CED-2205 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

Main Chapters:

I. INTRODUCTION
II. BASIC HYDROLOGY
III. FLOW MEASUREMENT
IV. FLOW THROUGH PIPES
V. FLOW THROUGH OPEN CHANNELS
VI. WATER PUMPS AND PUMPED SYSTEMS
VII. HYDROPOWER GENERATION.

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II. BASIC HYDROLOGY: COMPREHENSIVE QUESTIONS

• Main Chapters (Check REF BOOK: RAGHUNATH Book)

I. INTRODUCTION
II. PRECIPITATION
III. WATER LOSSES: INFILTRATION, EVAPORATION & TRANSPIRATION
IV. RUNOFF
V. FLOOD HYDROGRAPH
VI. STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENT
VII. GROUNDWATER
VIII. DESIGN FLOOD ESTIMATION AND FLOOD CONTROL
IX. FLOOD CONTROL METHODS
X. FLOOD ROUTING

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CED-2205 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

CH II PRECIPITATION

PART A: HYDROMETEOLROLOGY
(QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS)

Question 1. (20marks)
Draw a neat diagram of the vertical structure of the atmosphere (5marks) indicating the heights
(5marks) and change in temperature (5maks) and also which kind of atmospheric phenomena (5marks)
for each type of stratification.

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 ANSWER

1. Diagram of the vertical structure of the atmosphere (5marks)

2. Characteristics of various stratifications (thicknesses of layers: 5marks; temperature change:

5marks; types of atmospheric phenomena and activities in various layers: 5marks)

The average state of the atmosphere has been well explored with the help of meteorological
instruments and satellite observations:

(1) The lowest layer which contains about 75% of the mass and almost all the moisture and dust
of the atmosphere is called the troposphere. All phenomena which are called weather (i.e
all meteorological phenomena) are confined into the troposphere.The top of the
troposphere is called tropopause. The height of the tropopause varies from about 8 km over
the poles to about 16 km near the equator.In the troposphere, the temperature decreases
with the increase in elevation at an average rate of 6.5 OC / km (i.e 0.65OC per each 100 m of
altitude).
(2) Above the tropopause there is stratosphere. The stratosphere is free from all
meteorological disturbances which are confined into the troposphere. The stratosphere
contains very little moisture and dust except when major volcanic eruptions bring them to
high altitude. Stratosphere contains the major portion of ozone that was discussed earlier.

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 In the lower layers of the stratosphere the temperature in more or less constant with
elevation. The rise of temperature in the stratosphere is due to selective absorption of ultra-
violet radiation by the ozone. The upper limit of the stratosphere is the stratopause located
at 30 to 50 km above the earth surface.
(3) Above the stratopause there is the mesosphere. About 80 km from the earth’s surface
there is the upper limit of the mesosphere known as the mesopause. The same constituents
as stratosphere are found in mesosphere. In the lower layers of the mesosphere the
temperature in more or less constant with elevation and then decreases upto the
mesopause.
(4) The fourth major layer above the mesopause is the ionosphere located between 90 km to
640 km. In the lower layers of the ionosphere, the temperature in more or less constant
with elevation and then increases indefinitely. In the ionosphere again, the pressures are
very low and about 0.01 mb in the lower layers at about 90 km. Low pressures and high
temperature results in ionization of all this layer with a high concentration of free electrons.
(5) The ionosphere merges gradually into the outmost shell called the exosphere in which the
atmosphere has lost the property of continuum.

Question 2. (20marks i.e 2marks each subquestions)

Definitions:
(1) Latitude= localization angle of any point of the earth surface related to equator as indicated
on the following figure.
Greenwich North Pole O
Mean Time
(GMT) Meridian PE passing through P
Meridian

Center of Point P to localize

earth C

Point E of intersection of Equator and meridian PE

Point G of
intersection
of Equator
and GMT
meridian
South Pole O’

NOTE1: Line oo’ (vertical earth axis) and line CE are orthogonal.
Definition: Latitude: ϕ = angle between CE and CP. (Here on the sketch, ϕ ≅ 45o North of latitude).

Latitude (φ)

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 Lines of latitude appear horizontal with varying
curvature in this projection; but are actually circular with
different radii. All locations with a given latitude are
collectively referred to as acircle of latitude.

