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THE BEST OF CAPACITOR INSTALIATI0NS

CAN HAVE SIDE EFFECTS.


AvOIDING mouBId3s
FROM SURGES Arm RESoimNCE.

When capacitors are used to ir:`iprove power factor on AC ci'rcuits


I.here can be side effects. In some cases, the =l===i-i``=`i
consultant should be aware of the possi::iicies a.:-.i =.=.:-..i3
necessary steps to prevent damage from surges :`|d =roTi` =oi`.=i!i.uc```.s
harTnonics. Both these effects are of gro.w.ing importance .ceca.`:=e
of increased application of choooed wave equipment espteciail.:.,.
silicon controlled rectifier(SCR)-arives.
Although it rarely happens major damaa3 can be ca`j.s=5 `=-..
transients produced by false triggerin§ of Cievices s.jc:r`: =`-s
g:E::ol:aE:Sn:gg:::;s..fus:r:::::+:3:r::ea}S::t¥:h::a.:?su;,::;:::--:;::a
capacitors .
These events can be made worse by. resonance, r...`=.=chlng tile. cii-ci:i[
:Eg;c:::c:in;::f::gag:::nc:e::a::ep:::gu::c-i-t:: =::,sE::se;`e::n::;::
::::::eson:xd::f:en:Sing:.mg::I:-Sir.;ythecr5:t!I?msu:.':s::::.i.!|s:P.:?P
but can also add. over heating of lines ai`i= ea.i:ipT``e:`.I .c:.- =:-.e
addition of resonant current to a ;S0 Hz s\|.scer.-..
Glimriers of electrical problems appear-§d . as . f =`L- `oack as the
1930s, when medical x-ras'-machi.r`.es -c-ause6 digtt4rba!`.c:ej; i
lines from which they i..:ere fed. In' t:-.e is.iJs addi=:`'.`,:-.:lpiT::
disturbances from large spot welders and f ia=:1 -...- el3ei-= bronglrf
the flicker problems to the attention of el==tricai a::sir.e€i-s.
I.ighting, television sets and the weldinc act..=`i-at.Ls i=.c:elf ..... =L-€
affected by the surges.
In t:riose days, problems were fe...f and large er.=.ugh so :i`.ac i:~..::i
one could be solved by individual,' engineei-i.|g atten=ic:r.. Arc
furnaces, large rectifiers and high horsepower induction mo:`:i-s
created surges, and the equipment was soiTL==imes in`,roived in
resonant combinations.
Rectif iers AIcer Conditions
The surge/harmonic syndrome became more cormor. in the 1960s With
the spreading of the chopped wave equipment (that allclws oni... a
portion of each half cycle of voltage to get through to =:`.3
load) . Ignitrons'and saturable reactors also caused problems =`r.a
nowadays, rectifier systems such as SCRs are used with incfeasi:i.g
5E:g:::¥±::€ a5:w:rma±::eca:::s:f tr:=:::ngwe=:rg=c:::t:::gn::::==
without power capacitors, false operation of eguipTr`=r.t
cross-currents, voltage.distortions. both high and low, and o-,-er
currents were experienced.
ggL::.th;o::s6f£Eg:::d:a:orE£:gp:F]SgT:3:s::=:esfg::gc:¥::oT£=.3
switches, such as SCRs are widely used for controlling and oP
providing poser to the motors, AC motors 'both constar.I 4n;I
•,.

