓ
Ambianum (Amiens, France): 350 to 353 after J-C.
AM, AMB, AMB croissant pointé, AMB●, AMB croissant, *AMB, AMB*, ●AMB*, *AMB croissant, *AMB croissant pointé, AMB palme, ●AMB
palme, croissant pointé AMB couronne, AMBI.
Antioch (Antakiah, Turkey): 217 to 611 after J-C.
AN, ANA, ANT, ANTA, ANTOB, SMAN, SMANA, SMANTA.
Aquilea (Italy): 294 to 324 then 334 to 430 after J-C.
AQ, AQOB, AQP, .AQP, AQP., .AQP., AQPS, AQVI, AQVIL, AQVILP, .AQVILP, SMAQ, SMAQP, .SMAQP, .SMAQP..
Arles (France): 313 to 475 after J-C.
A, AR, ARL, ARLA, CON, CONST, FPAR, KON, KONSTAN, PAR, PAR., P*AR, PARL, PARL., PARL*, PAR.L, PCON, PCONST, SARL.
Barcino (Barcelona, Spain): 409 to 411 after J-C.
BA, SMBA.
Camuldunum (Colchester, England): 287 to 296 after J-C.
C, CL.
Carthage (Tunisia): 296 to 307 then 308 to 311 after J-C.
K, KAR, KART, PK, PKA, PKB, PKT, PKP, PKS.
Constantinople (Istanbul, Turkey): 326 to 453 after J-C.
CON, CONA, CONA*, CONOB, CONS, CONS., CONSA, CONSA., CONSA*, .CONSA., CONSP, CONSPA, .CONSPA., CP.
Cyzicus (Kapuh Dagh, Turkey): 260 to approximately 475 after J-C.
CVZ, CVZA, CVZIC, CVZICA, CVZICENA, CYZ, CYZICEN, KV, KVZ, KY, SMK, SMK///, SMKA, SMKA., .SMKA., *SMKA.
Heraclea (Marmara Ereglisi, Turkey): 291 to 474 after J-C.
H, HER, HERAC, HERACA, HERAC.A, HERACI, HERACL, HERACLA, HERACL.A, .HERACL.A (point en
dessous), HT, SMH, SMHA, SMHA., .SMHA., .SMHA, SMHA*.
Londinium (London, England): 287 to 325 then 383 to 388 after J-C.
AVG, AVGOB, AVGPS, L, LD, LG, LI, LN, LON, ML, MLL, MLN, MSL, PLN, PLON.
Lugdunum (Lyon, France): 15 before J-C to 90 after J-C then 195 to 196 after J-C ad 254 to 423 after J-C.
CPLG, FPLG, LPLG, *LPLG, LVG, LVGD, LVGOFFP, LVGP, LVGP*, LVG.P, LVGPS, MPLG, PLG, .PLG, *PLG, PLG*, *PLG., PLVG, PLVG*,
PLVGD, PPLG, PPLG., RLPG., RPLG.
Mediolanum (Milan, Italy): 250 to 275 then 364 to 475 after J-C.
DM, MD, MDOB, MDPS, MED.
Nicomedia (Izmit, Turkey): 294 to 474 after J-C.
MN, MNA, N, NA, NIC, NICO, NIK, NIKA, NIKA*, SMN, SMNA, SMNA., .SMNA., SMNA*.
Ostie (Italy): 308 to 313 after J-C.
MOST, OST.
Ravenna (Italy): 404 to 475 after J-C.
RAV, RV, RVPS.
Roma (Italy): 289 to 40 before J-C then 20 before J-C, 476 after J-C.
R, RBP, RFP, R.F.P, RM, RMP, R.M.P, RMP*, ROM, ROMA, ROMOB, RP, R.P, R..P, R*P, RPRIMA, R.PRIMA, SMR, SMRP, VRB, VRB
ROM.
Serdica (Sofia, Bulgaria): 272 to 282 then 303 to 308 and 313 to 314 after J-C.
SD, SER, SERD, SMSD,
Sirmium (Mitrovica, Kosovo): 320 to 326, 351 to 364 then 379 and 393 àto 395 after J-C.
ASIRM, ASIRM., SIR, SIRM, SIROB, SM.
Siscia (Sisak, Croatia): 260 to approximately 390 after J-C.
ASIS, .ASIS, .ASIS., ASIS*, .ASIS*, A.SIS, ASISC, .ASISC, ASISC., ASISC*, *ASISC, *ASISC., ASIS
D, ASISR, .ASISR, ASISV, DASISC, S, SIS, SISC, SISC., SISCPS, SM.
Thessalonique (Salonica, Greece): 298 to 460 after J-C.
COM, COMOB, OES, SMTS, SMTSA, TE, TES, TESA, .TESA, .TESA., *TESA, TESOB, TH, THES, THS, THSOB, TS, TSA, TSA., TSAVI.
Ticinium (Pavia, Italy): 274 to 326 after J-C.
BT, PT, QT, ST, T, TT.
Treveri (Trèves, Germany): 294 to 395, 408 to 413 then to 430 after J-C.
ATR, BTR, PTR, .PTR, PTRE, .PTRE, SMTR, SMTRS, SMTRP, SMTRS, TR, TRB, TRE, TROB, TRP, TRP., TR.P, .TRP., TRP*, TRPS, TRS.
So you see that we find the same letters for each mint: TR for Trier, AMB for Ambianum ... But some exceptions as I said earlier in the article:
"SM for moneta sacred, M for Moneta, OB for Obryza (gold) (cup with which one verified the title of gold) "from where the marks SMANT ...
But also the mark CONS or CONST or still CON for the mint of Arles, which can seem illogical. Why use AR or ARL and then CONS? It is the
name of the city of Arles which changed under Constantine I in: Constantia, obviously produces an immediate change of the mint mark using
the first three or four letters of the name of the mint. So you know that if you see the CONS mark this coin has not been minted before
Constantine I. But it can be confused with the Constantinople mint, which uses the same letters.
Provincial coins
How to differentiate a provincial coin from an imperial coin? Provincial coins contain, always a legend in Greek, except for the colonies of
Latin law. Some coins may have on their reverse the mention S C and have a Latin legend, as for the bronzes of Antioch, style can make the
difference. The name of the city, so-called ethnic is mostly inscribed, sometimes abbreviated, often ending with the letters Ω (sometimes
written as a w) and N.
There are also the titles awarded to the city and the names of magistrates as well as their charges:
ΣΑΡΔΙΑΝΩΝ: name of a city.

ΕΠΙ Γ Ι ΚΡΙΣΠΟΥ ΑΡΚ: name of the magistrate and his office.
ΔΙΣ ΝΕΩΚΟΡΩΝ: honorary title awarded to the city.
Except for the first coin, where we regularly find the name of the city on the obverse, the name is on the reverse. Another element: if you see
a coin with a typically African animal, it is probably a provincial coin. I say probably because we see many elephants or lions on the coins of
the empire as well as numbers of African animals on the coins of Philip or Gallienus. There is always something in the legend, the style, the
representations, which indicates that the coin is provincial. These coins circulated in the region where they were minted and thus are imbued
with style, lifestyle, common visual elements, local fauna. Most of the colonies are ancient Greek colonies; they have for a long time been
seen circulating, the Greek coinage. In this sense and this logic, the Romans have adapted and the types of coins have changed, appear then
imposing coins by their diameter or weight. The smaller divisions corresponded to the quarter of assarion. Larger modules are mounted at 60
mm as for large bronzes, of PTOLEMEE. Note that we also call the "Great Bronzes" Chalques, Dichalques, Octochalques, etc. according to
their diameter. One can sometimes doubt a type since a coin can be "wide blank" and therefore be closer to another type, likewise for "short
blanks", always refer to the diameter and the weight and this for any type of coin. There is not one, but several monetary systems, according
to the regions. Egyptian coins circulated even in certain cities. You will understand that make a list of types and their equivalence with other
coins, is a very heavy work. There is one type that is often found: the Tetradrachm or Drachm SYRO-PHENICIAN, money in silver or billon
often presenting on the reverse, an eagle. There may be presence of this animal also on the obverse under the portrait of the emperor. The
term Drachm refers to Greek silver coins. Be careful not to conclude that they are still silver. Like the denarii, they find themselves in billon and
therefore with a bronze aspect, because of their low silver content. Provincial coins are struck from the end of the Republic to Aurelian.
Five important points:
1: There is sometimes a point in relief or a hole in the middle of the coins, sometimes off-center. The point results from the compass, serving
to delimit the zone of the legend in the die. One line, the other end of the compass, is sometimes visible at the area of the legend. The hole is
the trace of the turnery of blank, so not on the die, but on the future coin.
2:
A common abbreviation, COL for COLONIA, followed by the name of the city. Example COL NEM for COLONIA NEMAUSUS and
therefore designates Nîmes, COL VIM for Viminacium. We find these abbreviations separated or glued.
3: We find coins cut in half, for example, to make a half Dupondius, cut a Dupondius in two or four to make four ''As".
4: Animals can represent a country. For example, the crocodile represents Egypt, but there is not a "specific" animal for each country. There
are also animals on non-provincial coins, they are most often legendary animals, example, the wolf of Romulus and Remus. The wolf can be
represented without Romulus and Remus, it is a character in full. Beware, the presence of the wolf does not exclude a provincial strike, it is
also present in provincial coins. Animals on the provincial coins may designate the emblems of the legions too, example for Gordian III we see
on a Dupondius struck in Upper Moesia, on the reverse, the Tyche with on his left an ox representing the seventh legion and on his right, a
lion representing the fourth legion.
5: Tyche is a deity of fortune, prosperity, and destiny of a state or city. Not to be confused with Fortuna. She is wearing the wall crown. Many
Greek cities have their own "Tyches", they are often associated with animals (see point 4). She was particularly venerated as the protective
goddess of the city in Antioch or Alexandria in particular.
Officina
Officina (Latin, plural officinae) were workshops within Roman mints. During the early 3rd century Roman numerals I - IV were placed in
the reverse fields of coins struck at the Rome mint to indicate the the officina within the mint that produced the coin. Most Roman coins struck after 274 carry officina
marks, sometimes in the reverse field, but most often combined with the mintmark. At western mints the marks P, S, T, and Q indicated the prima (1st), secunda
(2nd), tertia (3rd), and quarta (4th) officina. At eastern mints Greek numerals were used to indicate the officina from A (1st) to IE (15th).
Chart of Officina Numbers

1st I, P (for prima), PRIMA, A (alpha), OFF P (officina prima)
2nd II, S (for secunda), SECVNDA, B (beta), OFF S (officina secunda)
3rd III, T (for tertia), TERTIA, C,  (gamma)
4th IIII, Q (for quarta), QVARTA, D,  (delta)
5th V, E (epsilon)
6th VI,  (stigma - archaic Greek letter resembling S)
7th VII, Z (zeta)
8th H (eta)
9th N,  (theta), DE (delta epsilon)
10th X, I (iota)
11th XI, IA (iota alpha), AI (alpha iota)
12th XII, IB (iota beta), BI (beta iota)
13th  (iota gamma), (gamma iota)
14th  (iota delta),  (delta iota)
15th IE (iota epsilon), EI (epsilon iota)
Also see:
Officinae (by Doug Smith)
Antioch officinae (by
Gert Boersema)
Officina Monetae (Dictionary or Roman Coins)

Mint marks
Sources:
Harl, Kenneth W. Guide for Coins Commonly Found at Anatolian Excavations, Roman (A.D. 238 - 498). (Istanbul, 2001)
Roman Mints and Officina
Click here to see Roman coins arranged by Mint in Forum's shop catalog.
Map from the Encyclopedia of Roman Imperial Coins (ERIC). See ERIC - Mint Map and ERIC - Mintmarks
Starting around the middle of the 3rd century A.D., Roman mints began incorporating mint marks as a way to control actions of mint officials. In
addition to the mint, the officina (or workshop) within the mint is often identified. If a problem was found on a particular series of coins (underweight for
example), the coins could be traced to the offending mint and the officials held liable.
Mint marks are located on the reverse of the coin at the bottom in an area known as the 'exergue'. The exergue is visually set off from the rest of
the reverse design by a line. In some cases, part of the mint mark (such as the officina or workshop) may be found in the body of the reverse design or even
on the obverse field.
A mint mark was (in most cases) formed from three or four elements:
1. A letter P (Pecunia - Latin for money), M (Moneta) or SM (Sacra Moneta). Often these letters are omitted. In some mintmarks the abbreviated mint name
is followed by PS (Pecunia Sacra). Mintmarks on gold coins often end with the letters OB (obryzium - refined or pure gold).
2. Mint city abbreviation (usually one to four letters, but up to seven).
3. Officina identification. Latin letter, a Greek letter or letters or a Roman numeral indicating the officina. Some officina symbols are listed in a table below.
Sometimes the officina is omitted and sometimes it precedes the mint name abbreviation.
4. Series marks. Many mintmarks also include symbols such as dots, a crescent, or a branch, for example. These symbols probably indicate when the coin
was struck and who was responsible for the workshop at that time.
The tables below will help determine the mint and officina for Roman coins.
Roman Mintmarks (Arranged in alphabetical

order)
Min
Mint (Modern Name)
tmark
A Arelatum - Constantina (Arles, France)
AL Alexandria, Egypt
ALE Alexandria, Egypt
ALE
Alexandria, Egypt
X
AM
Ambianum (Amiens, France)
B
AM
Ambianum (Amiens, France)
BI
AN Antioch - Antiochia (Antakiyah, Syria)
ANT Antioch - Antiochia (Antakiyah, Syria)
ANT
Antioch - Antiochia (Antakiyah, Syria)
OB
AQ Aquileia, Italy
AQ
Aquileia, Italy
OB
AQP
Aquileia, Italy
S
AQ
Aquileia, Italy
VI
AQ
Aquileia, Italy
VIL
AR Arelatum - Constantina (Arles, France)
ARL Arelatum - Constantina (Arles, France)
AV
Londinium (London, England)
G
AV
GOB
AV
GPS
BA Barcino (Barcelona, Spain)
C Camulodunum (Colchester, England)

C Clausentum (Bitterne, England)
C Constantinopolis (Istanbul, Turkey)
CHE
Thessalonica (Salonika, Greece)
S
CL Camulodunum (Colchester, England)
CL Clausentum (Bitterne, England)
CM Cyzicus (Kapu Dagh, Turkey)
CP Constantinopolis (Istanbul, Turkey)
CO
M
CO Thessalonica (Salonika, Greece)
MOB
CO
Arelatum - Constantina (Arles, France)
N
CO
NST
CO
Constantinopolis (Istanbul, Turkey)
N
CO
NS
CO
NSP
CO
NOB
Thessalonica (Salonica, Greece)
CONOB
CO
Roma (Italy)
RMOB
Cyzicus (Kapu Dagh, Turkey)
CVZ
CVZ
IC
CYZ Cyzicus (Kapu Dagh, Turkey)
CYZ
ICEN
H Heraclea (Marmara Ereglisi, Turkey)

HER Heraclea (Marmara Ereglisi, Turkey)
HER
Heraclea (Marmara Ereglisi, Turkey)
AC
HER
ACI
HER
ACL
HT Heraclea (Marmara Ereglisi, Turkey)
K Carthage - Carthago (near Tunis, North Africa)

K Cyzicus (Kapu Dagh, Turkey)
KAR Carthage/Carthago (near Tunis, North Africa)
KAR
Carthage - Carthago (near Tunis, North Africa)
T
KO
N
KO
NSTAN
KOP Corcyra -  (Corfu, Greece)
KV Cyzicus (Kapu Dagh, Turkey)
KVZ Cyzicus (Kapu Dagh, Turkey)
KY Cyzicus (Kapu Dagh, Turkey)
L Londinium (London, England)

LCC Lugdunum (Lyons, France)
LD Lugdunum (Lyons, France)
LG Lugdunum (Lyons, France)
LI Londinium (London, England)
LN Londinium (London, England)
LP Lugdunum (Lyons, France)
LON Londinium (London, England)
LVG Lugdunum (Lyons, France)
LVG
Lugdunum (Lyons, France)
D
LVG
Lugdunum (Lyons, France)
PS
MD Mediolanum (Milan, Italy)

MD
Mediolanum (Milan, Italy)
OB
MD
PS
ME
D
MK Cyzicus (Kapu Dagh, Turkey)
MKV Cyzicus (Kapu Dagh, Turkey)
ML Londinium (London, England)
MLL Londinium (London, England)
ML Londinium (London, England)
N
MN Nicomedia (Izmit, Turkey)
MO
Ostia (Port of Rome)
ST
MSL Londinium (London, England)
N Nicomedia (Izmit, Turkey)

NIC Nicomedia (Izmit, Turkey)
NIC
Nicomedia (Izmit, Turkey)
O
NIK Nicomedia (Izmit, Turkey)
OES Thessalonica (Salonika, Greece)

OST Ostia (Port of Rome)
PL Lugdunum (Lyons, France)

PLG Lugdunum (Lyons, France)
PLN Londinium (London, England)
PLO
N
PK Carthage - Carthago (near Tunis, North Africa)
POST Ostia (Italy)
R Rome, Italy
RAV Ravenna, Italy
RM Rome, Italy
RMPS Rome, Italy
RO
Rome, Italy
M
RO
Rome, Italy
MA
RO
Rome, Italy
MOB
RV Ravenna, Italy
RVP
Ravenna, Italy
S
Siscia (Sisak, Croatia), also used for Seconda (2nd officina) at other
S
mints
SD Serdica (Sophia, Bulgaria)
SER Serdica (Sophia, Bulgaria)
SER
Serdica (Sophia, Bulgaria)
D
Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia, 75 km West of Belgrade on
SIR
the river Sava)
SIR Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia, 75 km West of Belgrade on
M the river Sava)
SIR Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia, 75 km West of Belgrade on
OB the river Sava)
SIS Siscia (Sisak, Croatia)
SIS
Siscia (Sisak, Croatia)
C
SIS
Siscia (Sisak, Croatia)
CPS
SM Sirmium (near Mitrovica, North Serbia)
SM
Alexandria, Egypt
AL
SM
Antioch - Antiochia (Antakiyah, Syria)
AN
SM
Aquileia, Italy
AQ
SM
Barcino (Barcelona, Spain)
BA
SM
H
SMHT
SM
K
SM
Nicomedia (Izmit, Turkey)
N
SM
Rome, Italy
R
SM
Serdica (Sophia, Bulgaria)
SD
SM
Treveri (Trier, Germany)
TR
SM
TS
Ticinum (Pavia, Italy), also used for tertia (3rd officina) at other
T
mints
TE Thessalonica (Salonika, Greece)
TES Thessalonica (Salonika, Greece)
TESA Thessalonica (Salonika, Greece)
TES
OB
TH Thessalonica (Salonika, Greece)
THS Thessalonica (Salonika, Greece)
THE
S
THS
OB
TR Treveri (Trier, Germany) or in center field Tripols (Tripoli, Lebanon)
TRE Treveri (Trier, Germany)
TR
MS
TROB
TROBS
TRIOB
TRP
S
TS Thessalonica (Salonika, Greece
TT Ticinum (Pavia, Italy)
T ChristogramThessalonica
E (Salonika, Greece)
VB Vibo Valentia (Calabria region, Italy)

VRB
Rome, Italy
ROM
Roman Mintmarks (Arranged by Mint)
Mint Dates of Operation Mintmarks