(2) Longitude = = localization angle of any point of the earth surface related to the Greenwich
meridian as indicated on the following figure.

Greenwich North Pole O

Mean Time
(GMT) Meridian PE passing through P
Meridian

Center of Point P to localize

earth C

Point E of intersection of Equator and meridian PE

Point G of
intersection
of Equator
and GMT
meridian
South Pole O’

NOTE2: Also line oo’ (vertical earth axis) and line CG are orthogonal.
Definition: Longitude: λ = angle between CE and CG. (Here on the sketch, λ
≅ 90o East of longitude).

Longitude (λ)

Lines of longitude appear vertical with varying curvature

in this projection, but are actually halves of great
ellipses, with identical radii at a given latitude.

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 (3) Air= ?
Air: That invisible and odorless thing which we breathe and which sustains life and fire is
what we call air.

(4) Wind = air in motion

(5) Air humidity = air vapour

*Air easily absorbs moisture in the form of water vapor.
*The amount absorbed depends on the temperature of the air and of water.
*The greater the temperature of air , the more water vapor it can contain.
*The amount of water vapor present in the air is indirectly expressed through what we know the vapor
pressure.

(6) Water vapour pressure

= The partial pressure exerted by the water vapour is called the partial vapour pressure

(7) Saturation water vapour

= For any given temperature, there is a limit for water vapour that can be held by air. If the
air is holding water vapour which is equal to the maximum that it can hold at a given
temperature, then the air is said to be saturated.The partial vapour pressure exerted by the
water vapour under saturated conditions is known as the saturation vapour pressure (es).

*The saturation vapour pressure increases with the increase in temperature.

(8) Hydrometeorology
• Meteorology is the science of the atmospheric phenomena.
• Hydrometeorology is the study of the atmospheric processes which affect the water resources
of the earth and which are then of interest to the hydrologic engineers.

(9) Weather = the state of the atmosphere with respect to the temperature, humidity, wind,
cloudiness, precipitation, etc …. at any given time is generally referred as weather

(10)Climate of region is the aggregate of weather.

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Question 3. (20marks)
ANSWER
a. Name the instruments which are used to measure (10marks):
(i) Wind velocity: cup anemometer
(ii) Wind direction: wind vane or anemometer
(iii) The short wave solar radiation (both direct and diffused) : pyranometer
(iv) The total incoming and outgoing radiation: radionometer
(v) Air humidity: psychrometer
b. Give 4 basic conditions for rainfall to occur (8marks)
There are:
(1) Accumulation of moisture of sufficient intensity ,
(2) Cooling of air to the dew point temperature to produce saturation condition,
(3) Condensation ,
(4) Growth of small water to precipitable size.

c. The lapse rate of temperature in the troposphere is equal to 6.5o/Km of altitude (2marks)

EXERCICES Part B: BASIC HYDROLOGY

Q1.Give 4 basic conditions for rainfall to occur (8marks)

There are:
(5) Accumulation of moisture of sufficient intensity ,
(6) Cooling of air to the dew point temperature to produce saturation condition,
(7) Condensation ,
(8) Growth of small water to precipitable size.

Q2. What do you understand hydrology?

Ans:
DEFINITION OF HYDROLOGY
• Deals with the occurrence and movement of water on, under and over the surface of the
earth.
• Hydrology is the science, which deals with the occurrence, distribution and disposal of
water on the planet earth; it is the science which deals with the various phases of the
hydrologic cycle.
• Deals with the various forms of moisture that occur and the transformation between the
liquid, solid and gaseous states in the atmosphere and in the surface layers of land
masses.
• It is concerned also with the sea i.e the source and the storage of all the water that
activates life on this planet.

Q3.Explain the hydraulic cycle in nature with the help of a neat sketch, indicating its
various phases.
Ans:

