UNIT V: COMPLEX

INTEGRATION
Introduction to complex integration:
Contour Integrals (complex line integral):
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑧 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐶 𝑖𝑠
𝑛

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = lim 𝑓 ∈𝑘 ∆𝑧𝑘 ,
𝑛→∞
𝐶 𝑘=1
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∈𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑧𝑘−1 𝑧𝑘 .
Evaluation of complex integrals:
Generally, a complex integral is expressed in terms of two real integrals and
evaluated.
If 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 where 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 => 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
𝐶 𝐶
 𝒇 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 = 𝒖𝒅𝒙 − 𝒗𝒅𝒚 + 𝒊 (𝒖𝒅𝒚 + 𝒗𝒅𝒙)
𝑪 𝑪 𝑪
Simply connected Regions:
A region R is called simply connected, if any simple closed curve in R can
be shrunk to a point.

Multiply connected Regions:

A region R which is not simply connected is called multiply connected.
Statement and application of Cauchy’s integral
theorem & integral formula:
Cauchy Integral Theorem:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 & 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 & 𝑜𝑛
𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0.
Problems:
3𝑧 2 +7𝑧−1
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶
𝑑𝑧 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝑧−2
𝑧 =1
Solution:
Given 𝑧 = 1 => 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1
This is a circle with center 0,0 & radius 1
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 3𝑧 2 + 7𝑧 − 1
Equating denominator to zero,
=> 𝑧 − 2 = 0 => 𝑧 = 2
 This point lies outside the circle 𝑧 = 1
∴ The function is analytic inside the circle
∴ By Cauchy Integral Theorem,
3𝑧 2 + 7𝑧 − 1
𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐶 𝑧−2

2𝑧 + 5 1
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑧 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑧 =
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) 2
𝐶
Solution:
1 2 2
1
Given 𝑧 = => 𝑥 + 𝑦 =
2 4
1
This is a circle with center 0,0 & radius
2
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 2𝑧 + 5
 Equating denominator to zero,
=> 𝑧 − 1 = 0, 𝑧 − 2 = 0
=> 𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = 2
1
Both the points lies outside the circle 𝑧 =
2
∴ The function is analytic inside the circle
∴ By Cauchy Integral Theorem,

2𝑧 + 5
𝑑𝑧 = 0
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)
𝐶
4𝑧 2 −6𝑧+1
3. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶
𝑑𝑧 , 𝐶: 𝑧 − 1 = 2
𝑧−4
Solution:
Given 𝑧 − 1 = 2 => (𝑥 − 1)2 +𝑦 2 = 4
This is a circle with center 1,0 & radius 2
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 4𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 1
 Equating denominator to zero,
=> 𝑧 − 4 = 0 => 𝑧 = 4
This point lies outside the circle 𝑧 − 1 = 2
∴ The function is analytic inside the circle
∴ By Cauchy Integral Theorem,

4𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 1
𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑧−4
𝐶
Cauchy integral formula:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 & 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶 &
′𝑎′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎
𝐶
Problems:
𝑧 2 +2
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 𝑧−2
𝑑𝑧, 𝐶: 𝑧 = 3 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝐼𝐹
Solution:
Given 𝑧 = 3 => 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9
This is a circle with center 0,0 & radius 3
Equating denominator to zero,
=> 𝑧 − 2 = 0 => 𝑧 = 2
This point lies inside the circle |𝑧| = 3
∴ By Cauchy Integral Formula,
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎
𝐶
𝑧2
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = + 2and 𝑎 = 2
∴𝑓 𝑎 =𝑓 2 =4+2=6
 𝑧2 + 2
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 2
𝑧−2
𝐶
= 2𝜋𝑖 6 = 12𝜋𝑖

𝒛𝟐 + 𝟐
∴ 𝒅𝒛 = 𝟏𝟐𝝅𝒊
𝒛−𝟐
𝑪
𝑧+1
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 𝑧 2 +2𝑧+4
𝑑𝑧, 𝐶: 𝑧+1+𝑖 =2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝐼𝐹
Solution:
Given 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖 = 2
=> (𝑥 + 1)2 +(𝑦 + 1)2 = 4
This is a circle with center −1, −1 & radius 2
Equating denominator to zero,
=> 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 4 = 0
 −2 ± 4 − 16
=> 𝑧 =
2
−2±2 3𝑖
=> 𝑧 = = −1 ± 3𝑖
2
Here 𝑧 = −1 + 3𝑖 lies outside 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖 = 2
& 𝑧 = −1 − 3𝑖 lies inside 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖 = 2
∴ By Cauchy Integral Formula,
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎
𝐶

𝑧+1 𝑧+1
∴ 2
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 + 2𝑧 + 4 𝑧 − −1 + 𝑖 3 𝑧 − −1 − 𝑖 3
𝐶 𝐶
𝑧+1
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = and 𝑎 = −1 − 3𝑖
𝑧 − −1 + 𝑖 3
 ∴ 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 −1 − 3𝑖
−1 − 3𝑖 + 1
=
−1 − 3𝑖 − −1 + 𝑖 3
− 3𝑖
=
−1 − 3𝑖 + 1 − 3𝑖
− 3𝑖 1
= =
−2 3𝑖 2
𝑧+1
∴ 2
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 −1 − 3𝑖
𝑧 + 2𝑧 + 4
𝐶
1
= 2𝜋𝑖 = 𝜋𝑖
2
𝒛+𝟏
∴ 𝟐
𝒅𝒛 = 𝝅𝒊
𝒛 + 𝟐𝒛 + 𝟒
𝑪
 cos 𝜋𝑧 2 +sin 𝜋𝑧 2
3. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶
𝑑𝑧, 𝐶:
𝑧 = 3 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝐼𝐹
𝑧−1 𝑧−2
Solution:
Given 𝑧 = 3 => 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9
This is a circle with center 0,0 & radius 3
Equating denominator to zero,
=> 𝑧 − 1 = 0, 𝑧 − 2 = 0
=> 𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = 2
Both the points lies outside the circle 𝑧 = 3
∴ By Cauchy Integral Formula,
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎
𝐶
1 𝐴 𝐵
Consider = +
𝑧−1 𝑧−2 𝑧−1 𝑧−2
1 = 𝐴 𝑧 − 2 + 𝐵 𝑧 − 1 → (1)
sub 𝑧 = 1 in 1 => 1 = 𝐴 −1 + 0
 => 𝐴 = −1
sub 𝑧 = 2 in 1 => 1 = 0 + 𝐵(1) => 𝐵 = 1
1 −1 1
∴ = +
𝑧−1 𝑧−2 𝑧−1 𝑧−2
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2
Now, 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−1 𝑧−2
𝐶

cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2 cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2