Alexandria, Egypt 294 - 421 and AL, ALE, ALEX, SMAL
457 - 474 A.D. (Notes: Issued currency for the province before becoming a regular imperial mint. Reopened by the Byzantines 52
-646 A.D.)
Ambianum (Amiens, France) 350 - 353 A.D. AMB, AMBI
Antioch - Antiochia (Antakiyah, Syria) 217 - 611 A.D. AN, ANT, ANTOB, SMAN
(Notes: Struck local issues prior to becoming an imperial mint.)
Aquileia, Italy 294 - 324 AQ, AQOB, AQPS, AQVI, AQVIL, SMAQ
and 334 - 430 A.D.
Arelatum - Constantina (Arles, France) 313 - 475 A.D. A, AR, ARL, CON, CONST, KON, KONSTAN
(Notes: In 328 Arelatum was renamed Constantina in honor of Constantine II.
After Constantine II was killed in 340, the name reverted to Arelatum, only to be changed again in 354
to Constantina by Constantius II. It retained that name, although the mintmark 'AR' appeared on some of its coins
even in the fifth century.)
Barcino (Barcelona, Spain) 409 - 411 A.D. BA, SMBA
(Notes: Mint city for the usurper Maximus)
Camulodunum (Colchester, England) c. 287 - 296 A.D. C, CL
(Notes: Hosted a mint under the British Roman emperors Carausius and Allectus.)
Clausentum (Bitterne, England) 287 - 296 A.D. C, CL
(Notes: Hosted a mint under the British Roman emperors Carausius and Allectus.)
Carthage - Carthago (near Tunis, North Africa) 296 - 307 and K, KAR, KART, PLK, PK
308 - 311 A.D.
Constantinopolis (Istanbul, Turkey) 326 - 1453 A.D. C, CP, CON, CONS, CONSP, CONOB
Corcyra -  (Corfu, Greece) KOP
Cyzicus (Kapu Dagh, Turkey) 260 - c. 475 A.D. CM, CVZ, CVZIC, CYZ, CYZICEN, K, KV, KVZ, KY, MK, MKV, SMK
Heraclea (Marmara Ereglisi, Turkey) 291 - c. 474 A.D. H, HER, HERAC, HERACI, HERACL, HT, SMH, SMHT
(Notes: HT abbreviates Heraclea Thracica.)
Londinium/Augusta (London, England) 287 - 325 AVG, AVGOB, AVGPS, L, LD, LG, LI, LN, LON, LVG, LVGD, LVGPS, ML, MLL, MLN, MSL, PLN, PLON
and 383 - 388 A.D. (Notes: Londinium was renamed Augusta c. 325 A.D. Coins minted under Magnus Maximus, 383 -387 A.D. use the
AVG mintmarks.)
Lugdunum (Lyons, France) 15 B.C. - c. 90 A.D., LG, LP, LVG, LVGD, LVGPS, PL, PLG
195 -196, and (Notes: Struck under the usurper Clodius Albinus, 195 - 196 A.D.)
c. 254 - 423 A.D.
Mediolanum (Milan, Italy) c. 250 - c. 275 and MD, MDOB, MDPS, MED
364 - 475 A.D. (Notes: Theoderic, the Gothic king of Italy minted coins at Mediolanum, 493 to 526 A.D.)
Nicomedia (Izmit, Turkey) 294 - c. 474 A.D. MN, N, NIC, NICO, NIK, SMN
(Notes: reopened as a Byzantine mint, 498 - 627.)
Ostia (Port of Rome) 308-313 A.D. MOST, OST, POST
(Notes: The mint was transferred to Ostia from Carthage and then transferred from Ostia to Arelate.)
Ravenna, Italy 404 - 475 A.D. RAV, RV, RVPS
Rome, Italy c. 289 - 40 B.C. and R, RM, ROM, ROMA, ROMOB, VRB ROM, SMR
20 B.C. - 476 A.D.
Serdica (Sophia, Bulgaria) 272 -282, 303-308 SD, SER, SERD, SMSD
and 313 -314 A.D.
Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) 320 - 326, 351 - SIR, SIRM, SIROB, SM
364, 379
and 393 - 395 A.D.
Siscia (Sisak, Croatia) 260 - c. 390 A.D. S, SIS, SISC, SISCPS
Thessalonica (Salonika, Greece) 298 or 299 - c. 460 CHES, COM, COMOB, CONOB, OES, SMTS, TE, TES, TESA, TESOB, TH, THES, THS, THSOB, TS, T
A.D. Christogram E.
(Notes: Closed during the reign of Leo I, 457-474 A.D.)
Ticinum (Pavia, Italy) c. 274 - 326 A.D. PT, T, TT
Treveri (Trier, Germany) 294 - 395, 408 - 413 PTR, SMTR, STR, TR, TRE, TRIOB, TROB, TROBS, TRMS, TRP, TRS, TRPS
and c. 430 A.D. TR in center field
270 - 276 A.D.
Tripolis (Tripoli, Lebanon)
Vibo Valentia (Calabria region, Italy) c. 228 - 189 B.C. VB
Officina Numbers
1st I, P (for prima), PRIMA, A (alpha), OFF P (officina prima)
2nd II, S (for secunda), SECVNDA, B (beta), OFF S (officina secunda)
3rd III, T (for tertia), TERTIA, C,  (gamma)
4th IIII, Q (for quarta), QVARTA, D,  (delta)
5th V, E (epsilon)
6th VI,  (stigma - archaic Greek letter resembling S)
7th VII, Z (zeta)
8th H (eta)
9th N,  (theta), DE (delta epsilon)
10th X, I (iota)
11th XI, IA (iota alpha), AI (alpha iota)
12th XII, IB (iota beta), BI (beta iota)
13th  (iota gamma), (gamma iota)
14th  (iota delta),  (delta iota)
15th IE (iota epsilon), EI (epsilon iota)
Sources:
Roman Mintmarks and Mints (used by permission), by Norman R. Ray
Moneta, The Roman Imperial Software, by Numus
Roman Coins and their Values, by David Sear
Mints and Their Marks - Common Mint Marks
Roman Mints Provincial Mints
Starting around the middle of the 3rd century A.D., Roman

mints began incorporating mint marks as a form of control over
the actions of mint officials. If a problem was found on a
particular series of coins (underweight for example) , the coins could be traced to the
offending mint and the officials held liable.
Mint marks are located on the reverse of the coin at the bottom in an area known as
the 'exergue'. The exergue is visually set off from the rest of the reverse design by a
line (see red arrow on example). However, in some cases, part of the mint mark (such
as the officina or workshop) may be found in the body of the reverse design or even
on the obverse. The reverse example that you see at left has a fictious mint mark of
PLNA, circled in red. We will examine what this mint mark may represent later.
A mint mark was (usually) formed from three elements:
1: A letter P (Pecunia = money), M (Moneta) or SM (Sacra Moneta = Imperial money).

2: One to four letters representing the mint.
3: A single letter indicating the Officina or workshop. In the Latin system, the officina was
indicated by A = prima or 1st officina, B = secunda or 2nd, C = tertia or 3rd, etc. In the Greek
system for some colonial or provincial mints, the system was, 1st officina is represented by
Alpha, 2nd by Beta, 3rd by Gamma and so on.
So, if we take our fictious example from the coin above, we can see the mint mark is
'PLNA'. If we break it apart into the 3 elements, we can see 'P' for Pecunia, 'LN' for
Londinium and 'A' for the 1st officina. In this particular case, both the 'PLN' and the
'LN' can be found in the table under Londinium. So, putting it all together we can see
that this coin would have been minted in Britain (Londinium) during the first
workshop.
As you learn about mint marks, you will find variations to this description. Sometimes
the officina will not be found in the reverse exergue, but in the reverse field or on the
obverse. Other times the Pecunia, etc letter will be missing. And still other times you
will find only the mint designation in the exergue. The only way to learn is to study
the coins you have and become used to the variations you will see.
Return To Top
Roman Mints
Ancient Location Modern Location Mint Marks Notes;

AL, ALE, ALEX, ca 294 A.D. - until
Alexandria Egypt
SMAL closed by Leo I
Ambianum Amiens, France AMB, AMBI 350 - 353 A.D.
AN, ANT, ANTOB,
Antioch/Antiochia Antakiyah, Syria closed under Leo I
SMAN
AQ, AQVI, AQVIL,
Aquileia Aquileia, Italy AQOB, AQPS, ca 294 - 425 A.D.
SMAQ
A, AR, ARL, CON,
Arelatum/Constantina Arles, France CONST, KON, 313 - 475 A.D.
KONSTAN
Barcino Barcelona, Spain BA, SMBA 409 - 411 A.D.
Camulodunum Colchester, England C, CL 287 - 296 A.D.
Clausentum Bitterne, England C, CL
(near) Tunis, North 296 - 307 A.D. and
Carthage/Carthago K, KAR, KART, PK
Africa 308 - 311 A.D.
C, CP, CON, CONS,
Constantinopolis Istanbul, Turkey 326 - ??? A.D.
CONSP, CONOB
CVZ, CVZIC, CYZ,
Cyzicus Kapu Dagh, Turkey CYZIC, K, KV, KVZ, Closed under Leo I
KY, SMK
H, HER, HERAC,
ca 291 A.D. - until
Heraclea Eregli, Turkey HERACI, HERACL,
closed by Leo I
HT, SMH
L, LI, LN, LON, ML,
MLL. MLN, MSL, 287 - 325 A.D. and
Londinium London, England
PLN, PLON, AVG, 383 - 388 A.D.
AVGOB, AVGPS
LD, LG, LVG,
Lugdunum Lyons, France closed ca 423 A.D.
LVGD, LVGPS, PLG
MD, MDOB, MDPS,
Mediolanum Milan, Italy ca 364 - 475 A.D.
MED
MN, N, NIC, NICO, ca 294 A.D. - until
Nicomedia Izmit, Turkey
NIK, SMN closed under Leo I
Ostia Port of Rome, Italy MOST, OST 308 - 313 A.D.
ca 5th century -
Ravenna Ravenna, Italy RAV, RV, RVPS
ca 475 A.D.
Rome Rome, Italy R, RM, ROM, closed 476 A.D.
ROMA, ROMOB,
SMR, VRB ROM
SD, SER, SERD, 303 - 308 A.D. and
Serdica Sophia, Bulgaria
SMSD 313 - 314 A.D.
320 - 326 A.D. and
near Mitrovica, SIR, SIRM, SM, 351 - 364 A.D. and
Sirmium
Yugoslavia SIROB 379 A.D. and
393 - 395 A.D.
Siscia Sisak, Yugoslavia S, SIS, SISC, SISCPS closed ca 387 A.D.
COM, COMOB,
SMTS, TH, THS,
ca 298 A.D. - until
Thessalonica Salonika, Greece THES, THSOB, TE,
closed by Leo I
TES, TESOB, TH, TS,
OES
Ticinum Pavia, Italy T closed 326 A.D.
SMTR, TR, TRE,
Treveri Trier, Germany ca 291 - 430 A.D.
TROB, TRPS
Return To Top
Roman Provincial Mints
City and Province As it Appears on Coinage

Aegeae, Cilicia
Amasia, Pontus AMACIAC
Anazarbus, Cilicia
Bostra, Arabia BOCTPA
Cibyra, Phrygia
Damascus, Coele Syria
Emisa, Syria
Flaviopolis, Cilicia
Laodiceia ad Mare, Syria
Neapolis, Samaria
Samosata, Commagene
Seleucia Pierra, Syria
Sidon, Phoenicia
Soli-Pompeiopolis, Cilicia
Tiberias, Galilaea
Tyre, Phoenicia
Viminacium, Moesia Superior P M S COL VIM
Return To Top
A note on the total number of officinae in the Antioch mint during Trajan
Decius and Trebonianus Gallus AD 249-253
by Gert Boersema
A quick look at the respective RIC introductions to the eastern coinage of Trajan
Decius and Trebonianus Gallus[1] shows that there is some uncertainty about the total number
of officinae in the Antioch mint in this period. This is because the mint marks are not alltogether
clear from our modern perspective. According to RIC, during the reign of Decius the Antioch mint
used the following mint marks to denote its officinae:
•, ••, •••, ••••, IIV, IV
On antoniniani of Gallus we also encounter VI and VII alongside IV and IIV:
•, ••, •••, ••••, IV, VI, IIV and VII
Back in 1936, Karl Pink proposed four marked officinae at Antioch, and this view was
followed by LeGentilhomme (1943). Both scholars interpreted mint marks IIV and IV as 3 and 4
respectively. RIC IV, published in 1949, follows Pink’s view on the total number
of officinae,reluctantly one might think, in the introduction to Decius’ coinage – ‘at least four’ – but
proposes a total number of seven officinae for Gallus – ‘the officinae seem to run from 1 to 7 ...’.
But almost immediately the reader is asked if it will ‘eventually turn out that there were
four officinae only...’[2]
In 1977 an important paper was published by W.E. Metcalf on a hoard

of Antioch mint antoniniani of Trebonianus Gallus.[3] Metcalf takes for granted that there were
7 officinae active at Antioch, and only hints at the evidence supporting this. In the following I will
try to show that the mint marks indeed most probably indicate a total of seven officinae at
the Antioch mint during the reigns of Decius and Gallus.
i. IV and IIV are retrograde variants of VI and VII (six and seven)
Everything comes down to the interpretation of mint marks IIV and IV. Pink came to his
total of four officinae because he read these as 3 and 4 respectively, ‘perhaps because there was
no mark for the fifth officina’.[4] This would imply that mint marks VI and VII do not stand for six
and seven, but are ‘irregular variants of IV and IIV (four and three)’, something that RIC finds
conceivable.[5] But why use IIV and IV alongside the perfectly adequate mint marks ••• and ••••?
That seems to be very unpractical and hard to understand, to say the least. Is it not much more
likely that it is the other way around: IV and IIV are retrograde variants of VI and VII, six and
seven?
ii. Decius’ and Gallus’ tetradrachm coinage at the Antioch mint unmistakenly shows a total
number of seven officinae during their reigns
After the emperor Philip’s demise in AD 249, the number of offinae in the Antioch mint was
evidently increased from 4 to 7, as is shown by the mint marks on Decius’ tetradrachms:
•, ••, •••, ••••, •••••/E, S, Z
The system of pellets that was introduced on the final issue of tetradrachms of Philip I now
proved difficult to maintain, which is whyofficinae 6 and 7 adopted Greek numerals S and Z in
stead of the unpractical mint marks •••••• and •••••••.[6] This system of mint marksranging from
• to Z was continued into the reign of Gallus.
iii. Mint mark VI was used by officina 6 during the reign of Gallus
Two of Gallus’ tetradrachm issues[7] show without question that mint mark VI was used
by officina 6. Both obverse and reverse bear theofficina mark, and on these coins VI on
the obverse is combined with mint mark S on the reverse – Greek numeral S with certainty
indicating officina 6. These systems of mint marks had to be logical and easily recognizable within
the mint. It is therefore inconceivable that mint mark VI was used by officina 6 on tetradrachms,
while at the same time it was used by officina 4 on antoniniani.
iv. The missing officina 5
There are no Antioch mint antoniniani of either Decius or Gallus with an officina 5 mint
mark. Metcalf thought, as is stated above, that this fact could well have prompted Pink’s
four officina theory. But in fact this missing officina 5 fits a total of 7 officinae perfectly. Once
again, the tetradrachm coinage will shine its light on the matter.
There are Decius tetradrachms from officina 5, showing mint marks ••••• and E, but it is
interesting to see that there are no known Gallus tetradrachms from officina 5. In other words,
Gallus’ provincial coinage at the Antioch mint shows exactly the same structure as his imperial
coinage, with a total of 7 officinae, lacking an officina 5. The best explanation for this
missing officina, in my opinion, is that it is not missing at all. Officina 5 may have been minting
coins that did not feature mint marks: provincial bronze coinage.[8] It could also well be the case
that Gallus’ antoniniani without a mint mark were minted in officina 5.
[1] For the sake of clarity I only mention the names Decius and Gallus in this short discussion, but of course these mint marks also appear on coins of
their family members – like Herennia Etruscilla, Herennius Etruscus, Hostilianus and Volusianus.
[2] K. Pink ‘Der Aufbau der römischen Münzprägung in der Kaiserzeit’ in: NZ 69 (1936) 14; P. LeGentilhomme, ‘La trouvaille de Nanterre’ in: RN 5, vol. 9
(1946) 67; RIC IV part iii p. 118, 155.
[3] W.E. Metcalf ‘The Antioch Hoard of Antoniniani and the Eastern Coinage of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusian’ in: ANS Museum Notes 22 (1977) p.71-
94.
[4] Metcalf, p. 84, n.13.
[5] RIC IV, part iii, in the introduction to the eastern coinage of Gallus, p.155.
[6] Metcalf claims that there are tetradrachms that combine mint marks IV and IIV with S and Z (p.85, n.13). However, I could not find any published
coins to support this statement.
[7] Prieur 666 and 667.
[8] I am indebted to Tom Vossen for this idea.
Officinae
The Roman Worshop System at the Mint
the mints used to produce Roman coins were divided into several workshops that shared the duties of coin production. Studies o
and specific rulers will show that the organization and number of these shops varied from time to time and place to place. Begin
rd century AD, some coins bore marks indicating which shop or officina was responsible for its issue. The officina system was w
g before the marks were first placed on coins. Students of earlier issues examine evidence of numbers of coins found in large ho
nce of die links to determine the mint structure for unmarked coins. This page shows coins issued with marks (taking all the wor
). After a few years of marking the workshops on coins, some issues also began to mark the mint city on the coins thereby inven
as we usually use the term. It is interesting that the first use of open coding did not see fit to include the city information.
Philip I - 248 AD - Rome Otacilia Severa - 248 AD - Rome

Officina E (#5) Officina  (#4)
rst issue of openly marked officinae was from the Rome mint in 248 AD under Philip I. The reason for this addition (and the rea
ed permanently at that time) is a matter of speculation. It is possible that some irregularities at the mint made it necessary to 'cra
workers and require the signing of the dies. This issue shows six workshops numbered with Greek numerals in the reverse fields
E and S (1, 2, 5 and 6) struck for Philip I while  (4) struck for Otacilia and  (3) for Philip II. Only one type was struck by each
le, all letter E marked coins are the two horsemen type shown above.
At very nearly the same time the same six workshops issued the special coins fo
millennium celebration. Again each of six workshops produced one type apiece and the
two (3 and 4) were used for Philip II and Otacilia. The difference is that the numbers he
were Roman numerals placed in exergue. Or sample here is a Philip II from shop III (3)
These 'special' SAECVLARES AVGG coins are seen much more frequently than the G
numeral series but this may reflect the popularity of the animal types and link to the
millennium celebration as much as their being more common. Following these two sma
issues, the mint reverted to the old practice of not marking the shops for the final issues
the reign. The same six shops produced six types for the remaining Philip issues but the
t marked. It would be most interesting to know why this numbering experiment was tried and why it was abandoned. The two se
six workshops but they were numbered once in Roman numerals and once in Greek. 'Why?' is never an easy question when wo
ars after the events.
eding rulers ocasionally issued some coins marked by workshop but the practice did
egular for some time. The Antioch mint of Trebonianus Gallus used an interesting
man numerals and dots for some coins. The practice of using letters arose again under
became more frequent with each year that passed. By the time of Probus, most mints
me sort of officina numbering on the coins. Our example here shows the Serdica mint,
se of  following KA (21) in exergue. This coin also shows the city mark MS (Moneta
he field. Relatively few coins of this period showed the city abbreviation.
Other mints of the period used other

ways of indicating the workshops. Lugdunum (left) placed a Roman numeral in exergu
had the Philip Saeculares issue. Ticinum (below) and some others used a series P, S, T,
and VI. For Primus, Secundus, Tertius, Quartius, Quintus, and Sextus. The problem of
than one ordinal beginning with the same initial was handled by using the Roman nume
for 5th and 6th. Our example below left shows the mark QXXT with the final T indicat
the city Ticinum; Q is the officina mark: 4. An example of how it is necessary to exami
more than one coin from a series to understand the system being used is offered by the
below right. The mintmark TXXT has two different meanings of T. The first is the offic
d is the city Ticinum. Most cities used XXI for 20:1 copper to silver ratio but here Ticinum used simply XX for 20 parts alloy.
As inflation increased the demand for coins, the number of mints and shops had
increased. Antioch under several emperors operated with nine officinae. These were
numbered with the standard series of Greek numerals from 1 to 8 (A to H) but the 9th
officina used  or 5+4 to avoid the unlucky numeral , first letter in the
word  (death). These are no more scarce than the others the series but this col
finds the added interest of the additive officina mark worth a premium over the others.
crazy? Certainly, I collect. Usually, Antioch was divided into more shops than other mi
There was no direction from central authority requiring all mints be managed along the
int used an organization and markings as they saw fit leaving collectors a jumble of information needing to be set in order.
e time of Constantius II (c.350 AD) Antioch was up to 15 (EI) officinae and had left
ar of theta (perhaps due to Christianity??). The exergue of our ninth workshop example
y abbreviation ANT followed by . In the field is a large , here indicating the issue
n this series of diminishing weight coins. Reading mintmarks on Roman coins is not a
; they changed the rules whenever it suited the needs giving no thought to the troubles
tors of later days. How do we know which letter serves which purpose? We must
f the coins possible and absorb their similarities and differences. Coin books are great
there is no substitute for 'experiencing' a few thousand coins.
This AE3 of Valens (364-378 AD) from the mint of Arelate (Arles) shows a ver
unusual mark of officina. It bears OF II in the reverse field. This carries the point of op
marking one step further adding OF to indicate that the numeral is the officina rather th
serving some other purpose. This idea did not catch on and later coins reverted to the m
standard abbreviations. The city abbreviation in the exergue CONST (for Constantina,
the name of the city) is longer than often seen illustrating a move at this period to expan
codes on coins. Perhaps 'truth in labeling' was fashionable for a few years in the fourth
century.
ootnote I want to show a coin of Septimius Severus from the Emesa mint. Dating to 194AD,
s earlier than the Philip that began this page, some examples from this series of coins show
ts following the reverse legend. What is the meaning of these dots? Are these early marks of
imply can not say for sure. This and thousands of other questions remain to be answered by
of the future. Will we see this answer anytime soon? Is anyone capable of shedding light on
ng to be able to publish the answers to my thousands of questions? When you see a coin like
e questions or just another denarius of a common emperor? These are the questions that will
ismatics as a science has a future in the 21st century. I hope.
Monogram
A design composed of one or more letters, typically the initials of a name, making a single character which is used as an identifying mark. Ancient rulers,
magistrates, moneyers and even die engravers would sometimes include their monograms on coins. A ligature, which is two or more letters connected by a stroke, is
a type of monogram but monograms with letters more completely united are not a ligatures.
Transparent .gif Drawings by Pep

(Hint: You can use the individual URLs of the images below to illustrate coins on the Classical Numismatics Discussion Board. Usually, you can click your
mouse's right button and copy the URL from the 'Properties' screen.)
Late Roman Imperial Monogram Coins
Source: Kent, J. P. C., R. A. G. Carson, and A. M. Burnett, eds. The Roman Imperial Coinage. Vol. X. London: Spink and Son Ltd., 1994.
Theodosius II
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Marcian
1. , 2. 3. 4. 5. , , 6.
7. 8.
Leo I
1. , 1a. 2. 3. 4. 5. , 6.
Basiliscus
1.
Zenonis
1. 2.
Basiliscus and Marcus
1. 2.
Zeno
1. 2. 3. 4. 4a. 5. 6. 7.
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Libius Severus
1. , 2.
Anthemius
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Julius Nepos
1.
Odovacar
1. 2.
The following are additional Late Roman monograms that can be found in Late Roman Bronze Coinage, A.D. 234-498, by Hill, Kent, and Carson. These
additional monograms are from page 110.
Marcian
Leo
Zeno
Anastasius
Additional monograms.
Theoderic
Byzantine Monogram Coins
Data Compiled by Howard Cole

Transparent .gif Drawings by Pep
The following drawings and attributions constitute a list of Coins with Monograms found in Byzantine Coins and Their Values, by David R. Sear, published
by Seaby Ltd. in 1987. All coins with monograms are textually listed below. However, only the coins in BCV's Table of Monograms and the few others explicitly
illustrated in the book are drawn below. This is a modification and expansion of an earlier table that Mr. Cole created listing the monograms by ruler. The coins in this
article are listed by monogram number. If you would like to add a transparent .gif drawing, the average size of the ones below is 60 x 60 pixels with lines two pixels
in width.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
21. 22. 24. 25.
23.
27. 28. 29. 30.
26.
31. 33. 34. 35.
32.
36. 37. 38. 39. 40.
41. 42.
43. 44. 45.