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Hydrologic cycle is the water transfer cycle, which occurs continuously in nature; the
three important phases of the hydrologic cycle are:
(a) Evaporation and evapotranspiration
(b) Precipitation and
(c) Runoff and is shown in Fig. below.
The globe has one-third land and Two- thirds Ocean. Evaporation from the surfaces of
ponds, lakes, reservoirs. Ocean surfaces, etc. and transpiration from surface vegetation
i.e., from plant leaves of cropped land and forests, etc. take place. These vapours rise to
the sky and are condensed at higher altitudes by condensation nuclei and form clouds,
resulting in droplet growth. The clouds melt and sometimes burst resulting in
precipitation of different forms like rain, snow, hail, sleet, mist, dew and frost. A part of
this precipitation flows over the land called runoff and part infilters into the soil which
builds up the ground water table. The surface runoff joins the streams and the water is
stored in reservoirs. A portion of surface runoff and ground water flows back to ocean.
Again evaporation starts from the surfaces of lakes, reservoirs and ocean, and the cycle
repeats. Of these three phases of the hydrologic cycle, namely, evaporation, precipitation
and runoff, it is the ‘runoff phase’, which is important to a civil engineer since he is
concerned with the storage of surface runoff in tanks and reservoirs for the purposes of
irrigation, municipal water supply hydroelectric power etc.

The hydrological budget

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Q4. What are the functions of hydrology in water resources development?
Ans:
The study of hydrology helps us to know
i. The maximum probable flood that may occur at a given site and its frequency; this is
required for the safe design of drains and culverts, dams and reservoirs, channels and
other flood control structures.
ii. The water yield from a basin—its occurence, quantity and frequency, etc; this is
necessary for the design of dams, municipal water supply, water power, river navigation,
etc.
iii. The ground water development for which a knowledge of the hydrogeology of the
area, i.e., of the formation soil, recharge facilities like streams and reservoirs, rainfall
pattern, climate, cropping pattern, etc. are required.
iv. The maximum intensity of storm and its frequency for the design of a drainage project in
the area.

Q5.What are the basic data required for hydrological studies?

Ans:

(i)Climatological data
(ii) Hydrometeorological data like temperature, wind velocity, humidity, etc.
(iii) Precipitation records
(iv) Stream-flow records
(v) Seasonal fluctuation of ground water table or piezometric heads
(vi) Evaporation data
(vii) Cropping pattern, crops and their consumptive use
(viii) Water quality data of surface streams and ground water
(ix) Geomorphologic studies of the basin, like area, shape and slope of the basin,
mean and median elevation, mean temperature (as well as highest and lowest
temperature recorded) and other physiographic characteristics of the basin; stream
density and drainage density; tanks and reservoirs.
(x) Hydrometeorological characteristics of basin

Q6.(20 marks i.e 4 marks for each sub question)

With a neat sketch,
(i) What do you understand by hydrological budget?
(ii) Write and express the hydrologic budget of surface water system;
(iii) Write and express the hydrologic budget of groundwater system?
(iv) Deduce the system hydrologic budget of a basin;
(v) The water budget terms for a lake included precipitation (P) of 48.26mm/year,
evaporation (E) of 38.1mm/year, surface water inflow (Q in)of 0 mm/year, surface out
flow( Qout) of 441.96mm/year, and the change in lake volume (∆𝑠) of 0 mm/year.
Determine the net groundwater flow.

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 ANSWER

Q6.(20 marks i.e 4 marks for each sub question)

With a neat sketch,
(i) What do you understand by hydrological budget? (4 marks)
Solution:

(Fig.Q1. (i)) Components of hydrologic cycle in an open system(2 marks)

A hydrologic budget, or water budget, or water balance is a measurement of continuity of

the flow of water, which holds true for any time interval and applied to any size area ranging
from local-scale areas to regional-scale areas or from any drainage area to the earth as a whole.
(2 marks)

(ii) Write and express the hydrologic budget of surface water system (Equation:2
marks, Legend: 2 marks)
Solution
From the figure drawn (Fig.Q1 (i)), the hydrologic budget of surface water is expressed as
follow:
∆𝑆𝑠 = 𝑃 + 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑄𝑔 − 𝐸𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠 − 𝐼
Where: P is the precipitation
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚,
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚,
𝑄𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 ,
𝐸𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ,
𝑇𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ,
𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
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 ∆𝑆𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚.
(iii) Write and express the hydrologic budget of groundwater system? (Equation:2
marks, Legend: 2 marks)
Solution
From the figure drown in the question (1) the hydrologic budget of groundwater is expressed as
follow:
∆𝑆𝑔 = 𝐼 + 𝐺𝑖𝑛 − 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑔 − 𝐸𝑔 − 𝑇𝑔
Where:
𝐺𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚,
𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚,
𝑄𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 ,
𝐸𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ,
𝑇𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ,
∆𝑆𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒.