=− 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−1 𝑧−2
𝐶 𝐶
= −𝐼1 + 𝐼2
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 +sin 𝜋𝑧 2
Consider 𝐼1 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−1
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = (cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2 )
and 𝑎 = 1
∴ 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 1 = cos 𝜋 + sin 𝜋 = −1 + 0 = −1
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2
∴ 𝐼1 = 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 1
𝑧−1
𝐶
 𝐼1 = −2𝜋𝑖
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 +sin 𝜋𝑧 2
Consider 𝐼2 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−2
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = (cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2 )
and 𝑎 = 2
∴ 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 2 = cos 4𝜋 + sin 4𝜋 = 1 + 0 = 1
cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2
∴ 𝐼2 = 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 2 = 2𝜋𝑖
𝑧−2
𝐶

cos 𝜋𝑧 2 + sin 𝜋𝑧 2
𝑑𝑧 = −𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝑧−1 𝑧−2
𝐶
= − −2𝜋𝑖 + 2𝜋𝑖 = 4𝜋𝑖

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝅𝒛𝟐 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒛𝟐

∴ 𝒅𝒛 = 𝟒𝝅𝒊
𝒛−𝟏 𝒛−𝟐
𝑪
Taylor Series:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶, 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑖𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ′𝑎′ & 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑅, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑕 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶,
(𝑧−𝑎) ′ (𝑧−𝑎)2 ′′
𝑓 𝑧 =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 +⋯
1! 2!
Note:
Suppose if the region is given as 𝑧 < 𝑎, then change it as
𝑧
< 1, since for less than 1 the series converges fast.
𝑎
We will use the following formula:
1. 1 + 𝑧 −1 = 1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 3 + ⋯
2. 1 − 𝑧 −1 = 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 + ⋯
Problems:
𝜋
1. 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑧 = sin 𝑧 , 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 =
4
Solution:
𝜋
Given 𝑓 𝑧 = sin 𝑧 & 𝑧 =
4
𝜋 𝜋 1
consider, 𝑓 𝑧 = sin 𝑧 => 𝑓 = sin =
4 4 2
′ ′
𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑓 𝑧 = cos 𝑧 => 𝑓 = cos =
4 4 2
′′ ′′
𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑓 𝑧 = − sin 𝑧 => 𝑓 = − sin = −
4 4 2
′′′ ′′′
𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑓 𝑧 = − cos 𝑧 => 𝑓 = − cos = −
4 4 2
Taylor Series is given by
(𝑧−𝑎) ′ (𝑧−𝑎)2 ′′
𝑓 𝑧 =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 +⋯
1! 2!
 𝜋 2
1 𝜋 1 𝑧− 1
𝑓 𝑧 = sin 𝑧 = + 𝑧− + 4 −
2 4 2 2! 2
𝜋 3
𝑧− 1
+ 4 − +⋯
3! 2
2. 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒
1
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑧 < 2.
𝑧+2 𝑧+3
Solution:
1
Let 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧+2 𝑧+3
1 𝐴 𝐵
consider = +
𝑧+2 𝑧+3 𝑧+2 𝑧+3
=> 1 = 𝐴 𝑧 + 3 + 𝐵 𝑧 + 2 → (1)
sub 𝑧 = −2 in 1 => 1 = 𝐴 1 + 0
𝐴=1
 sub 𝑧 = −3 in 1 => 1 = 0 + 𝐵 −1
𝐵 = −1
1 1 1
∴ = −
𝑧+2 𝑧+3 𝑧+2 𝑧+3
|𝑧|
Given 𝑧 < 2 => <1
2
(Always change the condition as <1 )
|𝑧| |𝑧|
If < 1, then <1
2 3
1 1
∴𝑓 𝑧 = −
𝑧+2 𝑧+3
1 1 1 1
= 𝑧 −
2 1+ 3 1+𝑧
2 3
1 𝑧 −1 1 𝑧 −1
= 1+ − 1+
2 2 3 3
1 𝑧 𝑧2 1 𝑧 𝑧2
= 1− + −⋯ − 1+ + −⋯
2 2 4 3 3 9
 ∞ ∞
𝟏 𝒛 𝒏 𝟏 𝒛 𝒏
∴𝒇 𝒛 = −
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎
Laurent’s Series:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑅1 &|𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑅2 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅2 < 𝑅1 .
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑛 𝐶1 &𝐶2 & 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑚. 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝑅,
∞ ∞

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=1
1 𝑓 𝑧
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛+1
𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶1 𝑧−𝑎
1 𝑓 𝑧
& 𝑏𝑛 = 1−𝑛
𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 𝑧−𝑎
Note:

𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 ∞ 𝑎
𝑛=0 𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛 , 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

∞ −𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 , 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑎
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓
𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠.