46. 47. 48. 50.
49.
51. 52. 53. 55.

54.
56. 57. 58. 60.

59.
61.
S326A. S1233A. S1233B. S1308A.
S1444A. S1444B. S1534C.
The list below follows the following format: Monogram number, Ruler, Sear number, Denomination, Mint, (notes). Not all entries may have all of the listed
information.
Monograms Listed by Number in the Table of Monograms, BCV p. 32
Monogram number, Ruler, Sear number, Denomination, Mint, (notes)

1, Justinian I, S197, (Monogram of Cherson), Pentanummium, Cherson
2, Justinian I, Pentanummium, S245, Theoupolis/Antioch
3, Justinian I, S255, Siliqua, Carthage
4, Justinian I, S328C, Half Follis, Perugia(?)
5, Justinian I, S340, Nummus, Uncertain
8, Justin II, S363, Pentanummium, Constantinople
8, Justin II, S364, Pentanummium, Constantinople
8, Justin II, S375, Pentanummium, Cyzicus
8, Justin II, S385, Pentanummium, Theoupolis/Antioch
11, Justin II, S387, Nummus, Theoupolis/Antioch
12, Justin II, S392A, 100 Nummi, Carthage
13, Justin II, S396A, Half Follis, Carthage
14, Justin II, S402, Pentanummium, Carthage
15, Maurice Tiberius, S539, Pentanummium, Theoupolis/Antioch
18, Tiberius II Constantine, S459, Pentanummium, Theoupolis/Antioch
19, Maurice Tiberius, S572, Nummus, Carthage
20, Phocas, S676A, Pentanummium, Theoupolis/Antioch
21, Heraclius, S757, Solidus, Constantinople, (in field)
21, Heraclius, S761, Solidus, Constantinople, (in field)
21, Heraclius, S776, light weight Solidus, Constantinople, (in field)
21, Heraclius, S810, Follis, Constantinople, (beneath M)
21, Heraclius, S812, Follis, Constantinople, (in left field)
21, Heraclius, S815, Half Follis, Constantinople
21, Heraclius, S904, Hexagram (Double Miliarense), Ravenna
21, Heraclius, S915, Follis, Ravenna, (above M)
21, Heraclius, on Heraclian Follis, Year 20, Countermarks (Page 197)
22, Heraclius, S884, Follis, Sicily (countermark on Heraclius and Heraclius Constantine of Constantinople, also on ½ and ¾ Folles)
22, Heraclius, on Follis of Maurice, Countermarks (Page 197)
22, Heraclius, on Heraclian Follis, Year 20, Countermarks (Page 197)
23, Heraclius, S836, Follis, Nicomedia, (in left field)
23, Heraclius, S841, Follis, Cyzicus, (in left field)
23, Heraclius, S849, Follis, Cyprus, (above M)
27, Heraclius, S861, 12 Nummi, Alexandria, (beneath cross)
28, Heraclius, S881, Nummus, Carthage
29, Heraclius, on Heraclian Follis, Year 20 to 23, Countermarks (Page 197)
30, Heraclius, on Heraclian Follis, Year 20 to 23, Countermarks (Page 197)
31, Heraclius, S904A, Siliqua, Ravenna
31, Heraclius, S906, Half Siliqua (120 Nummi), Ravenna
32, Heraclius, S926, 8 Pentanummia (Follis), Cherson, (as a countermark)
35, Constans II, S1000, Follis, Constantinople, (as a countermark)
35, Constans II, S1005A, Follis, Constantinople, (as a countermark)
35, Constans II, S1055, Follis, Carthage, (above M)
35, Constans II, S1059, Follis, Carthage, (as a countermark)
35, Constans II, S1104, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
35, Constans II, S1110, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
35, Constans II, S1111, Half Follis, Syracuse
35, Constantine IV, S1195, Follis, Carthage, (above M)
35, Constantine IV, S1198, Half Follis, Carthage
35, Constantine IV, S1199, Half Follis, Carthage
35, Constantine IV, S1207, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
37, Constans II, S1124, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome
37, Constans II, S1125, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome
37, Constans II, S1125A, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome
37, Constantine IV, S1232, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome
37, Constantine IV, S1233, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome
37, Anastasius II, S1482A, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome
37, Leo III, S1534A, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome
37, Leo III, S1534B, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome
37, Constantine V, S1579, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome
38, Justinian II-First Reign, S1270,), Follis, Carthage, (on reverse, and monogram 39 or 61 on obverse)
38, Justinian II-First Reign, S1273, Follis, Carthage, (above M)
38, Justinian II-First Reign, S1297, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
38, Justinian II-First Reign, S1305, Half Follis, Syracuse, (above K)
38, Justinian II-Second Reign, S1435, Follis, Carthage, (above M)
39, Justinian II-First Reign, S1270,), Follis, Carthage, (on obverse, and monogram 38 on reverse)
40, Leontius, S1343, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
41, Leontius, S1344, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
42, Tiberius III, S1395, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
42, Tiberius III, S1395A, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
42, Tiberius III, S1396, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
43, Anastasius II, S1474, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
43, Anastasius II, S1475, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
43, Anastasius II, S1475A, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
43, Anastasius II, S1475B, Follis, Catania, (above M)
44, Theodosius III, S1495, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
44, Theodosius III, S1496, Follis, Syracuse, (above M)
45, Leo III, S1529, Follis, Syracuse
46, Constantine VII and Romanus I, S1767, AE, Cherson
51, Romanus II, S1775, AE Cherson
52, Nicephorus II, Phocas, S1784, AE, Cherson
53, Nicephorus II, Phocas, S1784, AE, Cherson
54, John I Tzimisces, S1794, AE, Cherson
55, John I Tzimisces, S1794, AE, Cherson
55, Basil II, S1814, AE, Cherson
56, Basil II, S1814, AE, Cherson
57, Manuel I, S1977, AE 1/2 Tetarteron, Thessalonica
58, Manuel I, S1979, AE 1/2 Tetarteron, Uncertain Greek Mint
59, John III, Ducas-Vatatzes, The Empire of Nicaea, Not listed in Sear, billon and AE coins, Magnesia
61, Justinian II-First Reign, S1270,), Follis, Carthage, (on obverse, and monogram 38 on reverse)
Monograms Not Listed in The Table of Monograms
Anastasius, S13, Follis, Constantinople, (monogram of Anastasius)

Anastasius, S31, Nummus, Nicomedia, (monogram of Anastasius)
Anastasius, S37, Follis, Nicomedia, (monogram of Anastasius)
Justinian I, S326A, Nummus, Ravenna
Constantine IV, S1233A, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome (monogram of Pope Vitalian)
Constantine IV, S1233B, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome (monogram of Pope Adeodatus)
Justinian II-First Reign, S1308A, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome, (monogram of Roma)
Justinian II-Second Reign, S1444A, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome, (monogram of Pope Constantine in left field)
Phillippicus, S1460A, Follis, Syracuse
Leo III, S1534C, 1/8 Siliqua (30 Nummi), Rome (monogram of Pope Gregory III)
Andronicus II, Palaeologus, Restored Byzantine Empire, S2329, Billon Tornese, Constantinople, (Palaeologan monogram, )
Andronicus II, Palaeologus, Restored Byzantine Empire, S2395, AE Trachy, Constantinople, (Palaeologan monogram)
Andronicus II and Michael IX, Restored Byzantine Empire, S2433, AE Assarion, Constantinople, (not in table - Palaeologan monogram)
Andronicus II and Michael IX, Restored Byzantine Empire, S2449, AE Assarion, Constantinople, (Palaeologan monogram pictured)
Andronicus II and Michael IX, Restored Byzantine Empire, S2452, AE Assarion, Constantinople, (Palaeologan monogram pictured)
Andronicus III, Restored Byzantine Empire, S2497, AE Trachy, Constantinople, (Palaeologan monogram pictured)
Andronicus IV, Palaeologus, Restored Byzantine Empire, S2547, AE Tornese, Constantinople, (Palaeologan monogram pictured)
Manuel II, Palaeologus, Restored Byzantine Empire, S2554, AE Tornese, Constantinople, (Palaeologan monogram pictured)
Manuel II, Palaeologus, Restored Byzantine Empire, S2554, AE Tornese, Constantinople, (Palaeologan monogram)
John V, Politikon Coinage, S2576, AE Stamenon, (Palaeologan monogram)
Anonymous, Politikon Coinage, S2583, Billon Tornese, (Palaeologan monogram)
Anonymous, Politikon Coinage, S2588, AE Trachy, (Palaeologan monogram)
Uncertain Attribution, Politikon Coinage, S2596, Billion Tornese, (Palaeologan monogram)
Source: Hendy, Michael F. Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection, Volume 4, Alexius I to
Michael VIII, 1081-1261. eds. Alfred R. Bellinger and Philip Grierson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
Alexius I DO
41.
Alexius I, DO 41, AE Tetarteron, Thessalonica, (monogram of Alexius I)
Secondary Byzantine Monograms
Source: Feissel, Denis. "Le préfet de Constantinople, les poids-étalons et l'estampillage de l'argenterie au VIe et au VIIe siècle." Revue numismatique 28
(1986): 135.
No. No. No.
1 27 54A
2 28 54B
3 29 55A
4 30 55B
5 31 56
6 32 57
7 33 58
8 34 59
9 35 60
10 36 61
11 37 62
12 38 63
13 39 64
14 40 65
15 41 66
16 42 67
17A 43 68
17B 44 69
18 45 70
19 46 71
20 47 72
21 48 73
22 49 74
23 50 75
24 51 76
25 52 77
26 53 78
Estampilles d'argenterie oblongues et cruciformes (Dodd, Table III. Secondary Monograms).
Imperial Groups:
1-5: Anastasius I
6-19: Justinian I
20-27: Justin II
28, 29: Tiberius Constantine
30, 31: Maurice Tiberius
32-36: Phocas
37-74: Heraclius
75-78: Constans II
In Triangle: 1 ( ), 2 ( ), 3 ( ); In Round: 3 ( ), 78 ( )
Blank spaces indicate stamp is illegible or non-existent.
1-3: ΙΩΑΝΝΟV
4-13: ΠΕΤΡΟV
14-16: ΙΟVΑΙΑΝΟV
17-26: ΘΕΟΔΩΡΟV
27, 28: ΠΕΤΡΟV
29-31: ΙΩΑΝΝΟV
32, 33: ΑΘΑΝΑCΙΟV
34-36: ΚΟCΜΑC?
37-50: CΕΡΓΙΟV
51, 52: ΦΩΤΙΝΟV
53-57: ΒΑCΙΛΙΟV
58-67: ΘΕΟΔΩΡΟV
68, 69: ΔΑΜΙΑΝΟV
70-73: ΜΗΝΑ
74-77: ΚΩΝCΤΑΝΤΙΝΟV
78: ΙΩΑΝΝΟV
(Disclaimer for this table: Monograms are drawn as seen in the original paper article with the limitations of size and print quality.) To place a monogram
within text online use this code: but replace the gif url with the url for the monogram above you want to show.
GRČKA SLOVA TITULE I DATUMI NA RIMSKOM NOVCU
https://www.forumancientcoins.com/numiswiki/view.asp?key=Greek%20Alphabet
POJMOVI
When you discuss with collectors you will speak of "legend" which is also called "titulature" to describe the words and abbreviations
inscribed on the currency. We will speak of the "field" of the currency designating the smooth and unregistered part. The grenetis refers to the
small dots around the coin (see photo). The bust obviously indicates the portrait and implies the description of the clothes, crowns, jewels and
items. If anyone asks you what is the bust of the coin, he does not wait for you to give the name of the emperor, but: the crown, the cloth... and
even the orientation. For the example in the photo below, the Emperor Britannicus has a "bust bareheaded, draped and turned left".
To complete, a word will be meet for several different elements, it is the word "type". I want to make a specific part on this subject
because the use of this word is difficult for beginners and even sometimes for advanced collectors. Indeed, we say "type of money" which
refers to the denomination (denarius, sestertius...) but also the "type" which indicates the character of reverses. Still looking at the photo
below, the character of the reverse (character right) being PAX we speak of a sestertius PAX type. This way of speaking of "type" for two
different things is common and if you do not pay attention, you will talk about something with your interlocutor while he is talking about
something else. Remember to clarify or ask for clarification. "What kind of coin do you trade?" your answer: "You speak of the denomination or
the reverse?", your interlocutor will answer you perhaps "I speak of the type of reverses, because I collect only the coins of the LIBERTAS
type".
Finally, before seeing the picture illustrating my words so far, I spare you the word "slice" as it is obvious, but I still talk about it
because yes, you may have to talk about the slice of an ancient coin. For example, if you are discussing the authenticity of a coin, the slice
can be a determining factor. Note also the word "blank" which names the piece of metal that has been struck. Therefore, why talk about it? A
simple example: your coin has a broken part? Therefore you say "sestertius with broken blank". This term blank, allows, to speak precisely of
the state of origin of the coin. The break was already present at the time of the strike? Or is it due to a "modern" blow and therefore to wear?
Below the picture I'm talking about since the beginning of this chapter and showing you the terms to remember in priority:
Clothes, crowns and busts orientations

Let's go a little deeper about busts. Here is a chart showing you the most common types of crowns and clothes:
At the point where you are, how to differentiate a draped bust of a draped bust and cuirassed? You must see a piece of cuirass
appear as the breastplate, the place to look in priority is the shoulder that is at the front of the drawing. If you look at the fourth coin you will
see the shoulder armor of the cuirass. We can also distinguish the belt that most often comes out of the drape in the case where there is a
drape above the cuirass. This belt is seen on the sixth coin of the painting. If you see a face, a horse, or any other representation on the bust
is that a cuirass is present.
We can push the description to describe the fibulae if they are present, as on the coin number 9. If you browse my database, you
will see that I describe the shape of these fibulae. Noting everything is important and as I said in other articles, this is useful especially in the
context of a work of identification of the die links.
It lacks some crowns much rarer that I did not choose to illustrate in this table showing the types of crowns and clothes that we meet most
often. For example the crown of reeds:
We meet this crown extremely rarely! We meet still more often but all the same rarely (except in the coins of the Republic where
they are common), the character who is "turetted" here is the crown:
It is also a republican coin which is illustrated, however the characters of the reverse can have crowns. In this case, the crown
shaped towers, called "mural" is much more common from the third century, but only for allegories or deities. Finally, the obsidional crown for
emperors is not illustrated for two reasons: rare and I could not find a photo of one of these crowns which I obtained the copyright. If you have
one and want to send it to me, thank you.
Here is a description of known crowns:
 The Civic Crown: It consists of two branches of oak, and was given to the one who had saved a citizen and killed his
aggressor. The bearer of this crown was exempt from taxation. It is most often seen alone and surrounding a legend, but it can also be found
on the head of an emperor.
 The Naval Crown or Rostral: Golden crown decorated with rostrums that is to say the spurs that were at the front of the
ships and used to sink the prows. It was awarded to the winner of a naval battle, to the one who was the first to board a ship. Very rarely met
on the head of another emperor than Agrippa.
 The Triumphal Crown: It is the crown of laurels that we see on almost all Roman coins. It is composed of two branches
of laurels and was awarded to the victorious generals of great battles, carried in triumph. It was handed over to the Emperor upon his
accession to the title of IMPERATOR. it comes from the myth of Daphne and was already used by the Greeks. It is tense very often by the
allegory of Victory.
 The Radiated Crown: It also presents at the time of the Greeks, it symbolizes the immortality and the divination of the
emperor. It was composed of spikes, it is the same crown that carries Sol. In the mintage, it appears on the heads of living emperors, example
with Postume, or on the heads of dead emperors with legends such as: MEMORIA FELIX, DIVO, PIO etc ...
 The diadem: Originally it was a headband. Later, during the lower Roman Empire, it is adorned with stones. We often find
a square or round tip, consisting of one or more stones. We also see the ends of the diadem falling on the shoulders of the emperor and which
are stones (small balls). However these "balls" are not necessarily a sign of presence of diadem, they are also found on the laurel wreaths.
Sometimes it is composed of leaves and stones, it can be confused with a laurel wreath. For the example below, I chose a coin of Constantine
I where we see a simple banner. You have an example of a diadem made of stones in the table of crowns and clothes just above this
subchapter.
 The Walled or Turreted crown: A golden crown made up of towers representing the fortifications of a city. One often
meets her on allegories like ORIENT and on the head of characters (Tyche) representing a city like the Tyche of Antioch for example.
Surrender to the one who crossed a wall first. The Vallaire crown was handed over to the person who had climbed the palisade of a camp. It is
the goddess Cybele who is associated with this mural crown, since the time of the Greeks. The example below shows this crown on the head
of the character on the right, being a variant of the one already shown in the table at the very beginning of the chapter..
 The Obsidional or Graminal Crown: Composed of grasses and given to the one who had saved an army of a seat. We
can see an allusion of the care. The herbs that compose it are those found on the battlefield. Its name comes from "Obsidio" which means
seat. No picture available.
Now what is missing? The orientation of the bust: Is it from the front, turned left, turned right? Even if one simply notes these
orientations, it is sometimes necessary to note also their degree. Example: bust turned right seen three quarters forward (A). I will not go into
the description of each specific direction for several reasons that I detail here: you need to be "specialist", you must have great knowledge and
experience to note these directions. Why is it so complicated? Simply because the roman engravers were not well acquainted with the
representation of perspective. And, still more, these variations intervene in their quasi completeness in the period of the low empire, exactly, to
a period where the quality of typing and engraving is decreasing: one makes much more use of engravers "barbarians ", illiterate and
inexperienced. It sometimes happens, therefore, to meet the most common bust, said "seen three quarter ahead" with an emperor showing us
his two shoulders forward, where in any case what it seems to be represented. These things are just clumsy engravings and are excluded
from voluntary variants that are to be noted and referenced. Moreover, where there is still a complication, it is that in order to determine these
orientations, we must know our subject perfectly and know how to look at each element of the drawing, where the belt is in relation to the rest
of the body. Do we see shoulder pads in part or completely? While taking into account the problems of perspective ... These orientations of
busts are often accompanied by letters and figures, like A 1 or O etc ... These references refer to books, most of the time to the Roman
Imperial Coins ( RIC) I will detail these references below in the article through a chapter dedicated to it. Be careful though, everyone has their
own reference books, if you describe an orientation via a letter and a number, remember to note the book you are referring to. Otherwise you
risk creating confusion if the reader thinks of another book.
Finally, we must also distinguish the clothes, for example a consular dress of a simple drapery. The emperor can be dressed in a
toga as we often see on the reverse of a coin. Below, a consular habit found on the obverse with the portrait of Emperor Constantius II and on
the reverse as a whole with the emperors Constantius II and Constans, both in consular dress.
Allegories and divinities NATPIS LATINSKI

This part lists most attributes of the main allegories, without going into the details provided. These details, you can find them in
antoher article.
Abudantia : the abundance = Female character holding a cornucopia or pouring it.