(iv) Deduce the system hydrologic budget of a basin(Equation:2 marks, Legend: 2

marks)
Solution
The system hydrologic budget of a basin is developed by adding the above two budget together:
𝑃 − (𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛 ) − (𝐸𝑠 + 𝐸𝑔 ) − (𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇𝑔 ) − (𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐺𝑖𝑛 ) = ∆(𝑆𝑠 + 𝑆𝑔 )
Using net mass exchanges, the above system hydrologic budget can be expressed as 𝑃 − 𝑄 −
𝐺 − 𝐸 − 𝑇 = ∆𝑆

(v) The water budget terms for a lake included precipitation (P) of 48.26mm/year,
evaporation (E) of 38.1mm/year, surface water inflow (Q in)of 0 mm/year, surface out
flow( Qout) of 441.96mm/year, and the change in lake volume (∆𝑠) of 0 mm/year.
Determine the net groundwater flow.
Solution
Assuming 𝑇𝑔 = 0 (𝟏 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌), the water budget equation to define the net groundwater
flow for the lake is:
𝐺 = −∆𝑆 + 𝑃 − 𝐸 + 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝟐 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒔),
= −0 + 48.26 − 38.1 + 0 − 441.96
= −431.8𝑚𝑚/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟(𝟏 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌),

Q7.Define with a neat sketch and legend the sympson’s non recording raingauge
Ans:

The non-recording rain gauge

Is used in India is the Symon’s rain gauge (Fig. 2.3). It consists of a funnel with a
circular rim of 12.7 cm diameter and a glass bottle as a receiver. The cylindrical
metal casing is fixed vertically to the masonry foundation with the level rim 30.5

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 cm above the ground surface. The rain falling into the funnel is collected in the
receiver and is measured in a special measuring glass graduated in mm of rainfall;
when full it can measure 1.25 cm of rain.

Q8. What do you understand by a hyetograph?

Ans:
A hyetograph is a bar graph showing the intensity of rainfall with
respect to time(Fig. 2.16) and is useful in determining the maximum
intensities of rainfall during a particular storm as is required in land drainage
and design of culverts.

Q9. What do you understand by A mass curve of rainfall (or precipitation)

Ans:

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Is a plot of cumulative depth of rainfall against time (Fig. 2.17). From the mass curve, the total
depth of rainfall and intensity of rainfall at any instant of time can be found.

Q10. Write down the hydrologic equation of water losses

Ans:
The hydrologic equation states that
Rainfall–Losses = Runoff

Q11. Give and explain briefly the various water losses that occur in nature.
Ans:

WATER LOSSES IN NATURE:

(a) Interception loss-due to surface vegetation, i.e., held by plant leaves.
(b) Evaporation:
• from water surface, i.e., reservoirs, lakes, ponds, river channels,
etc.
• from soil surface, appreciably when the ground water table is very
near the soil surface.
(c) Transpiration—from plant leaves.
(d) Evapotranspiration for consumptive use—from irrigated or cropped
land.
(e) Infiltration—into the soil at the ground surface.
(f) Watershed leakage—ground water movement from one basin to
another or into the sea.

Q12. What do you understand by Pan coefficient

Ans:

Pan coefficient—Evaporation pan data cannot be applied to free water surfaces

directly but must be adjusted for the differences in physical and climatological

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 factors. For example, a lake is larger and deeper and may be exposed to different
wind speed, as compared to a pan.

Thus the pan evaporation data have to be corrected to obtain the actual evaporation
from water surfaces of lakes and reservoirs, i.e., by multiplying by a coefficient called
pan coefficient and is defined as

𝑙𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Pan coefficient = 𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Q13.List the recommendation measures to reduce reservoir evaporation.

Ans:
(1) Storage reservoirs of more depth and less surface area, i.e., by choosing a
cross section of the reservoir like a deep gorge.
(2) By growing tall trees like Causerina on the windward side of the reservoirs to act as
wind breakers.
(3) By spraying certain chemicals or fatty acids and formation of films. By spreading a
manomolecular layer of acetyl alcohol (hexadecanol) C16
H33OH over the reservoir surface (from boats).

(4) By allowing flow of water, temperature is reduced and evaporation is reduced;

i.e.(4.1) by designing the outlet works so that the warmer surface water can be
released.
(4.2) By straightening the stream-channels the exposed area of the water surface
(along the length) is reduced and hence evaporation is reduced.