Problems:
1. 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓
1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 𝑧 < 1, 𝑖𝑖 1 < 𝑧 < 3, 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑧 > 3
𝑧+1 𝑧+3
Solution:
1 𝐴 𝐵
Let 𝑓 𝑧 = = +
𝑧+1 𝑧+3 𝑧+1 𝑧+3
=> 1 = 𝐴 𝑧 + 3 + 𝐵 𝑧 + 1 → (1)
sub 𝑧 = −1 in 1 => 1 = 𝐴 2 + 0
 1
𝐴=
2
sub 𝑧 = −3 in 1 => 1 = 0 + 𝐵 −2
1
𝐵=−
2
1 1
∴𝑓 𝑧 = 2 − 2 → (2)
𝑧+1 𝑧+3
𝑧 𝑧
𝑖 𝑧 < 1 => < 1 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 <1
1 3
1 1 1 1 1
∴ 2 => 𝑓 𝑧 = − .
2 1+𝑧 2 3 1+𝑧
3
1 1 𝑧 −1
= 1 + 𝑧 −1 − 1 +
2 3 3
1 1 𝑧 𝑧 2
= 1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧2 − ⋯ − 1− + −⋯
2 3 3 9
 ∞ ∞
1 𝑛𝑧𝑛
1 𝑛
𝑧 𝑛
= −1 − −1
2 3 3
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞ ∞
𝟏 𝒛𝒏
∴ 𝒇(𝒛) = −𝟏 𝒏 𝒛𝒏 − −𝟏 𝒏 𝒏+𝟏
𝟐 𝟑
𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎
𝑖𝑖 1 < 𝑧 < 3
This condition can be spited as
1< 𝑧& 𝑧 <3
1 𝑧
=> <1& <1
|𝑧| 3
1 1 1 1 1
∴ 2 => 𝑓 𝑧 = −
2 𝑧 1+1 3 1+𝑧
𝑧 3
−1
1 1 1 1 𝑧 −1
= 1+ − 1+
2 𝑧 𝑧 3 3
 1 1 1 1 1 𝑧 𝑧2
= 1 − + −⋯ − 1 − + −⋯
2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧2 3 3 9
1 1 1 1 1 𝑧 𝑧2
= − 2+ 3−⋯ − 1− + −⋯
2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 3 3 9
∞ 𝒏+𝟏 ∞
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒛 𝒏
∴ 𝒇(𝒛) = −𝟏 𝒏 − −𝟏 𝒏
𝟐 𝒛 𝟑 𝟑
𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎
3 1
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑧 > 3 => < 1. 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 <1
|𝑧| |𝑧|
1 1 1 1 1
∴ 2 => 𝑓 𝑧 = −
2 𝑧 1+1 𝑧 1+3
𝑧 𝑧
−1 −1
1 1 1 1 3
= 1+ − 1+
2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1 1 1 1 1 3 9
= 1− + 2−⋯ − 1− + 2−⋯
2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
 1 1 1 1 1 3 9
= − 2+ 3−⋯ − − 2+ 3−⋯
2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
∞ 𝑛+1 ∞ 𝑛+1
1 𝑛
1 𝑛 𝑛
1
= −1 − −1 3
2 𝑧 𝑧
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞ 𝒏+𝟏
𝟏 𝒏 (𝟏
𝟏
∴ 𝒇(𝒛) = −𝟏 − 𝟑𝒏 )
𝟐 𝒛
𝒏=𝟎
𝑧2
2. 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑓
𝑧+2 𝑧−3
𝑖 𝑧 < 3 & 𝑖𝑖 2 < 𝑧 < 3
Solution:
𝑧2
Let 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧+2 𝑧−3
Here the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator.
∴ divide numerator by denominator
 𝑧2 𝑧+6
∴ =1+
𝑧+2 𝑧−3 𝑧+2 𝑧−3
𝑧+6 𝐴 𝐵
consider = +
𝑧+2 𝑧−3 𝑧+2 𝑧−3
=> 𝑧 + 6 = 𝐴 𝑧 − 3 + 𝐵(𝑧 + 2) → (1)
sub 𝑧 = −2 in 1 => 4 = 𝐴 −5 + 0
4
𝐴=−
5
sub 𝑧 = 3 in 1 => 9 = 0 + 𝐵 5
9
𝐵=
5
2
4 9
𝑧
∴ =1− 5 + 5 → (2)
𝑧+2 𝑧−3 𝑧+2 𝑧−3
|𝑧| |𝑧|
𝑖 𝑧 < 2 => < 1. 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 <1
2 3
 4 1 1 9 1 1
∴𝑓 𝑧 =1− 𝑧 + −
5 2 1+ 5 3 1−𝑧
2 3
2 𝑧 −1 3 𝑧 −1
=1− 1+ − 1−
5 2 5 3
2
2 𝑧 𝑧 3 𝑧 𝑧2
=1− 1− + −⋯ − 1+ + −⋯
5 2 4 5 3 9
∞ ∞
1 𝑛
𝑧𝑛 𝑧𝑛
=1− 2 −1 −3
5 2𝑛 3𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞
1 𝑛
2 3 𝑛
=1− −1 − 𝑧
5 2𝑛 3𝑛
𝑛=0
∞
𝟏 𝒏
𝟏 𝟏
∴𝒇 𝒛 =𝟏− −𝟏 𝒏−𝟏
− 𝒛𝒏
𝟓 𝟐 𝟑𝒏−𝟏
𝒏=𝟎
𝑖𝑖 2 < 𝑧 < 3 => 2 < 𝑧 & 𝑧 < 3
 2 𝑧
<1 & <1
|𝑧| 3
4 1 1 9 1 1
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 =1− + −
5 𝑧 1+2 5 3 1−𝑧
𝑧 3
−1
4 2 3 𝑧 −1
=1− 1+ − 1−
5𝑧 𝑧 5 3
4 2 4 3 𝑧 𝑧2
=1− 1 − + 2 −⋯ − 1+ + −⋯
5𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 5 3 9
1 4 2 4 𝑧 𝑧2
=1− 1− + 2−⋯ −3 1+ + −⋯
5 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 3 9
∞ ∞
𝟏 𝟒 𝒏
𝟐𝒏 𝒛𝒏
∴𝒇 𝒛 =𝟏− −𝟏 −𝟑
𝟓 𝒛 𝒛𝒏 𝟑𝒏
𝒏=𝟎 𝒏=𝟎
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟
7𝑧−2
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 < 𝑧 + 1 < 3.
𝑧+1 𝑧 𝑧−2
Solution:
consider
7𝑧 − 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 = = + +
𝑧+1 𝑧 𝑧−2 𝑧+1 𝑧 𝑧−2
𝐴𝑧 𝑧 − 2 + 𝐵 𝑧 + 1 𝑧 − 2 + 𝐶𝑧(𝑧 + 1)
=
𝑧+1 𝑧 𝑧−2
7𝑧 − 2 = 𝐴𝑧 𝑧 − 2 + 𝐵 𝑧 + 1 𝑧 − 2 +
𝐶𝑧 𝑧 + 1 → (1)
sub 𝑧 = −1 in 1
=> −9 = 𝐴 −1 −3 + 0 + 0
𝐴=3
sub 𝑧 = 2 in 1
=> 12 = 0 + 0 + 𝐶 2 3
 𝐶=2
sub 𝑧 = 0 in 1
=> −2 = 0 + 𝐵 1 −2 + 0
𝐵=1
3 1 2
∴𝑓 𝑧 = + +
𝑧+1 𝑧 𝑧−2
Given 1 < 𝑧 + 1 < 3
Let 𝑧 + 1 = 𝑢, then 1 < 𝑢 < 3
=> 1 < 𝑢 & 𝑢 < 3
1 𝑢
=> <1& <1
|𝑢| 3
3 1 2
∴𝑓 𝑢−1 = + +
𝑢 𝑢−1 𝑢−3
3 1 1 2 1
= − −
𝑢 𝑢 1− 1 3 1−𝑢
𝑢 3
 −1
3 1 1 2 𝑢 −1
= − 1− − 1−
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 3 3
3 1 1 1 2 𝑢 𝑢2
= − 1+ + 2+⋯ − 1+ + +⋯
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 3 3 9
∞ ∞
2 1 2 𝑢 𝑛
= − 𝑛
−
𝑢 𝑢 3 3
𝑛=2 𝑛=0
∞ ∞ 𝒏
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝒛+𝟏
∴𝒇 𝒛 = − 𝒏
−
𝒛+𝟏 (𝒛 + 𝟏) 𝟑 𝟑
𝒏=𝟐 𝒏=𝟎
Singular points:
𝐴 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒
𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 .
1
𝐸𝑔: 𝑓 𝑧 = => 𝑧 = 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
𝑧−2
Classification of singularity:
Isolated singularities:
𝐴 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑓
𝑖 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑕𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
1
𝐸𝑔: 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 𝑧+2
=> 𝑧 = 0, 𝑧 = −2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠.
Poles:
𝐴𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒.
𝐴 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒.
1
𝐸𝑔: 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 − 4 2 𝑧 − 3 3 (𝑧 − 1)
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒.
𝑧 = 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 3
𝑧 = 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 2.
Removable singularities:
𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑓 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇 𝒛 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚.
𝒛→𝒂
sin 𝑧 1 𝑧3 𝑧5
𝐸𝑔: 𝑓 𝑧 = = 𝑧− + −⋯
𝑧 𝑧 3! 5!
𝑧2 𝑧4
=1− + −⋯
3! 5!
𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
∴ lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 1 − 0 − 0 − ⋯ = 1(𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒)
𝑧→0
∴ 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦.
Essential singularities:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦.