Aequitas : the equity = Female character holding a scale, a scepter or a cornucopia.
Aeternitas : the eternity, stability = Female or male character carrying a sphere, a torch, a scepter and a phoenix or wearing the heads of the
sun and the moon.
Annona : the annona = Female character wearing ears of wheat and a cornucopia.
Bonvs Eventvs = Naked figure carrying in his left hand a cornucopia and a sheaf of ears, in the right a cup of sacrifice which he pours on an
alight altar.
Caritas = Two hands joined. More an image than an allegory.
Clementia : the clemency = Female character generally leaning on a column and holding a branch and a scepter.
Concordia : the concordia = Female character generally seated, holding a scepter and a cup of plenty, two standards or two joined hands.
Constantia : constancy, perseverance = Male figure helmeted and holding a spear. Right hand raised towards his face.
Fecvnditas : Fertility = Female character with children at her side or in her hands and holding a scepter.
Felicitas : felicity, prosperity = Female character holding scepter, cornucopia or a caduceus. Can hold two objects at a time.
Fides : fidelity, confidence = Female character who sows grain and holds a cup or a cornucopia.
Fides Militvm (Exercitvm) : loyalty of the army or its soldiers = Female character bearing scepter and standards.
Fortvna : Fortune, luck = Female character usually posed on a sphere next to a cornucopia and holding an oar. Sometimes holding an olive
branch or a cup. May also have a wheel at his side.
Genivs : Genius = Naked male character with a cornucopia and a crown circle on his head. Sometimes with a coat. May also have an altar at
his feet.
Hilaritas : Allegress = Female character sometimes accompanied by children holding a palm and a cornucopia, a scepter or a cup.
Honos : honor = Male character half naked, accompanied by virtue and holding a cornucopia with the foot on a helmet.
Indulgentia : indulgence, charity = Female character carrying a scepter and a cup.
Iusticia : justice = Seated female character holding a cup and a scepter.
Ivventas, Ivventvs : youth = Half-naked girl who sows an offering of grain and incense with a cup.
Jvcvnditas : Pleasure = Similar to Hilaritas and Laetitia.
Laetitia : joy = Female character holding a scepter and a garland.
Liberalitas : liberality = Female character holding a cornucopia and an abacus.
Libertas : freedom = Female character wearing a helmet and holding a scepter.
Moneta : the money = Female character wearing a long dress, holding a scale and a cornucopia. It will designate the coin from a certain
period, it is Juno Moneta, from where the temple of Juno.
Nobilitas : the nobility = Female character carrying a scepter and a statuette (palladium).
Ops : opulence = Female character holding scepter and ears of grain.
Patientia : patience, tolerance = Female character holding a scepter.
Pax : the peace = Female character holding a scepter and an olive branch. Cornucopia, caduceus also, regular variants.
Pietas : piety, obedience = Veiled female character. Sometimes in front of an altar of sacrifice.
Providentia : providence, foresight = Female character holding a stick and pointing to a globe at her feet.
Pudicitia : chastity, modesty, the dignity of the housewife = Veiled character carrying a scepter. Can be seated.
Salvs : health, well-being = Female character wearing a cup with which he feeds a snake and carrying a scepter.
Securitas : security, confidence = Female character wearing a cup or scepter. Sometimes sitting on a chair, can be leaning on a column,
cross leg.
Spes : hope = Female character carrying a flower. Raising her dress.
Uberitas, Ubertas :fertility = Female character holding a bunch of grapes or a purse or cornucopia.
Victoria : victory = Winged female character wearing a dress and holding a garland or palm. The palm symbolizes a victory in games.
Virtvs : Virtue, Courage = Male character carrying a spear and a shield. Generally the emperor. Coated with a cuirass and a parazonium, the
parazonium is a short sword attached to a belt. This object is more a distinction for the superiors officers than a weapon, is on the left side.
While the soldier's sword was on the right, the gladius.
Only CARITAS is not a character.
It is clear that most of these allegories, even if they are only the most common, are female figures. Most carry the same objects as the
cornucopia and the scepter, which changes are the combinations and the visual positions of the characters. There is often the legend which
gives the indication on the name (example: CONCORDIA). In the case of worn coin, one must simply identify the emperor and one can know
who this allegory is; obviously, only if this emperor used an allegory very little used or knowing the date or following the titles on the obverse,
we can know if (for example in case of legend indicating a significant victory) it is the victory. Right here:
Who is it? She is a seated woman, with a cornucopia and holding a rudder or oar. This is Fortuna. We nevertheless see that there are two
characteristic elements of this allegory, which lead us to identify it. This list is not exhaustive, but rather complete and shows the
characteristics that come back regularly.
For the deities there are so many different representations that I will not list here but in a future article with more photos. You already find the
list very extensive in the search engine, classified by deity. You will be able to see their attributes, positions... A male deity under the Empire
could be feminine on a coin of the Republic. As myths often change because of the influence of the people around them, one can see a
different representation at a certain period. Of course, during wars or phases of peace, people continue to exchange and it must be
understood that all emperors are not from the same region, the empire is immense so we understand that some rites and beliefs evolve
according to the regions .
To identify these divinities, some simple means, we know that if it is not an allegory, it is a deity, following the attributes and objects
holding the character, we already have an indication of his specialty. To illustrate the problem, Jupiter may appear as a male character holding
a lightning, but also be represented by a child on a goat or an eagle. It is therefore necessary to know the mythology and to define the origin of
the coin which, according to the region and the date, can provide a means of identifying the character by knowing the local myths of the time.
Another clue, an obverse with Laureate Emperor and with DAC GER in the legend, will not have a reverse with allegory Pax (peace) or a
divinity unrelated to a victory. There may be a link, however. Imagine that after a major victory, the empire takes the local wealth, food and
other, we can have a reverse with Abudentia (abundance), illustrating the fact that the defeated region brings many important things. It can be
food or anything else, abundance is not necessarily synonymous with abundant food. Obviously, it is an image that is given, this is to illustrate
a logic of the time and that we must obviously not rely on pictures but names. The cornucopia is filled with food. Identify a coin and especially
a character is for, sometimes experts. They know precisely enough to find the real meaning of a coin, although many topics are open to
discussion and they too may be wrong.
Personifications
Allegorical figures of abstract ideas as shown on Roman coins
In addition to gods and goddesses, Roman Imperial reverse types used a large number
of figures that personified ideas or virtues. These figures varied from issue to issue but
tended to be shown with specific attributes that allowed identification even when the legends
did not name the figure. Still, some are easily confused and will be seen named differently in
different works. Greek Imperial coins often show similar figures but rarely have legends to
aid in identification. Names given here are the Latin versions except for a few which are
common enough on Greek issues to warrant mention of the Greek equivalent. The majority
of personifications are female. Masculine exceptions below will be noted. Many are shown
in different issues both seated and standing. Some attributes are common to many figures but
a few will definitely identify one personification. Examples shown here are typical (and best
I had available) but not definitive.
Abund 'Abundance' here is shown seated in a chair made of crossed

entia cornucopiae. Other issues will show her holding the cornucopia and
grain ears.
Trajan
denarius
Aequit
as
'Fairness' holds a scales and cornucopia. The same figure is
Septim used for 'Moneta' (below).
ius Severus
denarius
Aetern
itas
'Eternity' here holds a scepter but other coins will show a
Fausti globe, phoenix or heads of the sun and moon.
na I
denarius
Annon
a
'Harvest' shows a lap full of grain and the prow of a ship. The
imported grain harvest was a matter of great concern to the people at
Domiti
Rome (here shown as a child).
an
dupondius
Bonus
Eventus
'Good luck' holds a tray of food and grain ears. Other coins
show this personification holding a cornucopia. This figure appears
Septim
female but the gender of the name suggests a male.
ius Severus
denarius
Cleme
ntia 'Mercy' holds a branch and scepter. She is identified most
no photo yet
often by legend.
Conco
rdia
'Harmony' holds a cornucopia and pours a libation from a
patera over a low altar. Often coins with Concordia in the legends
Aquili
will show two figures (gods or rulers) shaking hands.
a Severa
denarius
Fecun
ditas
'Fertility' shows a child or children (here in the background).
Julia
Domna
denarius
Felicit
as
'Happiness' holds a cadeuceus and cornucopia.
Philip
I
antoninianus
Fides
'Good faith' here shows a figure of victory and staff
Septim surmounted by an eagle in her function as Faith of the Legions. More
ius Severus commonly we see a patera, cornucopia or food items as attributes.
denarius
Fortun
a
Tyche 'Fortune' usually hold a rudder and cornucopia. Often there is
a globe or wheel (here under the chair). This is one of the
Comm personifications commonly found on Greek Imperial issues.
odus
denarius
Genius
'Spirit' is a male personification, usually nude, holding a
Galeri
patera and cornucopia.
us
follis
Geogr
aphical Places often were shown as personifications. These were
many to many to list here individually and each have their distinctive
Trajan attributes. Our example shows the Province of Dacia holding a
Decius donkey headed staff.
antoninianus
Hilarit
as
'Rejoicing' holds a long palm and cornucopia. This figure is
sometimes shown with other legends of happy events like the
Fausti
Fortunate Return of the ruler from battle.
na II
denarius
Honos
'Honor' is a male usually with cornucopia and scepter or
no photo yet
branch.
Indulg
entia
'Indulgence' holds a patera and scepter. This 'INDVLG
FECVNDAE' coin of Caracalla is thought to commemorate his
Caraca
mother Julia Domna's indulgence following the murder of Geta.
lla
denarius
Justitia
Septim 'Justice' holds a patera and staff.

ius Severus
denarius
Laetiti
a
'Joy' holds a wreath and anchor. Other coins show a scepter or
Julia rudder.
Domna
denarius
Liberal
itas
'Generosity' holds a counting board (tablet or tessera) and
cornucopia. Legends of this and the next are easily confused so care
Septim
need be taken to identify the unique attribute in the figure's hand.
ius Severus
denarius
Liberta
s
'Freedom' holds a triangular pileus or cap given to freed
Comm slaves. This same cap is shown on very early US coins.
odus
denarius
Monet
a
'Money' holds scales and cornucopia. If shown as a trio, these
figures represent the three metals used for coinage. The same figure
Septim
is used for Aequitas (above).
ius Severus
denarius
Nobilit
as
'Nobility' holds a scepter and Palladium (statue of Minerva).
Comm
odus
denarius
Ops
'Wealth' holds grain ears and (sometimes) a scepter. This
Pertina
personification rarely was used on coins.
x
denarius
Patient
ia 'Patience' holds a scepter and was very rarely used on coins.
no photo yet
While the type is listed in literature, I have not seen an example.
Pax
'Peace' holds a branch and scepter. Some coins show a branch
Maxim
with cornucopia or cadeuceus.
inus I
denarius
Pietas
'Dutifulness' sacrifices over an altar from a patera.
Lucilla
denarius
Provid
entia
'Forethought' points at a globe on the ground with a baton.
Septim She often holds a staff.
ius Severus
denarius
Pudicit
ia
'Modesty' is veiled and makes a gesture with her hand on her
Julia breast. Some coins show her pulling away the veil.
Domna
denarius
Salus
Elagab 'Health' holds or feeds a snake from a patera.

alus
denarius
Securit
as
'Security' holds a scepter and usually has her legs crossed.
Macrin Here she appears to be adjusting her hair.
us
denarius
Spes
'Hope' walks holding a flower and lifting the hem of her
Septim
garment.
ius Severus
denarius
Tranqu
illitas
'Tranquillity' holds a staff and capricorn. This personification
was rarely used on coins. (Tranquillity was rarely the situation at
Philip
Rome!)
I
sestertius
Uberta
s
'Fertility' holds a cornucopia and purse.
Trebon
ianus Gallus
denarius
Victori
a
'Victory' is the most common personification. She is always
Nike
winged and often holds a wreath, palm, trophy or shield. She is also
common on Greek Imperial coins and appears in hundreds of minor
Severu
variations both at Rome and throughout the Empire.
s Alexander
denarius
Virtus
'Courage' is a helmeted soldier in armor holding a spear,
victory or shield. Virtus can be distinguished from the god Mars who
Septim
is usually shown nude. Some coins appear to show Virtus as a female
ius Severus
figure (appropriate since the word is feminine declention).
denarius
Other similar figures used as reverse types were shown on my gods page. I probably
have omitted a personification that belongs on this page and will appreciate your note
reminding me of who I have slighted. A third section of this series on reverse types will
(someday!) show other categories that do not fall conveniently in the 'gods' or
'personifications' series.
Roman Gods, Goddesses and Heroes

A Pantheon of Reverse Types on Roman Coins
In response to a suggestion received, I am posting a list of reverse types found on

Roman Coins. Promising to be rather large in size, this posting will cover several pages for
ease of loading and be done in several sections. This first installment illustrates gods,
goddesses and a few semi-divine personages that seem to fit here better than elsewhere.
Attributes of these figures varied from time to time and selecting a single representative for
some has been impossible. Not every representation of a god will include every attribute
mentioned and there will always be a few figures that could be interpreted as more than one
god. Personifications (less than divine) of ideas and virtues are covered on a separate page.
Eventually a third segment of this series wil show 'other' reverses found on Roman coins.
Gods of the Roman pantheon were often associated with Greek equivalents and can be
identified by their dress (or lack, nude figures are usually gods) or by the items ('attributes')
that accompany them. Our list is not complete but will provide a reference to the common
deities. Some of these examples are taken from Greek Imperial coins; indeed some of the
deities are available only on Greek local issues. A few gods were represented in several very
different manners. With this disclaimer, we begin:
Aescl
epius
Aesclepius, god of medicine, holds a serpent entwined staff.
Postu
mus
antoninianus
Apoll
o
Apollo, god of brightness, music and art, is shown in many
various ways. Here he wears a long dress and carries a lyre. The
Com
image is a copy of a statue that stood on the Palatine Hill.
modus
denarius
Apoll
o Apollo was shown in so many ways a second sample seemed
necessary. Here he is shown nude with bow and snake. Apollo often is
Septi shown in more graceful poses than other male gods. There are many
mius Severus other variations on Apollo as a reverse type.
provincial
Liber
Bacchus
God of wine, Liber carries a thyrsus (decorated spear) and
Septi wine cup. He is accompanied by a panther.
mius Severus
denarius
Ceres
Demeter
Ceres, goddess of agriculture, carries grain ears and a torch
used when she descended into the underworld in search of he daughter
Septi
Persephone.
mius Severus
denarius
Cybel
e
Cybele, a Great Mother goddess imported from the East,
Julia appears with twin lions, turreted crown and branch.
Domna
sestertius
Dea
Caelestis Imported from North Africa the 'Bright Goddess' is limited to
the Severan period. Here she rides a lion springing from the water.
Septi The coin probably commemorates Septimius' building of water works
mius Severus at Carthage.
denarius
Diana
Artemis Diana, sister of Apollo, was worshipped in two rather separate
manners. Often she is shown with a bow as goddess of the hunt. Here
Julia she carries a torch and has a moon on her shoulders in her role as
Domna bringer of light to the night.
denarius
Diosc
uri
Rarely used in the Empire, the twin gods Castor and Pollux
were often used by Republican moneyers. Castor alone appears on a
Repu
coin of Geta.
blican
denarius
Hercu
les
Herakles The hero Hercules carries a club and bow and wears the skin
of the Nemean lion. Son of Zeus and a mortal, Hercules was popular
Septi as a symbol of strength and perseverance.
mius Severus
denarius
Hecat
e
Hecate was a Greek goddess of the underworld who is shown
holding a torch. She is shown only on provincial coins and is easily
Septi
confused with Artemis.
mius Severus
provincial
Isis
Isis was imported from Egypt and was popular at Rome in the
3rd century AD. She is shown here nursing her infant son, Horus. At
Julia
her feet are a plow and forepart of a ship to remind people that Egypt
Domna
provided Rome with a steady supply of grain.
denarius
Janus
Janus, god of beginning and ending, is rarely seen on Imperial
Repu coins but common in the Republic. He is easily recognized, even in
blican full length depictions, by the two faces looking in opposite directions.
denarius
Juno
Hera
Juno, queen of the gods, is accompanied by a peacock.
Julia
Maesa
denarius
Jupite
r
Zeus
Jupiter, king of the gods, is bearded and accompanied by an
eagle.
Septi
mius Severus
sestertius
Mars
Ares
Mars, god of war, is usually shown as a helmeted nude
distinguishing him from the personification Virtus. He frequently
Septi
carries a trophy over his shoulder and a spear.
mius Severus
denarius
Men
Men was a local god of the East often seen on provincial coins.
Julia He wears a Phrygian cap and has a crescent behind his shoulders.
Domna Usually he is accompanied by a chicken.
provincial
Merc
ury
Hermes Mercury, messenger of the gods, wears a winged helmet,
wings on his feet and carries a caduceus and purse. He was the patron
Septi of merchants, travelers and thieves.
mius Severus
provincial
Miner
va
Athena
Goddess of wisdom and courage, Minerva is shown wearing
helmet and armor. Some coins also show a shield and her pet owl.
Septi
mius Severus
denarius
Neme
Nemesis, goddess of retribution, is winged and accompanied
sis
by a snake. Other attributes are a wheel or bridle. As here (apologies
for the condition of the fourree specimen) she often pulls open the
Claud
front of her garment to spit on her breast, her standard gesture of
ius
aversion.
denarius
Neptu
ne
Poseidon
God of the sea, Neptune is shown nude with a trident. Often,
as here, he is shown with one foot raised on a rock.
Septi
mius Severus
denarius
Pluto
Hades
Pluto, god of the underworld, is accompanied by Cerberus, the
Carac three headed dog.
alla
antoninianus
River
Gods Various river gods appear on both Roman and provincial
issues. The example shows the Nile as issued at Alexandria, Egypt.
Hadri River gods tend to be shown reclining and accompanied by flowing
an water or water animals like this crocodile.
provincial
Roma
Roma, the city goddess, resembles Minerva as a female
Gordi warrior but is usually shown seated on a throne and identified by
an III legend.
antoninianus
Romu
lus
Romulus, founder of the city, shares the attributes of Mars and
Hadri is identified by legend.
an
denarius
Saecu
lo Frugifero
An African god, the fruitful age, was imported to Rome by the
African rulers Clodius Albinus and Septimius Severus. His attributes
Clodi
are similar to those of Mercury and he can be identified by legends.
us Albinus
sestertius
Serapi
s Imported from Egypt and popular at Rome in the 3rd century
AD, Serapis is bearded, wears a tall headdress and carries a staff. He
Postu usually is shown gesturing with a raised hand. Here, at his feet, is the
mus prow of a ship.
antoninianus
Satur
n
Saturn, father of Jupiter, was god of time and inventor of
Gallie agriculture. He is shown as an old man holding a sickle.
nus
antoninianus
Sol
Helios
Under several names the god of the sun became popular during
Oriens
the late 3rd century AD. He wears a radiate crown and usually carries
a whip. Technically, Oriens is the rising sun while Sol and Helios are
Valeri
names for the sun disk.
an
antoninianus
Tellus
Tellus, goddess of the earth (ground), holds tools of agriculture
Hadri
and is identified by legend.
an
denarius
Three
Graces Euphrosyne, Aglaia and Thalia, also known as the Charities,
were minor goddesses of refinement and grace. They are shown on
Gordi Greek Imperial coins nude posed together with the center Grace's back
an III to the viewer.
provincial
Venus
Venus, goddess of love, is shown here copying a statue of
Aphrodite
unknown location. She holds an apple and palm. This view from the
rear is an exception to the general rule that goddesses were shown
Julia
fully clothed. Other depictions of Venus show her fully dressed and
Domna
carrying a helmet and scepter.
denarius
Vesta
Goddess of hearth and home, Vesta is shown seated with a
Julia small statue of victory and a scepter. Other common attributes are a
Domna patera (dish for sacrifice) and covered head.
denarius
Vulca
n
Vulcan, god of fire, is rarely used on Roman coins. He is
shown here inside a temple holding the hammer and tongs of a
Valeri
blacksmith.
an I
antoninianus
y advancing left, palm in right hand, trophy in

left
SC
Victory flying
left, hitching
wings,
Victoria Victory her skirt with
wreath, cross, palm
right hand,
holding shield
inscribed S P Q
R in left hand
VICTO
RIA GERM
Victory
wings, standing left,
Victoria Victory
wreath, cross, palm
wreath upward
in right hand,
palm in left,
seated captive at
feet to left
VIRTVS
AVG
Virtus,
armoredhelmeted, right
Courage,
figure, one breast
breast exposed,
Virtus
Virtue exposed, holding
standing left,
figure of Victory
Victory in right
hand, left hand
resting on
shield, spear
against left arm
REGI
ARTIS
Vulcan
Fire, Iron, hammer,
Vulcan standing facing,
Weaponry tongs
head right,
hammer in right
hand, tongs in
left
Allegory standing
ABUNDANTIA
ABUNDANTIA
ABUNDANTIA
ABUNDANTIA
ABUNDANTIA
ABUNDANTIA
ABUNDANTIA
AEQVITAS
AEQVITAS
AEQVITAS
AEQVITAS
AETERNITAS
AETERNITAS
AETERNITAS
AETERNITAS
AETERNITAS
AETERNITAS
AETERNITAS
AETERNITAS
AETERNITAS
AETERNITAS
ANNONA
ANNONA
ANNONA
ANNONA
ANNONA
ANNONA
ASCLEPIUS
BONUS EVENTUS
BONUS EVENTUS
BONUS EVENTUS
BONUS EVENTUS
CLEMENTIA
CLEMENTIA
CLEMENTIA
CLEMENTIA
CONCORDIA
CONCORDIA
CONCORDIA
CONCORDIA
CONCORDIA
CONCORDIA
CONCORDIA
CONCORDIA
CONCORDIA
CONCORDIA
CONCORDIA
CONSTANTIA
CONSTANTIA
FELICITAS
FECUNDITAS
FECUNDITAS
FECUNDITAS
FECUNDITAS
FECUNDITAS
FECUNDITAS
FELICITAS
FELICITAS
FELICITAS PVBLICA
FELICITAS
FELICITAS
FELICITAS
FELICITAS
FELICITAS
FELICITAS
FELICITAS
FELICITAS
FELICITAS
FELICITAS
FELICITAS
FELICITAS
FIDES
FIDES
FIDES
FIDES
FIDES
FIDES
FIDES
FIDES
FORTUNA
FORTUNA
FORTUNA
FORTUNA
FORTUNA
FORTUNA
FORTUNA
FORTUNA
GENIO
GENIO
GENIO
GENIO
GENIO
GENIO
GENIO
GENIO
GENIO
GENIO
GENIO
GENIO
GENIO
GENIO SENATUS
GENIO SENATUS
HERALD
HILARITAS
HILARITAS
HILARITAS
HILARITAS
HILARITAS
HILARITAS
HILARITAS
HONOS
IUSTITIA
LAETITIA
LAETITIA
LIBERALITAS
LIBERALITAS
LIBERTAS
LIBERTAS
LIBERTAS
LIBERTAS
LIBERTAS
NOBILITAS
MONETA
MAURETANIA S C
MUNIFICENTIA
PAX - NEMESIS
PAX
PAX
PAX
PAX
PAX
PAX
PIETAS
PIETAS
PIETAS
PIETAS
PIETAS
PIETAS
PIETAS
PIETAS
PIETAS
PIETAS
PIETAS
PIETAS
PROVIDENTIA
PROVIDENTIA
PROVIDENTIA
PROVIDENTIA
PROVIDENTIA
PROVIDENTIA
PROVIDENTIA
PROVIDENTIA
PUDICITIA
PUDICITIA
PUDICITIA
ROMA
SAECULUM FRUGIFERUM
SALUS
SALUS
SALUS
SALUS
SALUS
SALUS
SECURITAS
SECURITAS
SECURITAS
SECURITAS
SPES
SPES
SPES
TYCHE
UBERITAS
VIRTUS
VIRTUS
Allegory of country, standing
ASIA
MAURETANIA S C
PANNONIA
Divinitys standing
APOLLO
APOLLO
APOLLO
APOLLO
APOLLO
APOLLO
CERES
CERES
CERES
CERES
CERES
CERES
CERES
CERES
CERES
CERES
DIANA
DIANA
DIANA
DIANA
DIANA
DIANA
DIANA
DIANA
DIANA
DIANA
DIANA
DIANA
DIANA
DIANA
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
HERCULES
JUNO
JUNO
JUNO
JUNO
JUNO
JUNO SOSPITA
JUPITER
JUPITER
JUPITER
JUPITER
JUPITER
JUPITER
JUPITER
JUPITER
JUPITER
JUPITER
JUPITER
MARS
MARS
MARS
MARS
MARS
MARS
MARS
MARS
MARS
MARS
MARS
MERCURY
MERCURY
MERCURY
MINERVA
MINERVA
MINERVA
MINERVA
MINERVA
MINERVA
MINERVA
MINERVA
NEPTUN
NEPTUN
NEPTUN
NEPTUN
NEPTUN
NEPTUN
NEPTUN
NEPTUN
NEPTUN
NEPTUN
NEPTUN
SERAPIS
SERAPIS
SERAPIS
SERAPIS
SOL
SOL
SOL
SOL
SOL
SOL
SOL
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS CAELESTIS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VENUS
VESTA
VESTA
VESTA
VESTA
VESTA
VESTA
VESTA
VESTA
VESTA
VULCAN
Empress standing
SALUS REIPUBLICAE
Emperor Standing
GLORIA ROMANORUM
FUNDATOR PACIS
GLORIA ROMANORUM
PRINCIPI IVVENTUTIS
CONSUL P P PROCONSUL
SENATUS
PRINCIPI IVVENT
PRINCIPI IVVENTUTIS
VIRTVS AVGVSTORVM
VIRTUS EXERCITI
VNMR
P M TR P COS P P
TRIUMFATOR GENTIUM BARBARARUM