(5) By removing the water loving weeds and plants like Phreatophytes from the periphery
of the reservoir.
(6) By providing mechanical coverings like thin polythene sheets to small agricultural
ponds and lakes.
(7) By developing underground reservoirs, since the evaporation from a ground water
table is very much less than the evaporation from a water surface.
(8) If the reservoir is surrounded by huge trees and forest, the evaporation loss will be
less due to cooler environment.

Q14. What do you understand by infiltration

Ans:

INFILTRATION
Water entering the soil at the ground surface is called infiltration. It
replenishes the soil moisture deficiency and the excess moves downward by
the force of gravity called deep seepage or
Percolation and builds up the ground water table.

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Q15. List and explain briefly the 5 characteristics of rainfall
ANSWER
Rainfall Characteristics:
(1) Rainfall depth: Rainfall precipitation P = rainfall depth h(cm) over 1 m2.
(2) Rainfall Duration (td) = Time from starting to its end of for a rainfall event.
(3) Rainfall intensity i(cm/hr) = (precipitated depth h(cm) on 1 m2 area of rainfall event)/Time
duration td.
(4) Return Period Tr = The occurrence interval of the rainfall
(5) Aerial extent: = area over which the rainfall has fallen.

Q16. (20marks i.e 2marks each term)

1. Catchment area = drainage basin = watershed = enclosed area containing all

rainfall points contributing to a common outlet.
2. Basin yield = total volume from a catchment area.
3. Effective rainfall on a basin = a part of rainfall contributing to runoff
4. Runoff coefficient = a fraction of runoff over total precipitation.
5. Rainfall hydrograph = graph representing stream discharge with respect to time.
6. Time of concentration of a basin = time taken by the remotest water particle to
contribute to the outlet discharge.
7. Perennial river = any river running continuously throughout the year.
8. Potential Evapotranspiration = reference evapotranspiration = is the
evapotranspiration from the grassed crop when the roots are supplied with
unlimited water covering the soil and adequate fertilization.
9. Catchment delineation = identification of all points within the watershed
boundary from which rain will contribute to the outlet water-discharge from the
catchment.
10. Watershed leakage = The groundwater which may flow, through water bearing
strata, into the adjacent basin.

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Q17. Draw a descriptive graph with legend of the Horton model of infiltration (6marks).

Ans:

Q18. For a small catchment, the infiltration rate at the beginning of rain was observed to be 90
mm/hr and decreased exponentially to a constant rate of 8 mm/hr after

Ans:

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QUESTION19. AQUIFER & AQUIFER PARAMETERS

(i) Define the flowing terms related to geological formation(3pts):

a) aquifuge
b) Aquiclude
c) Aquitard
(ii) What do you understand by “aquifer”? (3pts).
(iii) Give and describe various types of aquifers. (4pts).

QUESTION20.

(i) Define the flowing terms related to geological formation(3pts):

a) aquifuge
b) Aquiclude
c) Aquitard
(ii) What do you understand by “aquifer”? (3pts).
(iii) Give and describe various types of aquifers. (4pts).

Solutions:

QUESTION19.

(i) Define the flowing terms related to geological formation(3pts):

a) aquifuge
b) Aquiclude
c) Aquitard

Solution of Q19(i)
Aquifuge : A relatively impermeable formation neither containing nor transmitting
water; solid granite belongs in the category.
Aquiclude:A saturated but relatively impervious material that does not yield
appreciable quantities of water to wells; clay is an example.
Aquitard: A saturated but poorly permeable stratum that impedes groundwater
movement and does not yield water freely to wells, that may transmit appreciable
water to or from adjacent aquifer and, where sufficiently thick, may constitute an
important groundwater storage zone; sandy clay is an example.

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 (ii) What do you understand by “aquifer”?(3pts).
Solution

aquifer: A formation that has sufficient porosity and hydraulic conductivity to

store water and transmit water in significant quantities.

(iii) Give and describe various types of aquifers.(4pts).

Solution

There are 4various types of aquifers

Unconfined aquifer: is one in which a water table varies in undulating from and in
slope, depending on areas of recharge and discharge, pumpage from wells, and
permeability. Rises and falls in water table correspond to changes in the volume of
water in storage within an aquifer. Or

unconfined aquifer :

a party filed aquifer of which the upper boundary is formed by a free groundwater
table under atmospheric pressure.