1 1 𝑧 1 𝑧2
𝐸𝑔: 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 =1 + + +⋯
1! 2!
 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑓 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠.
∴ 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦.
Problems:
1. 𝑤𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 0 𝑜𝑓
sin 𝑧−𝑧
𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧3
Solution:
sin 𝑧 − 𝑧
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧3
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
1 𝑧3 𝑧5
∴𝑓 𝑧 = 3 𝑧− + −⋯ −𝑧
𝑧 3! 5!
1 𝑧3 𝑧5 1 𝑧2
= 3 − + −⋯ =− + −⋯
𝑧 3! 5! 3! 5!
1 1
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = − + 0 + 0 + ⋯ = − (𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒)
𝑧→0 3! 3!
∴ 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦.
 1
2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 = sin
𝑧−𝑎
Solution:
1
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 = sin
𝑧−𝑎
1 1 1 3 1 1 5
= − + −⋯
𝑧−𝑎 3! 𝑧−𝑎 5! 𝑧−𝑎
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑓 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠.
∴ 𝒛 = 𝒂 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚.
1
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧 2 +𝑎2 )2
Solution:
1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧 2 +𝑎2 )2
=> 𝑧 2 + 𝑎2 = 0 => 𝑧 = ±𝑖𝑎
∴ 𝒛 = ±𝒊𝒂 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟐.
Residue:
1
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧
𝑧−𝑎
𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒
𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Evaluation of Residue:
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
1 𝑑𝑚−1
𝑅 𝑧=𝑎 = lim 𝑚−1 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑚 𝑓 𝑧
𝑚 − 1 ! 𝑧→𝑎 𝑑𝑧
→ (I)
Note:
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 1(𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒) 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
1 𝑑1−1
𝑅 𝑧=𝑎 = lim 1−1 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓 𝑧
1−1 ! 𝑧→𝑎 𝑑𝑧

𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑎 = lim 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑓(𝑧) → (II)