PRINCIPI IVVENTUTIS
PRINCIPI IVVENTUT
VICTORIA AVGGG
PRINCIPI IVVENTUTIS
PRINCIPI IVVENTUTIS
PRINCIPI IVVENTUTIS
PRINCIPI IVVENTUTIS
PRINCIPI IVVENTUTIS
PRINCIPI IVVENTUTIS
VICTORIA AVGGG
Striking techniques and accidental strikes
As you will see in the illustration below, "dies" were used to strike coins. Imagine a piece of metal, engraved and very resistant.
There was a die called "sleeping" or "fixed" which was the one of the reverse and a die called "mobile" which was that of the obverse. The
reverse corner was stuck in a block of wood, we put the blank (the blank of metal virgin of any inscription that will become the coin after the
hit) on the reverse die and we presented, at the top, the obverse die then we hit with a hammer. Therefore, you can imagine that the slightly
off-center strikes are quite normal. On the other hand, those called cap strikes and which therefore have a very strong decentering where only
half or less of the drawing appears, is less common. I specify here that the strikes with a big decentering are very common in the imitations of
time of low quality. Similarly, the Gallienus coins and particularly Tetricus I and II are very often largely off-center.
Hybrid: A coin with the obverse of one coin and the reverse of another, an obverse and a reverse that have nothing to do together.
In this case, we must determine a die (all the same details, positions as on another coin) to know that it is the die of an original, that has been
used with another die of obverse or reverse. More simply, when we identify for example the reverse of a coin for an emperor with his titles and
we find this same reverse with another emperor on the obverse. The titles do not correspond to this emperor, so we see that it is a hybrid coin.
Another scenario: imagine that we find a coin with a reverse having GER DAC as legend and that the emperor on the obverse has never
fought or known conflict with the germans and dacians during his reign. So we have proof that the coin is a hybrid, a loan from an old reverse
die to hit a coin. Hybrids are very rare.
Incuse: An incuse strike is said to be a strike where one side appears in hollow, the die called "sleeping" (that of the bottom also said fixed
wedge) still has the coin struck previously, placed on him. A new blank is placed above the coin already struck. So there is an obverse in relief
and on the other side the obverse in hollow. Visualize the top of the coin which is the embossed obverse which comes to print the underside of
the second blank consequently hollow. This is very rare because under the eyes of the "hitter". Even if the hitter has the opportunity to see it,
we still encounter this kind of mistake because the strikes were on a steady pace, at the chain and therefore leave little time to see the blank
that had not been removed . Much more common: the reverse incus. Because the mobile die (of the obverse) held in the hitter's hand, still has
the old coin that stuck on him. It is therefore the underside of this coin, so the reverse, which come print in hollow the top of the blank placed
on the fixed die. Warning! The coins of the Republic are voluntarily incused. We can sometimes see incuse coins, reprinted .Ilustration:
Shocked die : When the two dies hit in the void, this mean without blank between them. They mark each other, we find then on the
coins they strike, elements of the reverse on the obverse and elements of the obverse on the reverse. In addition, some reliefs will be crushed,
the highest details "those used to identify wear because the most exposed" do not stand out, example: the crown is very soft.
Die broken: By dint of striking, the die wears out but can also break, it can go from the hollow line on the die that leaves a line in relief on the
coin, to an edge, or piece of die that comes off, leaving so a piece in relief. Drawing:
Blocked coin: A detail, a letter, an element of the portrait, appears only very little, erased. During successive strikes, a piece of
metal may remain stuck in the die and thus plug a letter or part of the drawing.
Blanks errors:
Homogeneity errors with mixture metals: Often meets on the billons, we can see a copper color part and the rest, silver color. Do not be
confused with fake ones.
Double weights: Much rarer for precious metals, is often found on the antoninians in billon of the third century.
States of conservation
Now that you have identified your coin, it should be properly evaluated. And, for that, it is necessary to estimate its state of
conservation. Let's look at the table below:
Classification criteria:
- State F: very worn coin, one distinguishes some elements allowing to identify the coin. Rest of portrait and legend.
- State VF: we distinguish the whole of the drawing and a very large part of the legend. However, most of the reliefs are worn.
- State XF 40: Everything is readable and the design includes almost all of its details with low wear on the most prominent points.
- State AU 58: All the details are there, very little worn.
- State MS 63: The coin is almost perfect, we note some tiny details slightly worn.
- State MS 65: Perfect coin.
You can refer to the article "New quotes serious and realistic "https://www.all-your-coins.com/en/blog/moderne/nouvelles-
cotations-serieuses-et-realistes". Which joins the previous lines. Finally, I must tell you that in my opinion (and I am not the only one) the
MS 65 state is exaggerated as a term for an antique coins. We give this rank considering that we are talking about a perfect coin. Or rather
almost perfect because if you look closely at the coin of the table, we can imagine even better. I mean, we can imagine that the hair stand out
better, as well as the wings of victory. As in the article in the link above, I would like to point out that: the state of the dies, the striking quality
(more precisely the striking angle of the batter) all this helps to get out a coin with an extraordinary visual or a coin with details that stand out
less well. This therefore joins the debate I develop in the article link: do we consider a coin as MS 65 if it is simply kept in its original state,
regardless of the striking quality? Or should we have a coin in its original state and struck perfectly? It's subjective. Including on modern coins,
you will see some coins graded MS 65 by some and MS 63 by others. I add: I have already seen a nummus Constantius II with large
remnants of ''original shiny'' yes, you read correctly. A coin that was stuck and compressed in the middle of others, all locked up in an ancient
vase. Imagine a bright coin in its almost complete and orange-bronze color. In this case, should we also include shiny as a criterion? In my
opinion, no, it's a plus. It is for all these reasons that the term MS 65 is ridiculous in my opinion. Especially since this term means: Mint State,
referring to modern dies, made according to meticulous techniques that give a perfect result. This is impossible in ancient times, as the
techniques (albeit already evolved) are far from what we know today and even since the 19 th century.
New estimates serious and realistic

New estimates serious and
realistic
Quotes are found everywhere, but they are all criticized for the same thing: they are too high! All connoisseurs will tell you and talk
about it often. So much so that almost all sellers make their own prices!
Quotes that are found everywhere are for the professional market. And on the collectors market, what are the prices? ( I specify
here that i do not sell any coins, so I have absolutely no interest in decreasing or increasing a quote!)
In recent days, I begin or punctuate my articles of "why?", Here again I start again: yes, why make estimates here will you tell me? There are
books, magazines and even sites that all offer the same quotes or almost. So why? For several important points that i detail for you here.
Summary:
 Understand the flaws of current quotes.

 The pedigree.
 Reality of the market.
 Correctly evaluate his coins.
 Problems of valuation of royal and ancient coins.
 The slabs.
 Illustrations of my words and examples of normal prices among professionals.
 My new estimates.
Understand the flaws of current quotes
Without quoting them here, you immediately see what wbooks and sites of known quotations I will speak here. When I walk on
small or big flea markets, I discuss with collectors of all levels, street vendors and even the big sales houses as some will quote below ... All,
absolutely all, complain about the quotations too high. Too high? Yes, I totally agree, only you have to be very attentive and honest to
understand these quotes. It is not a question here of denouncing anything, but of explaining it and understanding it.
If many people think, wrongly, that these quotes are made only to make a bigger profit because these works giving ratings are
created by professionals, it should be made a point with some specific examples:
Put yourself in the shoes of an American or a Japanese wishing to buy a French coin. How will he do it? Already, this person
probably has more money than the average and will probably go to a sales house. And there! Think again, the auction house is not going to
set a price similar to its rating, it will simply set a low price: example a listed coin 500 € will be set to 300 € or 200 € starting price. And it is
precisely here that the problem begins: two wealthy customers or more will fight in auction for a coin! Why exactly this one? The patina, or
simply the desire to complete this vintage in his collection without effort, without looking elsewhere and especially, the pleasure of showing the
purchase price to their friends! Each of these points will make that a coin will sometimes go to 1000 € or more whereas it is worth only 500 €
or even 200 €. This is a small example because on older coins we can sometimes reach peaks. It is therefore this real fact which alone
increases the quotations. not to mention that afterwards, some sellers on the internet or elsewhere will settle on these quotes and make the
same prices.
Therefore, then put yourself in the place of peoples doing quotations, which obviously take all into account and which, by
averaging, get these quotations and edit then.
Another flagrant example: in France, in Normandy, the Gaulish coins of the Aulerques Eburovices are at a certain price, while in
the south of France we find these same coins two or three times more expensive! It is normal, the Aulerques Eburovices are a Gallic people
based in the region of Normandy. It's the same for all coins, they will be more expensive if they are far from their region of origin.
These points being cleared, you understand now these prices sometimes considered "delusional" by the collectors. And to be complete,
many coins became stock market investments, adding value.
The pedigree
Here is a particular point that adds value to a coin acquired from a sales house: the pedigree. When buying a coin at a auction
house, remember that there is identification work, the coin is authenticated, carefully graded, indexed and photographed. For some coins there
are even traces found in old sales. All this affects the final price of a coin.
What is most interesting is the care given to the coins among others. Let me explain: imagine a coin over 50 years old with its
original brilliance. Would you like your seller to touch it with his hands? Of course not, because otherwise your original shine will turn at best
into a patina not very homogeneous and at worst you will have fingerprints ... So you can guarantee to have a coin intact, manipulated with
gloves, not cleaned. Because yes! The probability that another less serious seller has not correctly taken care of the coin is to be taken into
account!
But beyond all this, the most interesting point is the pedigree. Why? Because you have a record of the sale, the provenance and in
case of problems, you can justify the origin of the coin. This can be very important in some countries. If you are reading this and living in
America you have probably heard of this problem. And it may be that it spreads to other countries and you are asked to justify the provenance
of your collectible coins. And even beyond this, you can add value to some coins from important and known collections, an example in France:
the "Pierre" collection.
I think that with these two chapters, you have understood these high ratings and why elsewhere you will have these same coins
two to three times cheaper. There, where, I do not agree and that I agree with the general opinion, it is on the prices of the coins very common
and worn that is very strong. But these coins are not meant to interest the collectors of the country of origin of these coins, but foreign
collectors, in whom these coins are obviously very difficult to find. But that, in my opinion, does not justify to mount the ratings accordingly
because if these foreign collectors went to search on the internet they would find these coins at much lower prices. Even if some prefer to
invest more money for prestige!
Reality of the market
As I have said, too, I find the quotations exaggerated, for the low states of conservation for common coins. Have you ever visited a
flea market and saw that your neighbor sells alone about ten coins of CHAMBER OF COMMERCE 50 Centimes bronze aluminum (French
coin) to 1 € the unit? And that these coins are, like many others, per kilo! They are all in XF 40 and sold 1 € per unit or even less. THEN WHY
ARE THEy QUOTES 3 OR EVEN 5 EURO?! It is here that one enters a certain delirium! You are not going to tell me that two rich people have
invested in these coins and worn coins? No, its impossible! But, odds operate according to a mathematical logic, we will not drop the price of a
currency from 50€ to 1€ from one state of conservation to another.
Correctly evaluate his coins
Another problem that distorts your estimates and your understanding of ratings: The assessment of the state of your coin or that of
the seller. Too often, even "professional" sellers overestimate the state of preservation: a XF 40 coin becomes AU 58 and sometimes even MS
63. Really MS 63 coins are classified in MS 65 almost every time. And for non-professional sellers, we always find the same things: coins
strongly cleaned so-called "uncirculated (MS 65)"...
You have no knowledge of conservation status? B for good, TB for very good, TTB for very very good, SUP for superb, SPL for
splendid and FDC for corner flower in France.
Summary table of the states of conservation in the main countries.
Description France Germany England Spain Italy USA
1 AB GE G RC M AG
2 B SGE VG BC B VG / G6
3 TB S+ F BC + MB F / F15
4 TTB SS VF MBC BB VF / XF40
5 SUP VZ XF EBC BB / SPL XF / AU58
6 SPL FSTGL MS SC SPL MS 63
7 FDC STGL MS FDC / SC FDC MS 65
For the USA there are still other names but much less common, example: F for B ... The USA also use the same names as England.
The following is a description of each state of conservation, for example with the Americans states of conservation.
 1 AG : Coin completely worn and barely identifiable.

 2 F : Very worn coin with some remains of letters and drawing.
 3 VF: Almost all letters and drawings are visible but rather heavily worn.
 4 XF 40: Well preserved coin but a little light wear and some strokes or scratches.
 5 AU 58: All the details are there, some very light strokes or scratches and mainly on the edge or the field.
 6 MS 63: No wear, almost all-round striking brilliance, tiny traces of circulations visible under a magnifying
glass.
 7 MS 65: Coin in its original state, uncirculated. No visible defects even with the magnifying glass.
Precision: each state is punctuated by grades from (french states for this example) B. B 10, TB 25, TTB 45, SUP 58, SPL 63, FDC
65. Hence the USA: MS 63 corresponding to the SPL 63 in France. These grades are accurate and made by expert professionals. However,
among professionals from everywhere, they use the terms, B + or TB + instead of grading and writing TB 30 which is therefore between TB
and TTB. Likewise for TTB +, SUP + etc. The grades are quite subjective from one serious grading company to another. The same coin can
be an SUP 58 or an SUP 60 for example. Anyway, this coin is undoubtedly SUP! And that's what interests you if you are not a specialist.
These gradation figures become important in high states of conservation or in the case of rares coins, where we look for the best-preserved
coin.
However, we must note the defects for the MS 65 which are considered as original, example: "the airlines", "bag shock". Dies who
strike coins are sometimes "cleaned up", causing streaks or other traces that make the minted coin contain traces that are therefore original.
The original state refers to the state of the coin when it is struck. An experienced numismatist and connoisseur will differentiate these traces,
from traces of circulation. You will have noticed that the MS 65 are graduated from 65 to 70. Illogical? Why grader "perfect" coins? Simply to
grapple the perfection of the striking, a coin MS 70 is struck with perfect dies.
The conservation states above are simple summaries. Indeed, each series will have its own wear criteria (which meet all the criteria
that I have already mentioned). These wear criteria are there to describe us the "high points", that is to say the parts of the coin most exposed
to wear because of their prominent position on the coin. Obviously, a laurel wreath is the most prominent it will be worn before the rest of the
portrait. Sometimes it's the ribbons that are used first, ... These criteria serve as shortcuts to evaluate the coin.
Now that you know exactly these criteria, stop buying a MS 65 that is really a AU 58 or MS 63! Do not be surprised then if another
serious professional wants you to buy your coin at a much lower price. Be meticulous, a cleaned coin is worthless! Cleaning removes some of
the metal. One exception: extremely rare coins, even cleaned are sold, we tolerate the cleaning because these coins are rare objects.
However, these coins will never be given a grade above VF because of this cleansing. To recap, be vigilant, a coin is like a car. A car with
stripes is not unused! So do the same with your coins.
For estimations on this site, I opted for a description B 10, TB 25, TTB 45 (or USA states if you choose english language)... No description of
the wear points for now. I have given you the keys here to evaluate your coin simply without going into details that will exceed you and will not
affect the price of your coin.
Problems of valuation of royal and ancient coins
This chapter will be short, but I wanted to emphasize it. What do we see often with ancient coins? MS 65 coming out of nowhere.
MS 63 that are XF 40 ... The antique coins are struck with hand-engraved dies and with rudimentary techniques, we often justify wear by this
fake phrase "it's original" or worse, the excuse of the "die blocked". A blocked die differs from the wear because it misses a detail but nothing
around is worn or the place or missing an item is "clear". It is quite complicated to give you a particular technique but by the usual one we
easily differentiate the two.
What influences many people is the general state of the coins. Ancient coins are often very worn. Because of this, when you are in
front of a little worn coin it is still used superlatives and therefore the MS 63 or MS 65 rank. It's wrong. Wear is a wear and following the same
evaluation techniques as for modern coins is totally justified. If 99% of the antique coins of a certain type for a certain emperor, without giving
a precise example, is always very used and that, one shows you a coin of this type in very good state, like XF 40 or AU 58, this coin is AU 58
or XF 40, nothing else. We will simply note that it is rare in this state.
And for the royal coins? It's the same! Little bronzes coins are graded AU 58 or MS 63 when they are well preserved. Nearly
perfect ancient coins exist, therefore a worn coin is worn! Striking techniques are not necessarily an excuse. But should we, as for modern
coins, look at the quality of striking or simply the preservation of the coin, regardless of the quality of striking. This is subjective.
Finally, for antique, royal and even modern coins, decentering does not affect the state of conservation.
The slabs
This little chapter is here to present you a new element, even if it exist since several years. At the moment, slabs are definitely
democratized. But first, what are these "slabs"? They are rigid plastic protections, allowing optimal protection of your coins as well as an
elegant presentation. Coins are protected from UV, moisture or anything that may alter its condition, including its original color and velvet of
strike. At the beginning, most collectors wondered about the place taken by these boxes in the case of large collections, aesthetics... But
today, everyone appreciates them. also allow to put tab, they also include barcodes. This last point makes it possible to trace the coin and
thus it has a pedigree.
Let's go back to the original subject: as I explained the quotations of the books represent the professional market. And so, it
includes the work around the identification, the estimate of the grade of conservation, the precaution and the care brought to the coins.
Something that is almost never found in the amateur market, because coins are touched by hand, stored in folders exposed to light, moisture,
solvents of plastic around the coins. But, with the slabs, it changes everything! Since the coins are already perfectly protected. If you buy to
collector a MS 65 coin in slabs, it will remain in this state. And this is where you can look for beautiful coins at prices lower than those on the
professional market, while ensuring you have a coin that will not change appearance.
Grading and Describing Ancient Coins
Coin collectors traditionally attach more value to specimens in an excellent state of

preservation than to similar items that show wear or other evidence of the passage of time.
To a great degree, modern coins all began life the same. Struck with identical pressure from
mechanically cloned dies they tend to have only minor differences in quality that are quickly
evened out by wear. Therefore, the collector of Roosevelt dimes can order 'sight unseen' a
'VF' coin and have a reasonable idea what to expect when the coin arrives. Collectors of
ancient coins don't share in this benefit. Factors of production and the ravenges of time both
induce levels of variability causing two coins, both fairly graded 'VF', to look absolutely
nothing like each other.
This page will expand the currently popular grading system with a discussion of
factors that help describe ancient coins. The purpose of this page is to suggest the reader
consider the factors mentioned when evaluating coins in the marketplace. Grading is very
much a matter of opinion. Collectors and dealers frequently disagree on the proper term to be
applied to any given coin. What appears on this page is only a general guide and is very
much my opinion and nothing more. There is no authoritative photo guide to grading ancient
coins. Such a standard would require tens of thousands of photos to cover the subject well.
Each collector may have a different opinion on the relative significance of each fault or
characteristic. It is not at all unusual for an ancient coin fairly graded 'F' to sell for more than
another specimen of the same coin that can be graded 'VF'. The factors that allow this
seeming inconsistancy are the subjects of this page.
Standard Grading
MS - Mint State
Sorry, no illustration
No! Wear - Perfect in every way!
EF - Extremely Fine
Very minor wear affects only on the finest

details of the highest points. Every detail, every hair in
the beard, everything!! must be sharp. I would like to
been able to show you a sestertius size EF as part of this
series but I do not have one.
Julia Domna
Septimius Severus
denarius
arius
Pietas rx.
me mint
Laodicea mint
VF - Very Fine
Wear shows on fine details but all elements of

the design (e.g. the laurel wreath of the portrait) are
complete
Julia Domna
Septimius Severus
denarius
ertius
Venus rx.
me mint
Rome mint
F - Fine
Wear erases some details but major design

elements are completely outlined and retain some detail.
Facial features are still separate but ears and laurel
wreaths are not complete.
Julia Domna
Domitian denarius
ertius Venus rx.
Emesa mint
VG - Very Good (UK 'Fair')
Major devices (e.g. portrait) are indicated by a

complete outline but little detail remains inside that
outline. Facial features on the portrait begin to blend
together.
Julia Domna
Trajan denarius
ertius Venus rx.
Alexandria mint
G - Good
Major device outlines are mostly complete with

no details. The silver example suffers as much from
strike as wear but it was what I had at hand. Sorry.
Julia Domna
Hadrian
denarius
hm
Venus rx.
xandria, Egypt
Barbaric mint
fr - Fair (UK 'Mediocre')
Major devices partially indicated. With luck,

portraits will be recognizable by veteran collectors.This
silver example is a bit too good for this grade; they get
much worse! Honest wear to this grade might have taken
a century of circulation.
Julia Domna
Claudius
denarius
Venus rx.
erva rx.
Alexandria mint
pr - Poor
Sorry, there is nothing to
A slick slug with almost no detail - identifiable
w on this grade.
by chance or when the other side of the coin is a higher
grade
All of the above grades can be preceeded with "a" for "about" to indicate a coin not
quite fully deserving that full grade but still too nice to be the next lower grade. Similarly, a
"g" (good) prefix can be used to indicate a coin a bit better than that grade but not ready for
the next grade. Some use "+" or "-" following the grade as modifiers.
With Ancient Coins it's not that Simple!!!
Additional factors to be considered when grading ancient coins can be divided in two
groups: Conditions of Manufacture and Conditions of Preservation. The first are variations
produced when the coin was made. The second group covers what has happened to the coin
during its periods of circulation, hoarding and retrieval.
If you stop here, you'll miss the best parts:
Conditions of Manufacture
Ancient coins were struck with varying degrees of excellence. Some mints exercised
excellent quality control so nearly every coin was perfect when it left the mint. Others
worked in such a haphazard manner that a well struck, well centered specimen is a great
rarity. Flan preparation, alloy mixing, die condition and pure luck all conspired to make each
coin an individual effort. The following table addresses conditions that have existed on the
coin since the moment of striking. These factors do not change as result of the passage of
time but some of their signs can wear away. In low grade coins it is hard to tell the fullness
of the strike. Many coins will require separate grading and description for each side.
Conditions of Manufacture
F Well Centered
Titus sestertius
Ancient coins are frequently slightly off center. It
can be worthy of note when a coin is struck well
centered on a perfectly round flan.
VF Off Center
Alexander the Great tetradrachm
Small degrees of poor centering are not usually
noted. However this should be described when
important design or legends are lost.
VF Small flan
Septimius Severus denarius
Unofficial mint
This coin was struck on a small flan losing most
legends.
VF Bold
Laodicea mint
Coins boldly struck on large flans show (very
nearly) a full border of dots and every letter is
sharp.
VF Boardwalk flan
Numerian antoninianus
This coin was struck with 'boardwalk' margins on
an oversize flan.
VF Incuse square
Rhodes hemidrachm
Some Greek reverses were made with the design
on a square punch.
aVF Wide flan with weak centers