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circuits create problems of surges and harmonics.
gASE=Ed]N8:ALE:::§¥S=ea :hat rectif ier equiptr.=nt not 3nlr
distorts wave shapes,. this equipment also frequently lowers PF.
sometimes substantially, thus creating the need for PF
correction, which is done by the installation of capacitors.
::w:::::h ::g::i:3:sin:ff c:u;:n:e33:::: 5::E:3:s6f IEgi: ig:3:::?t
Recognizing that the above electrical problems are increasing,
emphasis shoul-d be placed on analyzing a project's circuit
characteristics, looking for possible resonances that can
increase overvoltages and overcurrents. It does not mean that
every installation is full of problems it simply means that there
are possible causes f or concern that the electrical consultant
should watch out for.

fE=gr:r¥===Sdistinct phenomenon that should be evaluated in a


circuit analysis. First, there are transients caused by one form
or another of switching. Rectifiers and inverters are in effect a
complex series of switching circuits that primarily use
solid-state devices. They take current first from one line of an
A.C power circuit and then from the next and so on-feeding each
in turn to the same output wires, with the output being Dc. Each
time that the priTary current is transferred f ron one wire to the
next, the two wires are essentially short-circuited. The short
circuit lasts only a f raction of a second, but this is .`vhat
creates spikes and notches in. the supply line voltage. (see Fig.
::;rtT::S:h±:u::::c::: the basis Of all the ills listed at the
A second phenomenon is that the rectif ier itself is af fected
while providing a reasonably unvarying Dc. This requires that the
ac lines provide not only 60Hz current to the load, but also
continuous harmonics which, when put through the rectif ier
circuitry, come out as a nearly flat dc. this in turn. affects
the ac primary power source.
The third phenomenon is a combination of inductance (L) and
capacitance (C). of which each circuit has definite amounts
(regardless of discrete capacitor equipment). which can create
resonance and enlarge voltage and current by many times
(see Fig. 2) . The electrical consultant's job is to locate and
correct the conditions that can create excessive currents and
vol Cages .
Of the above aspects, resonance and harmonics lend themselves to
measuremeht by computation. .
mouBI,E spoTs
In the typical f actory or of f ice building a moderate amount of
SCRs will cause little trouble. However, conditions that may
cause problems and should be investigated are:

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*A few SCR drives that are large in relation to the power system.
For instance, if there are one or two drives whose loads amount
to about 40% of the transforTner KVA f eeding them the commutating

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::8Esdrives that draw tnore load. than the other equipmenc on the
satne low-voltage line.

;:;:::;:!fsi;=:=::::3g:E=!:2j::::;tti¥f:I::tim:: k=l : e::::;


it.
Splus
Spikes seem to cause fuse blowing more often than do harmonies.
To explain this, consider the capacitor "device" fuse connected
t:sea:5t::p=:=E:5.frgm±:i:o:_££3:i::t±::€u±:u=::=f,L±¥:±¥g::€:
as an'isolator to take a capacitor off the line the instanc it
d=;e:::: aa::a::v=::C¥::;s fg::dan±=c:H:n=a=:co:a i:eg=ti::::
such protection.
But the fuse is nervous. Fuses of relatively small i i, (a few
` ;¥:::::£t
-So fuse ::i:r::iis::a:€ELct::gap:±±Ey6e gEow:S§S
atrperage has to be chosen carefully. s;±E:s.
In the days the now
of good
sine waves, convencional rules were satisfactory. A fuse rating
of 1.67 times steady-state current allowed margin for the normal
variations in capat-it-6r--ciii=Lj:i=EEiIETup to 1.35 times racedl€VARr
ccxputed by the factors of 1.15 times rated microfarads,.1.1
times rated voltage and 1.06 additional harrnonics, which are
#;i¥ £=::§?t i:w:v¥r,a:gfeb|ow such fuses. In line with recent
fuse manufacturers thoughts, many electrical consultants now
consider 2.2 to 2.5 to be the normal [r`ultiplier. Some
installations go considerably higher our f irm which manufactures
capacitors has no reports of cell rupture when such ratings are
used.
Spikes lt`ay also damage contactors. The nominal limit for spikes
set by makers of the lighting or resistance load contaccors that
should be used for power-factor control capacitors by themselves
is sirc times rated current.
\
splRE REDcrloN