𝑧→𝑎
Problems:
1−𝑒 2𝑧
1. 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧3
Solution:
Here 𝑧 = 0 is a pole of order 3
1 𝑑3−1 3
1 − 𝑒 2𝑧
∴ I => 𝑅 𝑧 = 0 = lim 3−1 𝑧 − 0
3 − 1 ! 𝑧→0 𝑑𝑧 𝑧3
1 𝑑 2 3 1 − 𝑒 2𝑧
= lim 2 𝑧
2! 𝑧→0 𝑑𝑧 𝑧3
1 𝑑2
= lim 2 1 − 𝑒 2𝑧
2! 𝑧→0 𝑑𝑧
1 𝑑
= lim 0 − 2𝑒 2𝑧
2! 𝑧→0 𝑑𝑧
1
= lim[−4 𝑒 2𝑧 ]
2! 𝑧→0
1
= −4𝑒 0 = −2
2!
 ∴ 𝑹[𝒛 = 𝟎] = −𝟐
1
2. 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 & 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠.
𝑧 2 +1
Solution:
1 1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 2 =
𝑧 +1 𝑧+𝑖 𝑧−𝑖
∴ 𝑧 = 𝑖 & 𝑧 = −𝑖 are simple pole
1
(II) => 𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖 = lim(𝑧 − 𝑖)
𝑧→𝑖 𝑧+𝑖 𝑧−𝑖
1 1
= lim =
𝑧→𝑖 𝑧 + 𝑖 2𝑖
𝟏
∴𝑹𝒛=𝒊 =
𝟐𝒊
1
(II) => 𝑅 𝑧 = −𝑖 = lim (𝑧 + 𝑖)
𝑧→−𝑖 𝑧+𝑖 𝑧−𝑖
 1 1
= lim =−
𝑧→−𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑖 2𝑖
𝟏
∴ 𝑹 𝒛 = −𝒊 = −
𝟐𝒊
Cauchy Residue theorem:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 & 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶, 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … , 𝑧𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑛 𝐶, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛

𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 =
2𝜋𝑖[𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑎𝑡 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … , 𝑧𝑛 ]
Problems:
4−3𝑧 3
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 𝑧(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
𝑑𝑧 , 𝐶: 𝑧 = .
2
Solution:
4 − 3𝑧
Given 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 𝑧−1 𝑧−2
 3 2 2
9
& 𝑧 = => 𝑥 + 𝑦 =
2 4
3
This is a circle with center 0,0 & radius
2
Equating denominator to zero , we get
𝑧 = 0, 𝑧 − 1 = 0 & 𝑧 − 2 = 0
=> 𝑧 = 0, 𝑧 = 1 & 𝑧 = 2
Here 𝑧 = 0 is a pole of order 1
𝑧 = 1 is a pole of order 1
𝑧 = 2 is a pole of order 1
Also 𝑧 = 0 & 𝑧 = 1are poles which lies inside 𝐶
& 𝑧 = 2 is a pole which lie outside 𝐶
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝟎:
4 − 3𝑧
𝑅 𝑧 = 0 = lim 𝑧 − 0
𝑧→0 𝑧 𝑧−1 𝑧−2
4 − 3𝑧
= lim
𝑧→0 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2
 4−0
= =2
(0 − 1)(0 − 2)
∴𝑹𝒛=𝟎 =𝟐
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝟏:
4 − 3𝑧
𝑅 𝑧 = 1 = lim 𝑧 − 1
𝑧→1 𝑧 𝑧−1 𝑧−2
4 − 3𝑧
= lim
𝑧→1 𝑧 𝑧 − 2
4−3
= = −1
1(−1)
∴ 𝑹 𝒛 = 𝟏 = −𝟏
∴ By Cauchy Residue Theorem,

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠

𝐶
= 2𝜋𝑖 2 − 1 = 2𝜋𝑖
 𝟒 − 𝟑𝒛
∴ 𝒅𝒛 = 𝟐𝝅𝒊
𝒛(𝒛 − 𝟏)(𝒛 − 𝟐)
𝑪
𝑑𝑧
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 (𝑧 2 +4)2
, 𝐶: 𝑧 − 𝑖 = 2 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑇.
Solution:
1
Given 𝑓 𝑧 = 2
𝑧 +4 2
& 𝑧 − 𝑖 = 2 => 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 4
This is a circle with center 0,1 & radius 2
Equating denominator to zero , we get
𝑧 2 + 4 = 0 => 𝑧 = ±2𝑖
Here 𝑧 = ±2𝑖 is a pole of order 2
Also 𝑧 = 2𝑖 is a pole which lie inside 𝐶
& 𝑧 = −2𝑖 is a pole which lie outside 𝐶
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝟐𝒊:
1 𝑑 2
1
𝑅 𝑧 = 2𝑖 = lim 𝑧 − 2𝑖
1! 𝑧→2𝑖 𝑑𝑧 𝑧 − 2𝑖 2 𝑧 + 2𝑖 2
𝑑 1
= lim
𝑧→2𝑖 𝑑𝑧 𝑧 + 2𝑖 2
−2 2
= lim 3
=−
𝑧→2𝑖 𝑧 + 2𝑖 4𝑖 3
2 1 2
=− 3
= (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖 = −1)
64𝑖 32𝑖
1
∴ 𝑅 𝑧 = 2𝑖 =
32𝑖
∴ By Cauchy Residue Theorem,

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠

𝐶
1 𝜋
= 2𝜋𝑖 =
32𝑖 16
 𝒅𝒛 𝝅
∴ 𝟐 𝟐
=
(𝒛 + 𝟒) 𝟏𝟔
𝑪
Evaluation of real definite integrals by contour
integration:
Type I:
2𝜋
Integrals of the type 0
𝑓
cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 cos 𝜃 & sin 𝜃 .
In this type of integral, put 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑖𝜃
𝑑𝑧
then 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑑𝜃 => 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑖𝑧
we know that,
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 −𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
cos 𝜃 = & sin 𝜃 =
2 2𝑖
1 1 1 1
=> cos 𝜃 = 𝑧 + & sin 𝜃 = 𝑧−
2 𝑧 2𝑖 𝑧
 2𝜋
1 1 1 1 𝑑𝑧
∴ 𝑓 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑓 𝑧+ , 𝑧−
2 𝑧 2𝑖 𝑧 𝑖𝑧
0 𝐶
where 𝐶 is unit circle 𝑧 = 1
1
= 𝜑 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 where 𝜑 𝑧 is a rational function of 𝑧.
𝑖
𝐶
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝜑 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐶
= 2𝜋𝑖[𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝜑 𝑧 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡 ′ 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶]
Problems:
2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 0 5+4 cos 𝜃
Solution:
Transforming the variable 𝜃 in terms of 𝑧
𝑖𝜃
𝑑𝑧
Put 𝑧 = 𝑒 => 𝑑𝜃 =
 1 1 1 𝑧2 + 1
Also cos 𝜃 = 𝑧 + =
2 𝑧 2 𝑧