Gordian III antoninianus
Many coins on wide flans were softly struck in the
centers (here the ear) due to the excessively thin
flan. There was not enough metal for either side.
aVF Flat spot opposite head

Numerian antoninianus
When the flan was thin and hammer force weak
there could be a void in the reverse design where
the metal went into the portrait. This coin shows a
void on the legs of the figure.
F Soft
Vabalathus antoninianus
Antioch mint
This coin shows little wear but has mushy details
from a soft strike or a worn die.
VF Ragged flan
Some flans were not round and smooth. Some
collectors discriminate against these coins. Take
care to distinguish this from a chipped flan.
F Squared flan
Marcus Aurelius sestertius
Some flans seem to have been cut from larger
pieces and have squared shape. Much legend is
lost on such coins.
aEF Normal strike

Laodicea mint (early) Fortuna rx.
This coin is well struck on full, normal flan.
Design, other than the border, is complete if not
well centered.
VF Legend weakness
Allectus antoninianus
There is an area of striking weakness but not to a
bothersome degree. Frequently this will show only
in a few letters of the legend. Few dealers will
bother to mention this condition.
VF Filled die
Foreign material in the die could erase some
letters and leave others bold.
aVF Minor striking cracks
Most coins have one or more minor edge cracks
which have little effect on value
aVF Severe striking crack

Gordian III sestertius
Even this severe flan crack does not involve
important details but reduces value due to its
extreme nature.
VF Die break/crack
Gordian III antoninianus
The line running across the forehead is the result
of a crack in the die.
VG Die cud
Aegina stater
More extreme die damage shows when a piece of
the die is missing and produces lumps on the coin.
To the left of the turtle is a die cud, not a part of
the design.
F Uneven strike with flat areas

Constantius Gallus centenionalis
Siscia mint Spearing rx.
This example is unevenly struck to a distracting
degree with loss of significant details at the top the
Roman soldier's body.
F Uneven flat strike

Domitian dupondius Barbarous mint
This coin is poorly struck to an extreme. It is half
flat but earns points by retaining the face.
F Even flat strike
Hadrian sestertius
If the strike is even but just not hard
enough to transfer all detail we see the high points
(here around ear) completely lacking in detail with
good detail on the nearby areas (hair and beard).
Wear would have lost detail more evenly across
the field. This coin is hard to grade fairly. It looks
better than a worn Fine but lacks the detail needed
to grade higher.
VF Casting voids
Septimius Severus AE 32
Amasia, Pontus Eagle/Wall rx.
Flan flaws (of manufacture!) detract from the
appearance of the coin. The example shows flan
casting voids severe enough they were not erased
by striking.
VF Flan flaws
Postumus double sestertius
A combinination of a casting void and raised
foreign matter inclusions in the alloy ruins this
portrait.
VF Crude
Severus Alexander AE20 Nicaea
Some coins are notably more poorly produced
than others of their type. Many are from unofficial
mints.
VF Flow lines
Some dies show lines that radiate out from details.
This can be from die wear or striking irregularity.
VF Casting sprue
Istros cast AE14
Coins that were cast rather than struck from dies
can show remnants of the sprue where metal
entered the mold.
F Flan casting sprue

Alaisa AE22
These can also appear on struck coins made on
cast blanks but are often ersaed by striking.
VG Double Struck
Constantius II centenionalis
When a flan shifted between blows of the
hammer, doubling resulted. Minor doubling is
undesirable but extreme examples are collected as
mint errors.
F Overstruck
Heraclius follis
Some coins were struck on older issues often
leaving legible parts of the undertype.
VG Flipover doublestrike
Claudius II antoninianus Pax rx.
Even normal ancient coins show variety that
would be considered errors on modern coins but
sometimes this can be of an extreme nature. These
coins were struck twice flipping over between the
two strikes.
F Flipover doublestrike
Septimius Severus denarius Mars rx.
F Centration Dimple
Gordian III AE28
Nicopolis ad Istrum
This is NOT a fault. Some Greek Imperial mints
smoothed flan surfaces on a machine that left a
shallow hole in the center of the flan. These vary
in size and depth but must be present on these
issues.
F Centration Dimple
Ptolemy II AE46
The same technique was used on some Hellenistic
bronzes.
F Brockage
If a coin stuck in the reverse die, the next coin
struck would show an incuse, reversed design of
the obverse
F Clashed dies
Julia Domna denarius Venus rx.
Dies struck without a blank between could
damage a die leaving a incuse design along with
the normal for the rest of the life of that die.
F Incuse design
Kroton, Bruttium, stater
A few coins were intentionally designed with the
design recessed into the coin surface rather than
raised. This is NOT a fault.
VF Layout circle
Emesa mint Bonus Eventus rx.
Early strikes from fresh dies often show layout
lines on which the legends were cut.
F Flan file marks
Alexandria Troas AE20
Some flans were filed flat before striking. A weak
strike might fail to erase these marks.
VF Adjustment marks
M. Volteius denarius
To lessen the weight of overweight flans, a scoop
of silver was sometimes removed from
Republican denarii flans before striking.
VF Serrate edge
C. Sulpicius denarius
Some coins were issued with notched edged to
discourage trimming of silver or to show the
interior of the coin. This is NOT a fault.
F 'Bottle cap' edge

Other fancy edges were cast into the flan blanks
for certain issues. This may have been to make
counterfeiting more difficult.
These are by no means all of the factors of coin manufacture to consider when grading
ancient coins. Please let me know what conditions I should add to this list. It is hoped that
these examples will make you think about what makes a coin appealing, attractive or
desirable and cause you to lighten up a bit when criticising dealers who have to grade using
the woefully inadequate current grading system.
Grading and Describing Ancient Coins
Conditions of Preservation
Other than wear, which is addressed by the currently popular grading standards, many
things could happen to an ancient coin on its travels into our collections. Some of these
things are positive. Burial under the right conditions sometimes produced a controlled
surface corrosion that collectors consider beautiful: the patina. Most, however, of the
situations discussed below describe faults that coins show in reaction to the stresses of burial
in the earth and handling by people both ancient and modern. It is quite possible that these
factors could continue to change with time. Careful cleaning can greatly improve the
appearance of some coins. Amateur efforts at cleaning can reduce the value of a coin
substantially. Brightly cleaned surfaces can retone attractively but corrosion can eat away
coins stored improperly. Coins are hard to improve and easy to ruin while in the hands of
modern collectors.
Conditions of Preservation
aVF Darkly toned

Julia Maesa denarius
Silver coins can take on a dark tone (natural or
chemically induced) that collectors tend to prefer
over bright silver.
VF Rainbow toning
C. Naevius Balbus denarius
Victory in triga rx.
Silver coins also can take on a multicolored hue.
This also can be chemically induced.
EF Fully Cleaned
SPQR rx. Emesa mint
Many recently found ancient coins ("hoard
material") have fully clean, smooth, shiny
surfaces.
ALL ANCIENT COINS HAVE BEEN
CLEANED! (The ones with an inch of dirt on the
surface used to have two inches.) Some are
severely damaged in cleaning; some are done very
professionally.
VF Green Patina
Septimius Severus sestertius
This coin has a hard even (but slightly
multicolored and textured) surface corrosion or
patina. Patinas can be found in a range of colors.
Green is common and popular.
F Smoothed Green Patina

Nero dupondius
Frequently, as on this coin, patinas are smoothed
or polished as a part of the cleaning process.
VF Olive Patina
Julia Domna as
Green patinas come in a range of shades from
light olive to almost black.
F Black Patina
Domitian sestertius
Black is a commonly found patina color and often
looks better on the coin in hand than on a photo.
F Red Patina
Tiberius as altar rx.
Red patina is often seen as spots but sometimes
covers enough of the coin to be classified
separately.
gF Blue Patina
Commodus
Dionysopolis, Phrygia AE 19
Blue is a less common color but still popular.
Certain soils tend to produce certain color patinas
so some issues are commonly found with a
particular color and rarely found with others.
VF Earthen/Sand Patina
Maximianus post reform radiate
Patina can be combined with hard soil deposits
that produce an attractive contrast. This is prefered
to patina worn away from the high points.
aVF Contrasting surfaces

Commodus sestertius
This contrasting tone is from wear on high spots
through the patina to the metal below. This
example also shows scratches on the portrait.
aVF Thick Patina

Carausius antoninianus
Felicitas rx.
Too much of a good thing can cause detail to be
lost under an overly thick surface coating.
F Chippy Patina
Julia Domna sestertius
A hard even patina can be ruined by chipping or
wear around the edges. Collectors prefer patinas
that are solid and stable.
VF Uneven, patchy patina

Decentius centenionalis
Partial, uneven patina can look worse than no
patina at all!
EF Patchy silver wash

Probus antoninianus
Horseman spearing rx.
Coins that were originally covered with a thin
silver wash can lose part of the coating leaving a
very uneven and unattractive mix of colors.
VF Fingerprint
Mars rx.
Ridges at the upper right of this coin could be the
result of etching by an ancient fingerprint over the
centuries or handing by a modern coin cleaner
with strong chemicals on his hands.
VF Porous
Trajan as
Coins without patina on the surface can show a
fine texture or porosity. This is common on coins
found in rivers but can also be the result of
cleaning with harsh chemicals.
F Surface pitting
Clodius Albinus sestertius
Minor pitting or heavily porous surfaces obscure
detail on many bronze coins.
G Patchy, rough surfaces

Septimius Severus as
Minerva rx.
Uneven, patchy and ugly surfaces ruins the
appearance of many coins.
F Severe pitting
Caligula as
Heavy pitting leaves major areas of erosion and
severe defacement. The coin is ugly despite
having considerable detail.
F Eroded and tooled

Titus sestertius
Spes rx.
This coin shows the removal of diseased metal.
Ugly coin! The other side is shown as "Well
Centered".
F Crystalization
Corinth trihemiobol
Over the millenia, many silver coins show
formation of a crystaline pattern in the metal.
F Lamination
Syracuse hexas
Surface enhanced metal compressed in striking
can peel away from the more porous core metal.
VG Unnaturally polished
Galba sestertius
This coin was obviously polished and possibly
tooled to restore lost detail. If a coin is tooled,
details restored must belong to the original coin.
VG FRAUDULENTLY Tooled
"Pescennius Niger" as
This coin was tooled into an as of Pescennius
Niger (who produced no Roman bronzes). It is a
BAD fake. This photo was sent to me forty years
ago. Where is this coin today?
F Graffiti
Pharsalos, Thessaly drachm
Scratches (here K) on some coins appear to be
have made intentionally.
VG Holes
Nerva Restoration of Augustus as
Holes in coins were made for many reasons both
in ancient and modern times.
G Holed and cracked
Legion XXII PRI rx.
The example has a bad crack near the hole and is
in danger of breaking.
F Chip
Julius Caesar denarius
Priestly implements rx.
Most ancients have irregular edges but chips that
happened after the coin left the mint are
considered serious flaws. This could be ancient
damage or a result of modern handling.
aVF Broken edge

Commodus AE 28
Flaviopolis, Cilicia, Isis-Serapis rx
The ragged edge on this coin may result from bad
flan preparation or later damage. The scar is
patinated over so the damage is ancient.
F Scratched
Julia Domna sestertius Venus rx.
Fine scratching is usually not noted unless
excessive. This coin has two heavy scratches right
of the figure. The line at the far left is a flan flaw
rather than a scratch.
F Intentional damage
Septimius Severus/Julia Domna AE35
Stratonicaea, Caria
A small countermark (Geta?) was removed from
the coin in antiquity.
F Halved coin
Augustus and Agrippa AE26
Nemausus, Gaul
Small change was made by cutting a larger coin.
(Both sides shown)
VG Countermark F
Nero Claudius Drusus sestertius
NCAPR in the countermark was stamped into this
coin under Nero to certify the coin as valid.
Stamping frequently left a flat spot on the opposite
side of the coin. Dealers often state a separate
grade for a countermark on a more worn coin.
VF Test Cut
Athens tetradrachm owl rx.
Many silver coins were cut to see if they were
solid silver. This one was.
VF Test Cut Fourree

Athens tetradrachm owl rx.
However, this cut revealed the coin was silver
plated with a copper core or fourree.
F Worn Fourree
Otho denarius
Many plated coins were revealed not by cuts but
when their silver layer peeled off or wore through
showing the copper core below.
F Surface deposits
Julia Domna denarius Moneta rx.
Spots of metal from other coins or chemicals in
soil can form raised lumps on surfaces.
F Copper deposits
Domitian denarius
Copper on top of silver is from deposits not a sign
of the coin being fourree. This coin probably was
hoarded with copper coins.
VF Clipped
Charles I halfcrown
Silver coin edges were often trimmed by persons
building a supply of the metal. The illegal practice
was common and many coins are missing legends.
This reduces the coin's value.
F Ex Jewelry
Theodosius II solidus Roma rx.
Many gold coins were once used in jewelry and
show marks from the removal of the mount. This
coin shows clear scars (12, 3, 6 and 9 o'clock)
from mounting prongs.
These are by no means all of the factors to consider when grading ancient coins.
Please let me know what conditions I should add to this list. It is hoped that these examples
will make you think about what makes a coin appealing, attractive or desirable and cause
you to lighten up a bit when criticising dealers who have to grade using the woefully
inadequate current system.
Fourrees
Coins to be sought out? .......or to be avoided?

Gold over copper nomisma of Basil II & Constantine VIII 976-1025 AD
Copper shows on just about every high point on both sides. I assume (but do not know) this to be a contemporary counterfeit.
From the very beginning of precious metal coinage a certain number of coins were
made with a precious metal 'skin' over a base metal core. These 'plated' or 'fourree' (also seen
spelled with one 'r' or 'e') pieces were intended to look like their solid counterparts and
circulated until the core broke through betraying their nasty little secret. When late Roman
silver coinage deteriorated to the point that the alloy was no longer silver in color, official
mints applied a thin silver wash to serve as a reminder that there was some silver in the
alloy. These are not considered 'fourree' since their purpose was not to deceive (much in the
same sense as the current U.S. clad coinage). When currency reforms returned a good silver
coin to circulation, production of plated pieces resumed. This process was used long after the
end of ancient era. Most plated coins are silver over copper but gold over copper and gold
over silver coins exist. There are even a few coins of bronze over iron!
A most important point to remember when discussing plated coins is that wh
is proven true for one does not necessarily hold true for another. This applies both to
the techniques of manufacture and to their reasons for issue. While many advanced
students of numismatics disagree, I maintain that SOME fourrees were produced at
SOME official mints. MOST, however, were unofficial at least to some degree. Coins
could be produced by mint workers 'moonlighting', by persons using retired or stolen
dies, by local authorities creating a 'money of necessity', by barbaric people making a
'imitative' coinage and, finally, by out and out counterfeiters. Unfortunately, it is not
always possible to determine which of these categories applies to any particular coin
Silver over copper legionary denarius of Mark Antony Our best educated guesses will remain just that: guesses.
er foil technique - Possibly regular mint product?
Otho - 69 AD - Fourree denarius - SECVRITAS PR
My interest in plated coins began while I was in college and unable to afford the high
priced coins of rare emperors. I happened across a plated Otho which I bought as a space
filler until I could have a solid coin. I have never owned a solid Otho denarius. Meanwhile, I
read somewhere (Where?? Please help me remember where!) that it was impossible to
assemble a set of 12 Caesars in fourree since there were no fourree Otho. We know that
author was in error, I sold that coin in 1972. Over the years, I have seen a total of four
plated Otho denarii and came to consider the plated coins and their history a special part of
my numismatic enjoyment.
Of the plated coins in my collection

the most exceptional is this denarius of
Hadrian. Individually, fourree coins
and brockages are rather common. This co
unusual in that it combines both of these
'varieties'. I have seen two other examples
this combination.
The lower inset magnification o

small area from the reverse shows a pit
the silver that passes through a (white in
photo) region of silver copper alloy whi
bonds the relatively pure silver on the
surface to the copper core. This alloy, th
'eutechtic', is the mixture of 72% silver
28% copper and has the lowest melting
combination of these two metals. This material is used as silver solder. Fourrees were produced by wrapping the copper core wi
his sandwich was heated and struck with dies. If the heating and the force of striking were sufficient the two layers would adher
thin layer of eutechtic at the bond. Some workshops strengthened this bond with a powdered eutechtic sprinkled between the lay
ays easy to tell which method was used on any particular coin but the thickness seen in this photo suggests that this coin was
th this 'added eutechtic' technique.
For more technical information on fourree production techniques and great cross
section photos, see:
Campbell, William, Greek and Roman Plated Coins Numismatic Notes and
Monographs No. 57, American Numismatic Society, 1933.
On the following pages, I have posted a discussion of fourree coins with many photos.
Persons interested are welcome to visit:
Republican/Imperatorial Plated Coins
Roman Imperial Plated Coins
Greek Plated Coins
Fourrees - Plated Coins
To be sought out? .......or to be avoided?
If you have not seen the first part of this series, please visit my: First Plated Coins
page.
From the very beginning of precious metal coinage a certain number of coins were
made with a precious metal 'skin' over a base metal core. Most plated coins are silver over
copper but gold over copper and gold over silver coins exist. There are even a few coins of
bronze over iron! These 'plated' or 'fourree' (also seen spelled with one 'r' or 'e') pieces were
intended to look like their solid counterparts and circulated until the core broke through
betraying their nasty little secret. When late Roman silver coinage deteriorated to the point
that the alloy was no longer silver in color, official mints applied a thin silver wash to serve
as a reminder that there was some silver in the alloy. These are not considered 'fourree' since
their purpose was not to deceive (much in the same sense as the current U.S. clad coinage).
When currency reforms returned a good silver coin to circulation, production of plated
pieces resumed. This process continued to be used long after the end of ancient era.
A most important point to remember when discussing plated coins is that what is
proven true for one does not necessarily hold true for another. This applies both to the
techniques of manufacture and to the reasons for issue. While many advanced students of
numismatics disagree, I maintain that SOME fourrees were produced at SOME official
mints. MOST, however, were unofficial at least to some degree. Coins could be produced by
mint workers 'moonlighting', by persons using retired or stolen dies, by local authorities
creating a 'money of necessity', by barbaric people making an 'imitative' coinage and, finally,
by out and out counterfeiters. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to determine which of
these categories applies to any particular coin. Our best educated guesses will remain just
that: guesses.
The methods of producing plated coins varied greatly from tim
time and place to place. Some have very thick silver jackets firmly
bonded to the core; some are barely different from the later silver was
issues and must have been discovered soon after they entered circulat
As the silver content of normal coins decreased, the profit to be made
making plated coins followed. As a result, the techniques that produce
thick layer of silver were rarely used. It is not at all unusual to find
several classes of fourrees (official/barbaric, thick/thin) of the same
period. Lets repeat the most important point: Proving ONE plated coin
for example, Nero to be good or bad does not prove anything about
thousands of other plated coins of Nero. There was not an organized
fourree mint responsible for all of these coins. All that ALL fourree co
have in common is that they were plated!
r copper denarius of Mark Antony shows edge core
5 o'clock) and a strong seam where foil edges met.
e who hold that all fourrees are counterfeit point to the lack of die links between plated and solid coins even when the plated pieces are o
seems to me that if I were involved in the productions 'bad' coins, either officially or fraudulently, I would want to be certain I could tell m
o I would not receive them in daily commerce. The obvious way to accomplish this would be to use 'special' dies with some secret mark
to persons 'in the know'. This would also allow officials of the mint to distance themselves from the bad coins when they were later
would be quite surprised to find die links between solid and plated coins.
EXAMPLES:
The photo captions on this page will discuss examples of plated coins. Evidence will be
presented as it relates to how the coin was made and, the possible status (guess!!) of the issue
will be given. These evaluations are only opinions based on style and workmanship.
Certainly, my expertise is not sufficient to rule on the style quality of so many different
coins. If you are expert in some of these issues, you may catch my errors. Truth about such
coins would be hard to prove in their own day, let alone 2000 years later.
stus - Fourree denarius - c.27 BC - 3.0g