Confined aquifer: confined aquifer, also known as artesian or pressure aquifer,

occur where groundwater is confined under pressure greater than atmospheric by
overlying relatively impermeable strata. or

Confined aquifer

Is located between impervious layers. If the ground water head is above the ground
surface it is called artesian ground water .

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 Leaky aquifer: Aquifer that arecompletelyconfined or unconfined occur less
frequently than do leaky, or semiconfined, aquifer. These are a common
feature in alluvial valleys, plains, or former lake basins where permeable
strata is overlain or underlain by semipervious aquitard, or semiconfing layer.

Pumping from a well in leaky aquifer removes water in two ways:

a- By horizontal flow within the aquifer and

b- By vertical flow through the aquitard into the aquifer.

Leaky aquifer

Completely saturated aquifer which is bounded at the top by a semi- pervious layer
and at the bottom by either an impervious or semi- pervious layer.

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Idealized aquifer: Aquifer are frequently assumed to be homogeneous and
isotropic. But such idealized aquifer does not exist; however, good quantitative
approximations can be obtained by these assumptions, particularly where average
aquifer conditions are employed on a large scale.

OTHER DEFINITIONS:

(1) The hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer (K): is a measure of the ease with
which water flows through permeable materials. The units are m/day as derived
in Darcy’s law of groundwater flow: v = K.i;
Where i(=Δh/L) = hydraulic gradient. Synonym: Hydraulic
conductivity of a soil = permeability coefficient of a soil.
(2) Soil porosity n:

(3) Definition: Drawdown s(m) = vertical distance between actual water level in
the aquifer and the initial water table before pumping. NOTE that Capital S
=storativity or storage coefficient
while small s=drawdown.

(4) Pumping out test:

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(5) Ground water table : is the surface on which the water pressure is equal to the atmospheric
pressure (in unconfined aquifer , and in aquitards)

(6) Ground water piezometric head: is the level to which ground water would rise in wells
penetrating a confining (or semi confining )layer into the aquifer.

(7) Hydraulic Gradient i(=Δh/L): the change in water level head per unit in the direction of flow.
(8) DEFINITION AND TYPES OF SPRINGS

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Q20. DESIGN FLOOD ESTIMATION
(i) What do you understand by “Flood”?
(ii) Differentiate between “Design Flood” and “Most Probable Flood”
(iii) A culvert is proposed across a stream draining an area of 185 ha. The catchment has a
slope of 0.004 and the length of travel for water is 1150 m.
a. Estimate the time of concentration of the basin
b. Estimate the average intensity of rainfall
c. Estimate the 25 years flood if rainfall is given by:

where i(mm/hr); Tr(years) and t(min). Assume a runoff coefficient of 0.35.

(iv) A cofferdam is designed for a 25 years flood and constructed. If it takes 5 years to
complete the construction of the main dam, what is the risk that the cofferdam may
fail before the end of the construction period?

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 ANSWERS:

(i) What do you understand by “Flood”?

Ans:
Flood = any flow which is relatively high and which overtops the natural or artificial
banks in any reach of a river or channel.

(ii) Differentiate between “Design Flood” and “Most Probable Flood”

ANSWERS

• Most Probable Flood

The Most Probable Flood (MPF) = The Maximum Probable Flood
(MPF) = is the flood which may be expected from the most severe
combination of critical meteorological and hydrological conditions that are
reasonably possible to occur on a certain region.

• Design Flood
Design Flood = is the flood discharge adopted for the design of a hydraulic
structure after careful considerations of economic and hydrologic factors.

(iii) A culvert is proposed across a stream draining an area of 185 ha. The catchment has a
slope of 0.004 and the length of travel for water is 1150 m.
a. Estimate the time of concentration of the basin
b. Estimate the average intensity of rainfall
c. Estimate the 25 years flood if rainfall is given by:

where i(mm/hr); Tr(years) and t(min). Assume a runoff coefficient of 0.3

Answer

a. 𝑡𝑐 = 0.0195 𝐿0.77 𝑆 −0.385 ; where L = 1150m, S = 0.004 and 𝑡𝑐 (min)

Thus 𝑡𝑐 = 37.2 𝑚𝑖𝑛

1000 𝑇𝑟0.2
b. 𝑖 = ; where i(mm/hr); Tr = 25years and t = t c = 37.2min.
(𝑡+20)0.7
Thus i = 11.205 cm/hr

𝐾𝑖𝐴
c. 𝑄𝑝 = ; where K = 0.35; i = 11.205 cm/hr; A = 185 ha and 𝑄𝑝 (m3/s)
36

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 Thus 𝑄𝑝 = 20.153 m3/s

(iv) A cofferdam is designed for a 25 years flood and constructed. If it takes 5 years to
complete the construction of the main dam, what is the risk that the cofferdam may
fail before the end of the construction period?