2𝜋
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑧
∴ =
5 + 4 cos 𝜃 1 𝑧2 + 1
0 𝐶 5+4
2 𝑧
where 𝐶: 𝑧 = 1
𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑧
=
5𝑧 + 2𝑧 2 + 2
𝐶 𝑧
1 𝑑𝑧
=
𝑖 2𝑧 2 + 5𝑧 + 2
𝐶

1 𝑑𝑧
=
2𝑖 2 5
𝐶 𝑧 + 𝑧+1
2
 2𝜋
𝑑𝜃 1
∴ = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
5 + 4 cos 𝜃 2𝑖
0 𝐶
1
where 𝑓 𝑧 =
5
𝑧2 + 𝑧 + 1
2
To find poles of 𝒇 𝒛 :
Equating denominator to zero , we get
2
5
𝑧 + 𝑧+1=0
2
5 25 5 25 − 16
− ± −4 − ±
2 4 2 4
=> 𝑧 = =
2 2
5 9
−2 ± 4 −5 ± 3
= = 2 2
2 2
 5 3 5 3
− + − −
= 2 2, 2 2
2 2
1
𝑧 = − , −2
2
1
∴𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧 + 1 2)(𝑧 + 2)
1
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = − 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 1
2
& 𝑧 = −2 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶.
𝟏
To find residue at 𝒛 = − :
𝟐
1
𝑅 𝑧 = − 1 2 = lim (𝑧 + 1 2)
𝑧→−1 2 (𝑧 + 1 2)(𝑧 + 2)
1 1 2
= lim = =
𝑧→−1 2 (𝑧 + 2) 1 3
− +2
2
 2
∴ 𝑅 𝑧 = −1 2 =
3
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧

𝐶
2
= 2𝜋𝑖
3
4𝜋𝑖
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 =
3
𝐶
2𝜋
𝑑𝜃 1 1 4𝜋𝑖 2𝜋
∴ = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = =
5 + 4 cos 𝜃 2𝑖 2𝑖 3 3
0 𝐶
𝟐𝝅
𝒅𝜽 𝟐𝝅
∴ =
𝟓 + 𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟑
𝟎
 𝑑𝜃
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶 1−2𝑎 sin 𝜃+𝑎2
,0 < 𝑎 < 1
Solution:
Transforming the variable 𝜃 in terms of 𝑧
𝑖𝜃
𝑑𝑧
Put 𝑧 = 𝑒 => 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑖𝑧
1 1 1 𝑧2 − 1
Also sin 𝜃 = 𝑧− =
2𝑖 𝑧 2𝑖 𝑧
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑧
∴ 2
=
1 − 2𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑎 1 𝑧2 − 1
𝐶 𝐶 1 − 2𝑎 + 𝑎2
2𝑖 𝑧
where 𝐶: 𝑧 = 1
𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑧
= 𝑎 2
1− 𝑧 − 1 + 𝑎2
𝐶 𝑖𝑧
 𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑧
=
𝑖𝑧 − 𝑎𝑧 2 + 𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑖𝑧 𝑖𝑧
𝐶

𝑑𝑧
=
−𝑎𝑧 2 + 𝑖 1 + 𝑎2 𝑧 + 𝑎
𝐶

1 𝑑𝑧
=−
𝑎 2 1 + 𝑎2
𝐶 𝑧 −𝑖 𝑧−1
𝑎
𝑑𝜃 1
∴ 2
=− 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1 − 2𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑎 𝑎
𝐶 𝐶
1
where 𝑓 𝑧 = 2
1 + 𝑎
𝑧2 − 𝑖 𝑧−1
𝑎
To find poles of 𝒇 𝒛 :
Equating denominator to zero , we get
2
1 + 𝑎
𝑧2 − 𝑖 𝑧−1=0
𝑎
2
1+ 𝑎2 1 + 𝑎2
𝑖 ± 𝑖 − 4(1)(−1)
𝑎 𝑎
𝑧=
2
2 2 2
1+𝑎 1+ 𝑎
𝑖 ± − +4
𝑎 𝑎
=
2
1 + 𝑎2 −1 − 𝑎4 − 2𝑎2 + 4𝑎2
𝑖 𝑎 ±
𝑎2
=
2
 1 + 𝑎2 −1 − 𝑎4 + 2𝑎2
𝑖 ±
𝑎 𝑎2
=
2
1 + 𝑎2 𝑖 2 )2
𝑖 ± (1 − 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎
=
2
1 + 𝑎2 1 − 𝑎2
𝑖 ±𝑖
𝑎 𝑎
=
2
𝑖
=> 𝑧 = [ 1 + 𝑎2 ± 1 − 𝑎2 ]
2𝑎
𝑖
=> 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑎2 + 1 − 𝑎2 ,
2𝑎
𝑖
𝑧= [ 1 + 𝑎2 − 1 − 𝑎2 ]
2𝑎
𝑖 𝑖
=> 𝑧 = 2 ,𝑧 = [2𝑎2 ]
2𝑎 2𝑎
 𝑖
=> 𝑧 = , 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎
𝑎
1
∴𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑖
𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 −
𝑎
𝑖 1
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 < 1 => > 1)
𝑎 𝑎
& 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶 (𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 1)(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 < 1)
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝒊𝒂 ∶
1
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 = lim (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎)
𝑧→𝑖𝑎 𝑖
𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 −
𝑎
1 1
= lim =
𝑧→𝑖𝑎 𝑖 𝑖
𝑧− 𝑖𝑎 −
𝑎 𝑎
𝑎
∴ 𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 =
𝑖(𝑎2 − 1)
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧

𝐶
𝑎
= 2𝜋𝑖
𝑖 𝑎2 − 1
2𝜋𝑎
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2
𝑎 −1
𝐶

𝑑𝜃 1
∴ 2
=− 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1 − 2𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑎 𝑎
𝐶 𝐶
1 2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋
=− =
𝑎 𝑎2 − 1 1 − 𝑎2
𝒅𝜽 𝟐𝝅
∴ 𝟐
=
𝟏 − 𝟐𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒂 𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐
𝑪
Type II :
∞ 𝑷 𝒙
Integrals of the form −∞ 𝑸 𝒙
𝒅𝒙
where 𝑃 𝑥 & 𝑄 𝑥 are polynomials in 𝑥
This integral converges(exists) if, Degree of 𝑄 𝑥 is at least two greater
than the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) & 𝑄(𝑥) has no real roots.
To evaluate this integral, we consider the integral
𝑃 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 , where 𝐶 is the closed contour consisting
𝑄 𝑧
𝐶
of the real axis from − 𝑅 to 𝑅 & the semicircle
Г: 𝑧 = 𝑅 in the upper half of the complex plane.
𝑅

∴ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 → (1)
𝐶 −𝑅 Г
𝑃 𝑧
where 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑄 𝑧
 All the positive poles will lie inside & negative poles lie outside.
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧

𝐶

letting 𝑅 → ∞, 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0(by Cauchy′ s Lemma)

Г
∞

∴ 1 => 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 −∞
Note: Cauchy’s Lemma:
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑧𝑓 𝑧 →0
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑠 𝑧 → ∞ 𝑜𝑛 Г, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 Г 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑅 →
∞, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 Г 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑅 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Problems:
∞ 𝑑𝑥
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 −∞ (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )(𝑥 2 +𝑏2 )
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝑧
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 =
(𝑧 2 + 𝑎2 )(𝑧 2 + 𝑏 2 )
𝐶 𝐶
where 𝐶 is the closed contour consisting of the real axis from − 𝑅 to 𝑅 &
the semicircle Г: 𝑧 = 𝑅 in the upper half of the complex plane
𝑅

∴ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 → (1)
𝐶 −𝑅 Г
To find 𝑪
𝒇 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 :
1
Consider,𝑓 𝑧 = 2
(𝑧 + 𝑎2 )(𝑧 2 + 𝑏 2 )
To find poles of 𝒇 𝒛 :
Equating denominator to zero , we get
𝑧 2 + 𝑎2 = 0 & 𝑧 2 + 𝑏 2 = 0
=> 𝑧 2 = −𝑎2 , 𝑧 2 = −𝑏 2
=> 𝑧 = ±𝑎𝑖 , 𝑧 = ±𝑏𝑖
The poles 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖 &𝑧 = 𝑏𝑖 lies inside 𝐶
& the poles 𝑧 = −𝑎𝑖 & 𝑧 = −𝑏𝑖 lies outside 𝐶
1
∴𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑏
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝒊𝒂 ∶
1
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 = lim (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎)
𝑧→𝑖𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑏
1
= lim
𝑧→𝑖𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑏
1 1
= =
𝑖𝑎 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 2𝑎𝑖(−𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
 1
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 =
2𝑎𝑖(−𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝒊𝒃 ∶
1
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑏 = lim (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑏)
𝑧→𝑖𝑏 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑏
1
= lim
𝑧→𝑖𝑏 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎) 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑏
1 1
= =
𝑖𝑏 + 𝑖𝑎 (𝑖𝑏 − 𝑖𝑎) 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑖𝑏 2𝑏𝑖(−𝑏 2 + 𝑎2 )
1
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑏 =
2𝑏𝑖(−𝑏 2 + 𝑎2 )
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧

𝐶
 1 1
= 2𝜋𝑖 2 2
+
2𝑎𝑖 −𝑎 + 𝑏 2𝑏𝑖 −𝑏 2 + 𝑎2
−1 1
=𝜋 2 2
+
𝑎 𝑎 −𝑏 𝑏 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
−𝑏 + 𝑎 −𝑏 + 𝑎
=𝜋 2 2
=𝜋
𝑎𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏)

1
∴ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝜋
𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
𝐶
consider
𝑅

1 => 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 −𝑅 Г
𝑅
1
=> 𝜋 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
−𝑅 Г
letting 𝑅 → ∞, 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0(by Cauchy′ s Lemma)
Г
∞
1
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋
𝑎𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏
−∞
(since on real axis 𝑧 = 𝑥 => 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥)
∞
𝒅𝒙 𝟏
∴ 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
=𝝅
(𝒙 + 𝒂 )(𝒙 + 𝒃 ) 𝒂𝒃 𝒂 + 𝒃
−∞
 ∞ 𝑥 2 −𝑥+2
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 −∞ 𝑥 4 +10𝑥 2 +9
𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 4 2
𝑑𝑧
𝑧 + 10𝑧 + 9
𝐶 𝐶
where 𝐶 is the closed contour consisting of the real axis from − 𝑅 to 𝑅 &
the semicircle Г: 𝑧 = 𝑅 in the upper half of the complex plane
𝑅