Fourrees are most common in Roman Republican and early Imperial coins. During this period
purity of metal and weight was kept to a high standard so it is possible that mint expenses we
offset by production of a percentage of these 'special' pieces. After the debasement of silver
coinage under Nero it is very hard to find fourrees of a style that could possibly have been of
mint product. This would suggest that debasement later supplied the operating overhead
previously provided by the plated coins. The best fourrees were produced by wrapping a cop
core with silver foil. This sandwich was heated and struck with dies. If the heating and the for
of striking were sufficient the two layers would adhere producing a thin layer of eutechtic (th
metals with the lowest melting point) at the bond. Some workshops strengthened this bond with a powdered eutechtic sprinkled between
ot always easy to tell which method was used on any particular coin. This denarius of Augustus shows seams on the obverse where the ed
oil wrapper were fused by the striking process. The seam usually shows only on one side. (Try wrapping an English Muffin in two small pie
foil and you will understand both the technique and the reason for this.) Copper core is evident on the high wear points on the reverse. Th
hicker silver on the seamed side so it follows that the first wear through to the core would be on the other side. Style strikes me as possibl
bond that still attaches the layers of this coin firmly is the result of proper heating and flan preparation.
Augustus & Tiberius - Fourree denarius - 13-14
2.5g (very light!) denarius of Augustus and Tiberius could be official mint product. The bond
sful with the seam showing very clearly. This suggests that this foil adhered to the core only
nd force of the striking process. I see no intermediate 'glue' layer as shown on the Hadrian
kage that was subject of one of this site's earliest pages. The coin shows round punches on
side that probably confirmed the suspicions of an ancient merchant. Otherwise, the core is
at the bottom of Augustus' neck. This was probably due to flaking of the foil at a seam
wear. The gash under Tiberius' chin that failed to penetrate the rather thick silver layer may
amage when the coin was excavated.
pey the Great (struck by his son) - Fourree denarius - 44-43 BC

Fourrees sometimes have fully intact silver and are easily confused with normal coins. This
denarius of Sextus Pompey (44-43 BC) is betrayed by one small pit on the rudder of the galley
its lighter than normal weight of 2.9g. This coin was made with thicker than average silver wh
withstood considerable wear without revealing the core. Close inspection will reveal a trace o
seam near the reverse edge at about 5 o'clock. The dealer who sold this to me as a fourree w
TRUELY an honest gentleman who knew coins. This coin shows good style and eye appeal but
still valued by collectors at a fraction of the price of a solid example. Collectors have two choi
Learn to spot these things on your own or buy only from reputable dealers who know their
eat emptor!
Brutus - Fourree denarius c.54
ast example is a silver over copper denarius (c.54 BC) of Brutus showing two of his
utus the Ancient and Ahala). The coin dates to his period of service as a moneyer a decade
urdered Caesar. The core was revealed by a punch test cut. The interesting features of this
die breaks on the obverse. While die breaks are found on normal coins, the severity of these
ssibility that the dies were stolen and continued in use after being officially retired by the
rtainly can never be proven. As with all of the coins on this page, style is reasonable and dies
cial. This is commonly the case with fourrees of the Republican and Imperatorial period.
Fourrees are known of the earliest Greek coins and continue well past the end of
'ancient' coinage. To keep the load time of this page at a reasonable level, I have separated
these examples to separate pages. I hope you will visit both:
Please visit the other two parts of this series:

Later Roman Plated Coins
Greek Plated Coins
If you have not seen the first part of this series, please visit my: First Plated Coins
page.
After the beginning of debasement of Roman silver under Nero, plated coins of good
style become much less common. Increasingly, fourrees are seen with barbaric, crude or just
plain 'bad' style. These coins have no real possibility of having been made in the official
mints. Still, some may be semi-official 'money of necessity' issued for actual use rather than
fraud. Many, however, are simply counterfeits. Of course, to many collectors, even these are
collectable as genuine ancient fakes.
As before, the rest of this space will be devoted to an examination of some plated
coins.
The Examples:
Nero - Fourree denarius / Salus - 2.4g Nero - Fourree denarius / Jupiter - 3.2g
These two denarii of Nero are very different in almost every way. The Salus is reasonably good style and plated with th
foil technique favored in the Republic (and discussed on my Republican/Imperatorial Plated Coins page). I would suggest it mig
be a mint product but am concerned that this combination of obverse and reverse is not listed in the literature except as fourr
it possible that the combination of the Salus across the field reverse and NERO CAESAR AVGVSTVS obverse was the 'secret' ma
that marked this as a plated issue? Of the fourrees I have seen, this coin shows the best example of a foil seam. The two foils m
have been cut round and applied quite carefully to produce so even a circle on the reverse. The core shows clearly at several h
wear points suggesting it was exposed in antiquity by wear rather than by peeling during the cleaning process. This was a well
bonded fourree but it has textbook faults around the seam and minor wear through making it a fine example of its kind..
IVPPITER CVSTOS coin shows wildly barbaric style with ragged lettering and a very poor style portrait. The plating was proba
ting the core with eutectic which would melt across the surface without liquefying the copper core. This would leave a lower qua
surface than the foil technique but certainly anyone who would be sophisticated enough to see that would also realize that the s
man. The coin must have circulated at the edges of the Empire where normal coins were not available. I have not been able to
yself that this coin was plated before striking. The irregular surface could be from an after-plating which would not have been
y the pressure of the dies. However, it is possible that the grainy texture of this coin is due to the leeching of copper from the allo
duced during the time of burial and cleaning process. Your opinion on this matter would be appreciated.
Trajan - Fourree??? denarius - 114-117 AD - 2.8g
all plated coins are so obvious. This denarius of Trajan presents a problem. Behind the Emperor's head is a raised bulge in the sil
ate pressure on this area resulted in a dent with a fine crack. The bulge was caused by a bubble of gas under the surface. What
gas? The possibility exists that there was a natural inclusion in the alloy that corroded and expanded. More likely to my way of
hat this is a plated coin which shows no core exposure. A small amount of water could have seeped into the interior and corroded
re resulting in the bubble. Corrosion products present in the edge cracks could be from the core of this coin or simply have escap
process. Is this coin plated? Its owner thinks it is; I agree. Do you? Would you feel right selling this coin as a solid denarius? W
asurement of specific gravity might add information, the absolute truth in this matter would require further damage to the coin.
style seem within the normal range for this issue. Persons who consider plated coins uncollectable should be wary of unexplaine
es. Even then, there are probably many high grade plated coins lurking in collections that will never be discovered.
The beginning of the third century AD saw a new style fourree. These denarii were
copper with the thinnest of silver coatings. Many survive today as copper coins. Some coins
appear to have been cast rather than struck but these are difficult to separate from tourist gr
fakes of more modern manufacture. Some appear to be die linked to solid coins but further
examination suggests that they may have been cast or struck from dies made from regular so
coins. Others were struck from dies that have a distinct (incorrect) style but regularly have be
style than solid silver barbaric coins of the period. Sometimes called coins of the 'limes' it see
likely that they were a money of necessity produced to support commerce on the borders
('limes') where losses of precious metal to barbarian raiders was likely. Whether this was
approved or executed by Roman authority or was purely a local matter is not known. Much m
e coins is needed but there is no real promise that the answer will ever be certain. The coins of the Severans are relatively common and se
es as appropriate for their appearance. There is a good possibility that some of these were made several years after the coins they copy.
Clodius Albinus/Commodus copper denarius Julia Domna silver over copper denarius
(193/191 AD) 2.2g (193-196 AD) 2.2g (chipped)
unusual (left) is this 'limes' class fourree core which retains only a speck of silver (behind head and, enlarged, inset). The obverse is a very e
Clodius Albinus where the portrait is hardly distinguished from that of Septimius Severus. The reverse is a type of Commodus and clearly d
TRP XVI IMP.....) over a year before Albinus was made Caesar. Such mixing of dies are substantially more common with these 'Limes' coins
e wonders if it was intentional to mark the issue.
93-196 AD style Julia Domna denarius (right above and enlargement) is extremely unusual in its production by the old silver fo
cost of producing a good, thick silver foil fourree by this time must have been nearly as great as a solid coin of the debased alloy
osion has eroded the core on this coin considerably but, as shown by the enlarged view, the silver is thick enough to support itsel
ent in many regards but not at all correct for any of the mints striking denarii for Julia. This coin is a mystery among mysteries.
e time of Trajan Decius (249-251 AD), the silver plating needed to be extremely thin to ensure a profit. This example shows exce
and a style that certainly could have gained the maker employment at the mint (if he did not work there already). The coin show
detail on the head is due to flat striking); the patchy silver loss probably occurred when the coin was cleaned harshly following
ote the lack of corrosion on the copper surfaces. At 3.1g this coin would easily have been accepted by the average Roman on the
the latest fourree in my personal collection. I suspect that it still contains as much silver by weight as some of the 'solid' coins of
The coinage reform of Diocletian introduced a good silver coin, the Argenteus, which was later succeeded by a series of other
s. None of these were common or played the important role in daily commerce as had the silver of earlier days. I regret that I hav
les to show. Much more common in the later Roman and Byzantine periods were gold plated coins (over copper or silver). One o
wn at the start of the Republican/Imperatorial Plated Coins page.

Greek Plated Coins
An excellent book on this subject complete with great micro-photographs is:

Campbell, William, Greek and Roman Plated Coins, Numismatic Notes and Monographs
No. 57, American Numismatic Society, 1933. Numismatic used book sellers often have it.
Greek Plated Coins
If you have not seen the first parts of this series, please visit my: First Plated Coins
page.
n extent even greater than the Roman, Greek plated coins are a varied lot. With no central
ority, Greek cities employed a wide variety of techniques to produce official coinage issues.
counterfeiters. My personal expertise in Greek coins is far from deep enough to state with
ether any particular style is correct or not. Workmanship of regular issue coins varied from
rt to exceedingly crude. When counterfeiters copied the best of Greek coins, the results
bvious and hideous. Fourrees, however, exist that have style very similar to the issues they
her this is evidence of production by the regular mints, I can not say. This drachm of Arados
nd well made.
Compared to Roman coins, many Greek issue w

struck with high relief designs. This facing head drachm
from Larissa is certainly a fine example. To execute this
relief, great care in flan preparation (heating) and force
striking was required. These same factors tend to hide t
telltale plating seams discussed on the Roman pages.
Hidden among the scratches on the reverse of this coin
fine traces of a seam including a place at 5 o'clock wher
core is exposed. Wear has revealed the core on the tip o
the nose and on some edge beads on the obverse. If the
dies used to produce this coin were not official, they see
well done.
ree drachm - 400-344 BC - 5.5g
Greek fourrees are so attractive. This Athenian tetradrachm is a horrid fake. It was cast from a
m a real coin so the style is acceptable. Surface bubbles and loss of sharpness betray it as a cast
of sharpness was made worse by dipping the cast in molten eutechtic alloy to achieve plating.
AR/CU alloy melts at a lower temperature than copper, the coin itself was not melted in the
oin used for a master for this process bore test cuts on Athena's neck and on the face of the
e were in place before the coin was plated, there is silver at the bottom of the cuts. The
probably hoped that these cuts would be accepted as evidence the coin was solid. A much
hnique) fourree owl was discussed on a page of its own. Athens provides the one documented
oduction of official fourrees. A silver shortage at the end of the Peloponnesian War (c.405 BC) required the production of plated silver coin
two examples discussed here date to that emergency. Many coin dealers (whether through ignorance or deceit?) claim there plated owls
ues'. The fact remains that there are fourree owls from every period of Athenian coinage but only those showing the proper style for that
aim to being 'Emergency' coins. I regret I have none to show. This terrible cast was probably made to circulate far from Athens where the
rance of real coins might not be known. Such items are commonly found in the Middle East. In common with the 'real' Emergency coins, th
ade no attempt to meet proper weight standards. The better fourree owl, probably made closer to home, was struck slightly oversize so th
would be nearly correct for a solid silver coin.
Hellenistic Greek silver is also found plated. This tetradrachm of Ptolemy VI dated 162/1 B
(LK) with Paphos mintmark was thickly plated by the foil technique. A seam shows near the edge o
the obverse and several plating breaks expose core on the portrait. The thick silver on this coin
withstood wear well but spotty corrosion of the core probably produced bubbles like that shown o
the Trajan denarius shown on the Imperial page. Such eruptions leave many plated coins ugly
compared to their original appearance. Cleaning a plated coin is a risky matter. It is easy to make t
look even worse by removing even more silver. Corrosion of the cores have left some fourrees as
delicate hollow shells.
d coins are found across the coin issuing 'Greek' world. There are fourrees of Celtic Britain,
ove), the Eastern Empires (left below) and most, if not all, of the coining authorities of
Some issues are so commonly found plated that we suspect that they were officially
tunately, other than the Athenian 'Emergency' discussed above, we lack documentation of
ctors, it is best to consider plated coins as interesting ancient sidelights but not official
is specific evidence that points to their being products of the government rather than
s. All plated coins sold should be clearly identified as such! The market value of these items Segobriga, Spain - Fourree drachm
han solid items. This discount can be as much as 99% depending on the attractiveness (or 204-154 BC - 3.0g
given specimen. In most cases, fourrees are much less common than the same issue in
ut this rarity does not impart any value to the coin to collectors. However ancient and
peeling and ugly fourree is considered untouchable by the majority of collectors. Perfect
ith absolutely no core exposure are worth less than half the price of a solid coin. In recent
as been an increase of interest in this sideline of collecting ancient coins but I encourage
g to participate in that speciality to use common sense when buying coins with so limited a
otential resale. Let us be clear: Fourrees are not recommended as investment items for
ted in capital gain. Per
Empire - Fourree siglos
450-330 BC - 4.1g
Kroton - SOLID silver stater - c.300 BC or later? - 6.7g
portant point regarding plated coins is made by this stater of Kroton. Some solid coins have been mistakenly condemned as plated. The fla
coin were caused by the removal of corrosion or horn silver from the coin. This exfoliated the denser surface layer of the coin and exposed
r. Striking places considerable stress on the surface of coins resulting in a distinction between the surface and core. Some mints made this
ing' flans in an acid bath that leeched away base metals from the surface layer. The resulting purified silver layer was compacted by strikin
ilver surface over a less pure silver core. This could make an 80-90% silver flan appear to be 100% silver. Some, but not all, mints used the
The technique would have no effect on the pure silver used by the best mints but could improve greatly the product when using lesser qu
t state for certain that the technique was used on this coin. The coins is a bit underweight as appropriate considering the loss of metal to t
ss. I disagree with the (now out of business for reasons more serious than not being able to tell a plated coin!) major dealer who sold this
solid silver coins encrusted with copper deposits have been sold, incorrectly, as plated. To be fourree, the copper needs to be on the insid
de, not vice-versa.
note:
Unless I miss my guess few people who started this series will make it to this point on
page. I realize my ramblings on coins will bore most people. I have fun with my hobby
you are interested only in the investment value of your coins, I can not imagine why y
read this far. This 4th century BC fourree drachm of Kalchedon is peeled to a point of
ugliness but even here a true coin fanatic can find beauty or interest. The enlargemen
shows a point of core exposure on the reverse (5 o'clock). Did you ever look at clouds
the shapes? My mother taught me this game and I hope someday my daughter passes it on to grandchildren yet unborn. The game can b
ourrees. Here I see a pretty little Celtic horse facing left. Do you? I would love to hear from anyone who read this far and has any ideas for
e my pages. Meanwhile, have fun with your coins. If you don't, you might as well have put your money in an investment more likely to pro
urn (stocks?).
Impossible to Grade?
This page is intended to illustrate why grading ancient coins is not a subject to be taken lightly. In fact, I see cons
line I once read to the effect that there are two grades to consider: "Coins I Like" and "Coins I Don't Like". Unwilling to
road here, we will examine several coins that are to some degree the same type (undoubtedly this grading page will doub
type and its varieties) to see if we can develop a way of comparing coins fairly taking into account more different factors
encountered in standard grading systems.
Our coins are bronze dupondii of the Roman provincial city of Nemausus (Nimes) in France. Founded as a retire
veterans, Nemausus chose a type to honor veterans of the war against Mark Antony and Cleopatra ending with the battle
The obverse shows back to back portraits of Caesar Augustus (on the right) and his general Marcus Agrippa (left). The r
crocodile (personifying Egypt) chained to a palm tree. Scholarship is not certain of the dates of these issues but the type
at least 20 BC to 14 AD. We recognize serveral changes in minor details that separate the first from the last but this page
any specific dates for each coin. Our main interest is grading the "Impossible to Grade". As we go through the discussion
subtract (-1) 'points' as we go just to see if the final talley agrees with my rankings.
Below we will discuss several characteristics of these coins and observe how each compares to each of the others
The second coin is later with a

laurel wreath on Augustus and
Coin three would b
Our first example is the earliest
considerably more 'beefy'
specimen but it shows man
of the set showing a higher weight crocodile(+1) . It has a nice green
5) remaining from the flan
standard and bare head on Augustus. patina (+4) but weak to missing
before striking. These mar
Despite being somewhat eroded from legends (-2) and a severe gash on the
on these coins and were pa
spending some time in water it weighsreverse(-8) . The later design is harder Introduction
process so some collectors
more than any of the others at 14.8g. to fit on a small flan. In addition to the
not faults. The fact remain
The coin is somewhat worn but well gash, the coin is missing the reverse
with so many of these non
centered. Its worst property is the legends and most reverse details
for less than a coin that wa
eroded details on the reverse. (-1) except for a good, bold crocodile eye.
enough to erase the 'proble
It comes close to being a one sided
coin.
Agrippa's portrait is clear and Here Agrippa wears an Agrippa I'd call this an exce
well detailed (+1) but has the less exceptionally bold rostral crown thatportrait portrait (+3) except for the
'artistic' early style that some considerreally
a does look like the prow of a centering to the left side cl
bit crude(-1) . The rostral crown is ship(+2) . Since his claim to fame was rostrum (-3) . If I liked the
present but not particularly detailed. a naval battle, it seems appropriate to I must come down hard on
have a coin that hows the rostrum to the poor centering. I love t
advantage. stern expression. (+1)
Here the Augustus

from the scratches than oth
Augustus' portrait matches that Again, the two portraits seem
Augustus coin. (-1) The style, like th
of Agrippa with unexceptional style to match well even though they are not
portrait a bit out of the ordinary an
and considerable wear. (0) exceptional for the type. (0)
really looking like a stand
Augustus. (-1)
Ordinary but weak at bottom(- Obverse

Ordinary but weak at bottom(-1) Ordinary but weak
1) legends
Reverse Decent but slightly