Answer
From the probabilistic nature of rainfall events, the risk of failure in design flood estimation is
given by:
1 𝑁
𝑅 = 1 − (1 − 𝑇 )
Here Tr = 25 years and N = 5 years.
Therefore:
1 5
𝑅 = 1 − (1 − ) = 0.1846 = 18.46%
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Q21. What do you understand by environment?

Answer: Environment is a complex term used to enclose all biological, physical, social,
administrative and political aspects surrounding us.
Q22. What do you understand by environment impact?
Answer: environmental impact of an activity = a change by the activity to the environment.
Q23. List and discuss briefly various characteristics of environmental impacts.
Answer: The various characteristics of impacts are:

(1)Types of impacts: biological, physical, social, health, or economic.

(2) Nature of the impacts: direct vs indirect, positive vs negative, cumulative vs non-
cumulative.

(3)Magnitude or severity of impacts: impact of high, moderate or low magnitude.

(4)Extent of impacts: local , regional, transboundary or global.

(5)Timing of impacts: immediate or long term (during construction or operation).

(6)Duration of impacts: short term or long term, temporary or permanent.

(7) Uncertainity: certain or uncertain.

(8) Reversibility: reversible and irreversible

(9)Significance: important and unimportant.

Q24. List and discuss briefly various flood control methods

Answer: Flood control is possible by various ways as listed bellow:

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 1- By construction of reservoirs and detention basins
2- Embankment or dikes ( levees)
3- Flood diversion works
4- Water channel improvement (Deeping, narrowing or straightening by river cutoff
to eliminate river meandering stagnant zones along the river flow)
5- Watershed management (terracing, afforestation, check dams and anti-erosive
ditches, ploughing techniques, etc…)
6- Flood Zoning
7- River cutoff
8- Flood forecasting and flood warning(Non-structural measures)

Q25. List and discuss briefly various environmental issues of flood control projects
Answer:
List -1: Five positive impacts of flood control projects
1- Flooding recharge soil moisture and replenish the rich alluvial soils with flood deposits.
Positive impact: Reduction or elimination of flooding has an indirect positive impact of
promoting agriculture, natural vegetation and livestock population of floodplains.
2- Fishery
3- Reduction of river sedimentation by river channeling
4- The reservoirs and basins have a positive impact in recharging groundwater aquifers and
settling suspended sediments which would flow the river channel.
5- Floodways are restricted water ways to protect urban centers or low lying agricultural
fields from flooding.

List -2: Five negative impacts of flood control projects

1- Any method that increases the velocity of flow increases the erosive capacity of the water
flow through the river channel.
2- The main consequence of paving the channels is the reduction or elimination of the
groundwater and disruption of aquatic populations.
3- Overflow basins and reservoirs are usually swampy areas providing habitats for diseases
vectors.
4- Flood control structures are costly to build
5- The construction of dams and reservoirs is usually accompanied by sedimentation and
reduction in water level d/s.

Q26. What do you understand by “Sustainability of a WRDP”? (4marks)

Answer: Sustainability of a Water Resources Development Project (WRDP)
Sustainable Development or sustainability means “the development that meets the
needs for the present generation without jeopardizing the possibilities of future
generations to meet their own needs”.

Q27. With a sketch, define a culvert

Ans:

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- A culvert is a conduit placed under a fill, such as highway embankment or an earth dam, to
convey stream flow from uphill side of the fill to the downhill side.

- Typical both the inlet and outlet control culverts can be studied in four different types:
(1) Inlet and outlet unsubmerged;
(2) Inlet unsubmerged, outlet submerged;
(3) Inlet submerged, outlet unsubmerged;
(4) Inlet and outlet submerged.

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