∴ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 → (1)
𝐶 −𝑅 Г
To find 𝑪
𝒇 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 :
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
Consider,𝑓 𝑧 = 4
𝑧 + 10𝑧 2 + 9
To find poles of 𝒇 𝒛 :
Equating denominator to zero , we get
=> 𝑧 4 +10𝑧 2 + 9 = 0
𝑧 4 + 𝑧 2 + 9𝑧 2 + 9 = 0
𝑧2 𝑧2 + 1 + 9 𝑧2 + 1 = 0
𝑧2 + 1 𝑧2 + 9 = 0
=> 𝑧 2 + 1 = 0 & 𝑧 2 + 9 = 0
=> 𝑧 = ±𝑖 , 𝑧 = ±3𝑖
The poles 𝑧 = 𝑖 &𝑧 = 3𝑖 lies inside 𝐶
& the poles 𝑧 = −𝑖 & 𝑧 = −3𝑖 lies outside 𝐶
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
∴𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖)(𝑧 − 3𝑖)
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝒊:
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑖 = lim(𝑧 − 𝑖)
𝑧→𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖)(𝑧 − 3𝑖)
 𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
= lim
𝑧→𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖)(𝑧 − 3𝑖)
−1 − 𝑖 + 2
=
(2𝑖)(4𝑖)(−2𝑖)
1−𝑖 1−𝑖 3 = −𝑖)
= = (since 𝑖
−16𝑖 3 16𝑖
1−𝑖
∴𝑅 𝑧=𝑖 =
16𝑖
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝟑𝒊:
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
𝑅 𝑧 = 3𝑖 = lim (𝑧 − 3𝑖)
𝑧→3𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖)(𝑧 − 3𝑖)
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2
= lim
𝑧→3𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖)
−9 − 3𝑖 + 2
=
(4𝑖)(2𝑖)(6𝑖)
 −7 − 3𝑖 −7 − 3𝑖 3 = −𝑖)
= = (since 𝑖
48𝑖 3 −48𝑖
7 + 3𝑖
∴ 𝑅 𝑧 = 3𝑖 =
48𝑖
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧

𝐶
1 − 𝑖 7 + 3𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖 +
16𝑖 48𝑖
1 7 + 3𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖 1−𝑖+
16𝑖 3
𝜋 7 𝜋 10 5
= 1−𝑖+ +𝑖 = = 𝜋
8 3 8 3 12
5
∴ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝜋
12
𝐶
 𝑅
consider 1 => 𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = −𝑅
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + Г
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑅
5
=> 𝜋= 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
12
−𝑅 Г

letting 𝑅 → ∞, 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0
Г
(by Cauchy′ s Lemma)
∞
5
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋
12
−∞
(since on real axis 𝑧 = 𝑥 => 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥)
∞
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝟓
∴ 𝟒 𝟐
𝒅𝒙 = 𝝅
𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙 + 𝟗 𝟏𝟐
−∞
Type III :
∞
𝑷 𝒙
Integrals of the form 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒎𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒐𝒓
𝑸 𝒙
−∞
∞ 𝑷 𝒙
−∞ 𝑸 𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒎𝒙 𝒅𝒙 where 𝑃 𝑥 & 𝑄 𝑥 are polynomials in 𝑥
This integral converges(exists) if, 𝑖 𝑚 > 0
𝑖𝑖 Degree of 𝑄 𝑥 is at least two greater than the degree
of 𝑃(𝑥) & 𝑄(𝑥) has no real roots.
To evaluate this integral, we consider the integral
𝑃 𝑧 𝑃 𝑧
𝑅𝑃𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑃𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶 is the closed
𝑄 𝑧 𝑄 𝑧
𝐶 𝐶
contour consisting of the real axis from − 𝑅 to 𝑅 & the
semicircle Г: 𝑧 = 𝑅 in the upper half of the complex plane.
Then proceed as in Type II
Problem:
∞ cos 𝑚𝑥
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 −∞ 2 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +𝑎
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟
∞ ∞ ∞
𝑖𝑚𝑥
cos 𝑚𝑥 𝑅𝑃 𝑒 𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧
2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝑃 2 2
𝑑𝑧
𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑧 +𝑎
−∞ −∞ −∞

𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2 2
𝑑𝑧
𝑧 +𝑎
𝐶 𝐶
where 𝐶 is the closed contour consisting of the real axis from − 𝑅 to 𝑅 &
the semicircle Г: 𝑧 = 𝑅 in the upper half of the complex plane
𝑅

∴ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 → (1)
𝐶 −𝑅 Г
To find 𝑪
𝒇 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 :
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧
Consider,𝑓 𝑧 = 2
𝑧 + 𝑎2
To find poles of 𝒇 𝒛 :
Equating denominator to zero , we get
𝑧 2 + 𝑎2 = 0 => 𝑧 = ±𝑖𝑎
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶
& 𝑧 = −𝑖𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧
∴𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎
To find residue at 𝒛 = 𝒂𝒊:
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧
𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖 = lim (𝑧 − 𝑎𝑖)
𝑧→𝑎𝑖 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑚(𝑖𝑎)
= lim =
𝑧→𝑎𝑖 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑎 + 𝑖𝑎
 𝑒 −𝑚𝑎
∴ 𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖 =
2𝑖𝑎
Hence by Residue theorem,

𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑧

𝐶
𝑒 −𝑚𝑎 𝜋𝑒 −𝑚𝑎
= 2𝜋𝑖 =
2𝑖𝑎 𝑎

𝜋𝑒 −𝑚𝑎
∴ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 =
𝑎
𝐶
consider
𝑅

1 => 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 −𝑅 Г
 𝑅
−𝑚𝑎
𝜋𝑒
=> = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑎
−𝑅 Г

letting 𝑅 → ∞, 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0 (by Cauchy′ s Lemma)

Г
∞
𝜋𝑒 −𝑚𝑎 𝜋𝑒 −𝑚𝑎
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝑃 =
𝑎 𝑎
−∞
(since on real axis 𝑧 = 𝑥 => 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥)
∞
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒎𝒙 𝝅𝒆−𝒎𝒂
∴ 𝟐 𝟐
𝒅𝒙 =
𝒙 +𝒂 𝒂
−∞