Weak (-1) Gone(-2)
legends right (+1)
Coin #3 has much

To find something nice to say
The crocodile is nicely outlined the crocodile (+5) and has
about this coin you have to work. (-
and on the flan (+1) but the erosion has Reverse chain (+2) as you are likely
3) The crocodile eye is more bold than
eaten away most details leaving the details these coins. Were it not fo
most of the coins of this type (+1) but,
reverse the weak side of the coin. (-3) and scratches across the ne
overall, the reverse is a lost cause.
crocodile, I'd call this a ge
Medium / Low (-1) Medium high / Low (0) Eye appeal High / High (+4)
Wear based
aF (7) aVF / VG (7) VF (10)
grade
Rank by my
4 (0) I'm not sure I should have
3 (0) I've owned it a long time! standards 1 (15) I'm really hap
bought it.
(Do you agree?)
The question is how you can describe any of these coins with a couple letters and hope to convey hat the coin loo
coins from my collection; there are many better and worse examples on the market. On top of this there is another situati
find interesting. We modern day collectors call these coins dupondii whether or not the citizens of the provincial city wo
coins with the Roman denomination of two asses that carries that name. Nemausus did not strike coins of a 1/2 value. In
half (almost always between the two portraits) making two asses for the needs of commece. Certainly some collectors av
coins but they are what they are and the way the economy of the day chose to deal with the need for a smaller denomina
always struck with the same die axis orientation so it is possible to get either ruler backed by either the head or the tail o
are even coins with intermediate axes so you can find one with either ruler and the entire or not a bit of the crocodile. Ho
these asses of convenience? How should they be valued compared to whole coins? This page was not intended to give an
you think about what you want before buying a coin. I have my answers which will differ from those of many who read
addition, I was trying to assemble a set of the minor variations and probably paid more for the last variation I needed tha
an upgrade for one of the others. Now that I have what I consider a set, it will require a coin be more special to me befor
addition to my group. The club of "Coins I Like" changes on a regular basis for a collector like me in any event and buyi
'duplicate' certainly makes the game harder on other coins of the type. Dealers will see this differently since they do not
just find one buyer who does.
Common Roman Reverse Inscriptions with Translations.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
A....
ADVENT AVG (or AVGG) Arrival of the emperor or emperors.
Felicitations of the Roman people upon the
ADVENTVI AVG FELICISSIMO
return of the emperor.
AETERNAE MEMORIAE Eternal remembrance.
APOLLONI SANCTO Holy Apollo.
AR AD Arabia Adiabenius.
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B....
BEATA TRANQUILLITAS Blessed Peace.
BONO GENIO PII IMPERATORIS The good genius of the emperor.
BONUS EVENTUS Good events or happenings.
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C....
CERERI FRUGIF The fruit bearing Ceres.
CALRITAS REIPVB Brightness of the Republic.
CLEMENTIA TEMP Clemency of the emperor.
COLONIA BOSTRA Colony of Bostra (Arabia).
CONCORD AEQUIT Concord of Equity.
CONCORDIA AVG(G) Concord of the emperor or emperors.
CONCORD MILI or CONCORDIA Military concord or with the agreement of the
MILITVM army.
CONSERV VRB SUAE Conservator of Rome.
COMITI AVGG NN Retinue of emperors.
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D....
DACIA A country.
DEO VVLCANO The god Vulcan.
DIANA LVCIFERA Diana the bringer of light.
DIS GENITALIBVS For having children.
DOMINOR NOSTROR CAESS Caesars our lords.
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E....
A decree of the Senate bestowed for having
EX S C OB CIVES SERVATOS
saved the lives of citizens.
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F....
FECVND AVGUSTAE Fertility of the empress.
FEL TEMP REPARATIO Restoration of happy times.
FELICITAS AVGG NN Happiness of our emperors.
FELICITAS REIPUBLICAE Happiness of the Republic and its people.
FELIX ADVENT AVGG N N Happy arrival of both our emperors.
FIDES EXERC or FIDES
Fidelity (loyalty) of the soldiers or army.
EXERCITUM
FIDES MVTVA AVGG Mutual faith of our emperors.
FORT RED or FORTUNA REDVX Fortunate return of our emperor.
FORTVNAE REDVCI AVGG N N The fortunate return of our emperors.
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G....
GENIO ANTIOCHENI Genius of Antioch.
GENIO AVGG ET CAESARVM N
The genius of the emperors and our Caesars.
N
GENIO AVGUSTI or GENIO
The genius of the emperor.
IMPERATORIS
GENIO POP ROM The genius of the Roman people.
GENIVS SENATVS Genius of the Senate.
GERMANIA A province.
GLORIA NOVI SAECVLI The glory of the new age.
GLORIA ROMANORVM The glory of Rome.
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H....
HERCVLI VICTORI Hercules the victor.
HILARITAS AVG(G) Mirth or joy of our emperor (or emperors)
HOC SIGNO VICTOR ERIS By this sign shalt thou be the victor.
HONOS Honor
HONOS ET VIRTUS Honor and virtue.
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I....
INDVLGENTIA AVGG IN CARTH Indulgence of the emperor to Carthage.
Jupiter, conservator of our emperor (or
IOVI CONSERVATOR AVG(G) NN
emperors).
IOVI EXSVP Jove who excels in all things.
IOVI PROPVGNATORI Jupiter the defender.
IOVI STATORI Jupiter the stabilizer.
Vows to Jupiter by the senate and the Roman
IOVI VOT SVSC PRO SAL CAES
people for the restoration of the health of the
AVG SPQR
emperor.
IVN Junior
IVNO FELIX Happy Juno.
IVNO LVCINA Goddess of light.
IVNO REGINA Juno the Queen.
IVNONI MARTIALI The war like Juno.
IVPPITOR CVSTOS Jupiter the custodian.
IVSTITIA Justice
IVVENTVS AVGVSTVS The young Augustus.
ISIS FARIA Isis, the protector of the island of Pharos.
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J....
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K....
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L....
LAETIT FVNDATA LAETITIA
Well founded rejoicing.
FVND
LEG I, LEG II, LEG III......... The number of the legions (armies).
LIB AVG(G) Liberality of the emperor (or emperors).
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M....
MAG PIVS Great and pious.
MARS VLTOR Mars, the avenger.
MARS VICTOR Mars, the victor.
MART PAC, MATI PACIF or
Mars, the pacifier.
PACIFERO
MARTIA CONSERVATORI Mars, the conserver.
MARTI PROPVGT Mars, the defender.
MAVRETANIA A province.
MILIARVM SAECVLUM Commencement of a new age or era.
MINER FAVTR Minerva who gives favors.
MONETA AVG Money of the emperor.
MVNIFICENTIA AVG Munificence of the emperor.
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N....
N.F. Nobilissima Femina (noble woman).
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O....
ORIENS AVG Rising Sun (of the emperor).
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P....
PACATOR ORBIS Pacifier of the Earth.
PACE PR UBIQ PARTA IANUM
Portal of Janus being closed (indicates peace).
CLUSIT
PACI AVGUSTAE The peace of the emperor.
PAR Parthia
PAX FVNDATA CVM PERSIS Firm peace with the Persians.
PIETAS MVTVA AVG The mutual piety of the two Augusti.
PIETAS ROMANA Roman piety.
POPVL IVSSV By the order of the Roman people.
PRIMI DECENNALES First period of 10 years.
PROFECTIO AVG The emperor embarking on a trip or visit.
PROV DEOR, PROVID DEOR,
Providence of the gods.
PROVIDENTIA DEORVM
PROVIDENTIAE CAESS Foresight of the Caesars.
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Q....
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R....
RECTOR ORBIS Master of the world.
REGI ARTIS King of the Arts.
RELIG AVG Religion of the emperor.
RELIG VETERA H S NOVIES Refers to the liberality of Hadrian in remitting
MILL ABOLITA debts.
REPARATIO REIPVB Restoration of the Republic.
RESTITVTOR AFRICAE Restitutor or ruler of Africa.
RESTITVTOR ORBIS Restitutor or ruler of the world.
RESTITUTOR VRBIS Restittutor or ruler of the city (Rome).
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S....
SAC MON VRB AVGG ET CAES N
Sacred money or Rome, our emperors and our
N or SACRA MONET AVGG ET
Caesars.
CAES NOSTR
SAEC FEL Happy age (era).
SAECVLI FELICITAS Happy age.
SAECVLO FRVGIFERO The fruitful age.
SAECVLVM NOVVM The new age.
Salus Generis Humani (Lasting health to all
SAL GEN HVM
humans).
SALVS DD NN AVG ET CAES The health and Augustus and Caesar, our lords.
SALVS REIPVBLICAE The health of the Republic.
SANCT DEO SOLI ELAGABAL Holy Sun-God Elagabalus (Elagabal ?).
SARMATIA DEVICTA Victory over Sarmathia.
SECVRIT IMPERII Security of the empire.
SECVRIT PERP Eternal security.
SERAPI COMITI AVG Serapis, companion and god of the emperor.
SOLI INVICTO COMITI The unconquerable Sun-God.
SENATVS POPVLVSQVE
The senate and the Roman people (SPQR).
ROMANVS
The senate and the Roman people to the
SPQR OPTIMO PRINCIPI
highest prince.
SPES PERPETVA Eternal hope.
SPES ROMANORVM Hope of the Romans.
SVMMVS SACERDOS AVG Highest prince (or priest) Augustus.
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T....
TEMPOR FELIX The happy times.
TIBERIS The river Tiber as a personification.
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U....
VBERTAS Fertility.
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V....
VBERTAS Fertility.
VENERI VICTRICI Venus the Victress.
VENVS COELESTIS Heavenly Venus
VENVS FELIX Happy Venus.
VICTORIA AETERNA AVG N Eternal victory for our emperor.
VICTORIAE D D AVGG N N Victory to our emperors.
VIRTVS EXERCITI Courage of the army.
VIRTVS MILITVM Virtue or the army.
VIRTVS ROMANORVM Virtue of the Romans.
VOT SVSC or VOTA SVSCSPTA Sacrificial vows.
VOTIS DECENNALIBVS Vows of the tenth year or the tenth year.
VOTA PVBLICA Public vows.
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Imperial Roman Coin Attribution 101 - The Short Course
Original Article by Carmen J. Scoppa
You can identify or “attribute” your coin with knowledge of the following characteristics of it. These six points will help you to pinpoint the ruler it was
issued under, the type of coin, the denomination and possibly the time and place of its minting.
Physical Characteristics
Obverse Legend
Obverse Device
Reverse Legend
Reverse Device
Mint Mark and/or other markings
Physical Characteristics
th th
Weight: Usually given in grams with an accuracy of at least 1/10 of a gram, but it is better to have figures to 1/100 of a gram, this weightdata
will help with your determination of the denomination of the coin in question.
th
Diameter: Usually given in millimeters with an accuracy of at least 1mm, but it is better to have figures to 1/10 of a mm, this dimensional data
will help with your determination of the denomination of the coin in question.
Die alignment: Die alignment is expressed in degrees and describes how the obverse and reverse dies were aligned to each other when the coin was
struck. The best way to look at it is to put a straight edge on the face of the coin with the edge at the top (0 degrees) and the bottom (180 degrees)
through the center. While holding the straight edge to the coin turn it over and note where the “top” of the reverse device is. If it is in the same place as
the top of the front device it is called 0-degree alignment. If the top of the reverse is at the bottom it is called 180-degree alignment. Another way to
examine die alignment is to hold the coin on the edge with the obverse facing you, your index finger at the top of the obverse design (0 degrees) and the
thumb at the bottom of the design (180 degrees); then rotate the coin horizontally maintaining your indexfinger and thumb fixed on the same spot on
the rim. The 0-degree alignment is called Metal Rotation, while the 180-degree alignment is called Coin Rotation. Now for the “real world”; Roman
coinage was made using dies that were movable, so true 0 or 180 degree rotations were not always made. You must guess at the rotation, to the
nearest 15 degrees, if it is not at the 0 or 180 degree mark. If you turn the coin over with the straight edge on it and the top of the obverse at the top of
the rotated coin you must observe where the “top” of the reverse device is. If you observe that the top of the reverse device is pointing towards where
the 3 would be on a clock face this is said to be 90-degree rotation. Or if it is pointing to the spot where the 9 would be on the face it is said to be 270-
degree rotation.
Color: Color could help to determine the material the coin is made from, this material data will help with your determination of the denominationof the
coin in question. Also by knowing the material you will know in what section of a reference book to look for your attribution references. The most likely
materials are Gold (AU), Silver (AR) or Bronze and/or Copper (AE). There are several alloys of Bronze ranging from a high content of silver
(alloy called Billon) to very little different metals except copper. Most are intermediate types with various metals alloyed with the copper to make the
bronze, all are called AE in the nomenclature.
Obverse Legend (the wording on the front of the coin)

Spelling COUNTS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Note length of the legend, note breaks in the legend, the whole legend is a big key in the attribution.
Name of the issuer - This name is the single BIGGEST KEY to the whole attribution process. Without this name the whole process is much more
complicated if not made almost impossible in some cases.
Titles or descriptors - These words or abbreviations attached to the issuer’s name will help to finalize the attribution. There are a lot
of abbreviations that could be attached within the legend, such as IMP, AVG, COS, P, F, DN, GAL, VAL, A, M etc. Just one title could change the whole
coin’s attribution.
Known legends - There are several places to find lists of legends like:
- Moneta or other software
- RIC, Sear, Van Meter or other books
- Web sites like the FORVM, WildWinds, Dirty Old Coins, etc.
These known legends are most of the time able to be attached to the various mints. One legend may be only used at a single mint. This is important
information when you are looking for the various available places where a certain coin was made.
Partial legends - There are several places to find search engines of legend’s characters if you can only see a few of the letters. These are found in places
like:
- romancoin.info
- WildWinds
- Moneta or other software
Note: some letters are very common and will produce a long listing of possibilities. Examples of those letters are AVG, IMP, DN CAE, and NOB. While
other combination of letters like POTXXXVII are very unique and return a short list if not a single hit when they are used.
Obverse Device (the picture on the front of the coin)

For an Imperial issue it will most likely be a head (this is where we get the slang term Heads from) or a bust. There are various types of these figures.
Each could have different types of head gear, be holding different types of other gear, be wearing different types of clothing and facing various directions.
Type - Types are head only, bust, two heads or busts (facing each other), conjunctional heads (one right next to the other with only the profile of the
one behind showing). After a while the issuers will be recognizable by their profile or other features.
Head Gear - The various types of head gear are bare head, laureate, diadem, pearl diadem, diadem with rosettes, radiate, helmet, radiated helmet.
Clothing - There could be none, draperies, cuirass (breastplate), imperial robes, armor and various combinations of these. Some issuers
have standard types of clothing or equipment that they use more frequently than others.
Other Gear - The other gear could be spear(s), arrow(s), shield, mappa, globe, plus various other handheld objects. These items may appear alone or in
combinations.
Direction - The direction that the head/bust is facing (right, left, forward etc) is a main point. Some of the descriptions get very complicated with
wording like as seen from the rear or from the front.
An important note: the RADIATE will not only help with the description, but will help with the denomination (most likely it will be double).
Reverse Legend (the wording on the back of the coin)

Again, spelling COUNTS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! One letter can throw off the whole attribution. Note length of the legend, note breaks in the legend, the
whole legend is a big key in the attribution. The wording of this legend will most likely tie into the Reverse Device.
If you are using a book like Roman Imperial Coinage (RIC) knowing the issuer and cross referencing the reverse legend from its index to the pages where
the issuer is listed one can cut down the amount of different pages that need to be looked at.
If you are using a book like Van Meter or Sear knowing the issuer and then looking for the reverse legend in alphabetical order under the
proper denomination works here. Knowing your reference book and how it is set up helps you find what you are looking for quicker.
Titles or descriptors - These words or abbreviations used will help to finalize the attribution. There are a lot of abbreviations that could be attached
within the legend, such as IMP, AVG, COS, P, F, DN, GAL, VAL, A, M etc. Just one title could change the whole coin’s attribution.
Known legends - There are several places to find lists of legends like:
· Moneta or other software
· RIC, Sear, Van Meter or other books
· Web sites like the FORVM, WildWinds, Dirty Old Coins, etc.
These known legends are most of the time able to be attached to the various mints. One legend may be only used at a single mint. This is important
information when you are looking for the various available places where a certain coin was made.
Partial legends - There are several places to find search engines of legend’s characters if you can only see a few of the letters. These are found in
places like:
· Moneta or other software
· FORVM
· WildWinds
Note: some letters are very common and will produce a long listing of possibilities. Examples of those letters are AVG, IMP, DN CAE, and NOB. While
other combination of letters like COSXXIX are very unique and return a short list if not a single hit when they are used.
Reverse Device (the picture on the back of the coin)

For an Imperial issue it will most likely tie to the reverse legend. Expect certain devices with certain legends. For example; the “FEL TEMP”s will be a
“fallen horseman”, a “Phoenix” type (either on a mound or on a globe), a hut (with spear point up or down) type or a Galley (with
either Phoenix or Victory) type.
Type - There are many different types of reverse devices on these coins. These run from the common “two soldiers that are flanking one or two
standards” to special one of a kind architectural depiction of a building that could even be shown in 3D. The device most likely will be a noun a person(s)
place or thing.
· Person(s) - Emperor(s), Deity(s), family member(s), soldier(s), combinations, etc
· Place - Harbor, on a boat, in the clouds or another type of scene
· Thing - Altar, wreath, building, animal, etc
Description - What is going on? Is someone-
· Walking
· Standing
· Holding
· etc
Items - There could be many different items held or just in the scene such as:
· scale
· cornucopia
· scepter
· rudder
· globe
· whip
· the list goes on and on and on…………..
Number in the scene - How many figures make up the complete scene and where are they in relationship to each other. Such as:
· Four Princes in front of………..
· Emperor and a Deity facing………….
· Two Soldiers flanking…………
“Extra” items - Are there “extra” parts to the scene? If so what are they? Items like:
· Eagle at the feet……….
· Holding Victory on a globe….
· Captives being speared.
· Etc
Mint Marking(s) and other control marks

Placement on the coin - Where on the coin are the various marking:
· Exergue - the space below a line on the reverse of the coin most of the time at the bottom of the reverse device
· Fields:
· Center
· Right
· Left
· Other places:
· Above- as in: star above the She Wolf or Campgates
· Behind- as in: (delta) behind bust
· After- as in: pellet after legend
· Under- as in: pellets under Bust
Type of markings - Letters, symbols, characters and other types of marks

From these marks and the placement along with the right references you can even know the timing of the striking of the coin at a certain city.
Putting it all together…………….

Now all six of these points need to be brought together to form the complete attribution. The reference book, if any, that was used must be cited and an
“attribution” must be written.
Most common descriptions of imperial coinage start off with the ruler or issuer of the coin in question and then list the descriptors to pull all of it
together. For clarity and brevity some of the exactness may, and should, be left out of the written attribution.
Here is a “typical” attribution written for a coin. Common name of the ruler and the time frame of rule, denomination, physical characteristics, mint with
coin striking timing if known. Next the obverse legend (in capital lettering and bold characters), obverse device description, reverse legend(in capital
lettering and bold characters), reverse device description, with the placement of mint and control marks and finally the citing of reference numbers.
Sometimes you can even put a picture with it to help in the visualization of the attributed coin and/or a quick visual description.
Aurelian (270–275 A.D.)
AE-Antoninianus, 22 mm, 3.26gm, die alignment 180 degrees, struck at Siscia in 274 or 275; obv- IMPCAVRELIANVSAVG Radiate bust, cuirassed,
right; rev- CONCORDIAMILITVM Aurelian standing right facing Concord standing left, clasping right hands, with XXIVI in exergue. RIC 244 (vol.
th
V part II page 292), VM 7 page 257, Sear 3258 (1988 4 ed.) & C. 60. This coin exhibits an even toning on both of the silvered (nearly complete)
surfaces. There is some damage form the lower part of the Emperor through the exergue, that obscures some of the mint mark.
A much shorter version would be:
Aurelian (270-275) ANT. CONCORDIAMILITVM This gets you close, but very little help is given to the reader, who could be a buyer for a coin you are
looking to sell. Don’t get me wrong, each of these attributions have their place as well as the spectrum of all of those in between them.
If you can’t find all of the information, give as much of it as you can. If you are asking for help in completing an attribution make sure you give as much
information as you can. Asking someone to help ID a coin that is described by saying, “it has a head on one side and two figures on the other with some
lettering around both” will be a waste of your time and no one will be able to help. While on the other hand if you post a picture of both sides of the coin
and tell all the letters that can be seen, together with any book or Internet references that you feel may apply, your chances are much better for
someone to be able to help you.
HAPPY ATTRIBUTING………………

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http://vcrc.austincollege.

ODLIČNA USA http://numismatics.org/search/

XLS prepoynavanje http://www.forumancientcoins.com/dane/

WILD WIND http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/search.html

REPUBLIKA poi menu http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/rsc/i.html

REpublika sa sl I cenama I deo imperije http://davy.potdevin.free.fr/Site/home.html

CAPITALIS MONUMENTALIS LETTERING

Adaptation of Capitalis Monumentalis Letter forms by Coin Die Engravers

Examples of early Roman Empire coin lettering

NAUKA O PISANJU http://guindo.pntic.mec.es/jmag0042/LATIN_PALEOGRAPHY.pdf

READING ANCIENT ROMAN COINS

IMP IMPERATOR - Emperor.

AUGUSTUS - The name of the first emperor bestowed upon

CAESAR - The family name of the first imperial dynasty, it

PONTIFEX MAXIMUS - Highest priest of the Roman religion.

TRP TRIBUNICIA POTESTATE - Tribune of the Roman people,

PP PATER PATRIAE - Father of his country.

CONSUL - The consuls was the chief magistrates of the

CENSOR - A title often held for life. The Censor determined

GERMANICUS, BRITANNICUS et cetera - Conqueror of the

DN DOMINUS NOSTER - Our Lord.

NOB NOBILISSIMUS - Noble.

IVN JUNIOR - The younger.

PIVS, PF PIUS FELIX - Dutiful, patriotic.

FIL FILIUS - Son of...

OPT OPTIMO PRINCIPI - The greatest ruler.

VC VIR CLARISSIMUS - The most illustrious ruler.

SENATUS CONSULTUS - Usuailly appears on the reverse of

Trajan Decius AR Antoninianus issued AD 249-251

Constantine II AE3 issued AD 320-324

The inscription CONSTANTINVS IVN NOB C could be translated

Claudius TI CLAVD CAES

Nero NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR

Galba SER GALBA

Otho M OTHO CAESAR

Vespasian CAES VESP

Domitian CAES DOMIT

Nerva NERVA CAES

Trajan NER TRAIANO

Hadrian TRAIANVS HADRIANUS

Antoninus Pius ANTONINVS PIVS

Marcus Aurelius AVRELIVS CAES

Commodus L AVREL COMMODVS

Pertinax P HELV PERTIN

Septimius Severus L SEPT SEV

Geta P SEPT GETA

Caracalla M AVR ANTONINVS

Elagabalus M AVR ANTONINVS

Severus Alexander ALEXANDER PIVS

Maximinus Thrax MAXIMINVS PIVS

Gordian I M ANT GORDIANVS

Gordian II M ANT GORDIANVS

Balbinus C D CAEL BALBINVS

Pupienus C M CLOD PVPIENVS

Gordian III M ANT GORDIANVS

Philip the Arab M IVL PHILIPPVS

Trajan Decius C M Q TRAIANVS DECIVS

Trebonianus Gallus VIB TREB GALLVS

Aemilian AEMILIANVS PIVS

Claudius Gothicus C CLAVDIVS

Probus C M AVR PROBVS

Carinus M AVR CARINVS

Constantius Chlorus C CONSTANTIVS