?fgi:i;:iiisi:c:;:¥¥L;i:¥f:=::±k?ii:;::f?iif::ii!:f.!i
Spikes can be reduced by the correct amount of . inductance or by
shunt suppressors (choppers) near the sensitive equipment. Should

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a line not have suff icient inductance in itself, the line


inductance can be supplemented by solenoidal chokes . To obtain
optimum results, filters should be applied.
HZ-
Harmonics lend themselves to a more analytical . treatment than
::its:;t±ca:h:s:g:; £:e::E±cfLen:I::a. where pocent±a] resonant
E£=r¥eL:Eatbef35tEa:in:¥:nan¥rrg:gu±:ra;¥o=::::t±::.bu±±db:E£
exist they will create os`cill tions that
's look at can causerequirements.
the two trouble f ron
overcurrenc or overvoltage-
In determiningr the first c: ion for hav.ingr a resonant circuit
it is ixportalit to see if the resonanc frequency matches
:=gi::=:: (Lfrl!i:e::g;citR=::niE; of f:3gu:::¥tr±€eE:=d£±t?n the
1
f=
2IT VET
Where f is in cycles per second. ..L is in henries and C in farads.
On new projeccs. L and C tnay be found from:
*Transformer i[rpedance (Z) on the nameplate, thus ascertaining
the major induccive element in an electrical syscem.
:::¥tr±¥P::n=:eb:::e::et::a::=S=:rm:=°man:e:::a::p¥:i:::.
*EquivalenE itxpedance of the utility system
for the
bef ore the
transformer, a value usually available either as Z or as
short-circuit kvA from the local utility.
*The kvAR rating of capaci.tors in the circuit being considered.
If they are spread over the distribution circuit a f irst
approximation.-may ..-. be_tnade by considering them all located-at a
load center.
powER FAc€ r]rmovE4ENT
When improving the power factor of an existing plant, it is
helpful to make f ield tests to determine the reactance of the
:x:t::e¥eE:jj::t::giE::Ei::a:sk:3==:::::=:eig:p#i:3s:.rvFhg
circuit. An oscilloscope, preferably with a retentive screen,

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#::¥£;±E€3¥ofa::=#ii¥|=:ig:;¥L=g:;I:giE±3eb::a:ii:
An interesting phenomenon `is that, in actual practice, the

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consequences .

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(6)
Using other capacitor kvAR/transformer kvA ratios, the following
frequencies are obtained:
30% ratio. f = 400 to 450 Hz
40% ratio. f = 350 to 400 Hz
The resonant frequency of electrical systems is likely to
decrease as solidscate rectif ication devices become more
economical and proliferate on smaller, weaker systems. It is
important f or the electrical consultant to be alert against
harmonics when small 240/480 V and 240/208 V .transforTner feed SCR
loads .
The second criterion needed foi a harmonic problem to exist is
having an excitation frequency. matching the circuit's natural
fre.quency. And, not only is the rate of .excitation important., but
also t.he amplitude, which must be large enough to exceed circuit
losses. To deterTnine an electrical system`s high frequency
excitation, an investigation should be made of the loads,
3£:=c±:::¥u:::::f i:aE::E±€::±9§s;armon±c exc±tat±On, ±t will
noted that usually the 5th. 7th. llth and 13tb harTnonics
affected. These harmonies have frequencies of 300, 420, 660
720 Hz respectively and are the primary problem frequencies.
9th harmonic is absorbed by delta connected equipment. In
experience, there is little chance of harmonic problems if
sy-st.em resonates at 660 liz (llth harmonic) or higher.
With oversimplif ication, the rectif ier will create square waves
of current on the 60Hz system. The amplitude of each harmonic is
related to the inverse of the frequency ( i.e. the 5th is
greatest. 7th less, and so on up through even higher values than
those mentioned, but those values are ln such small degree that
they are usually negligible) .
If the generated harmonies coincide with any resonances in the

:E::lf#:::::iy:::a::;i:ebih::i:::::Sin::c:!g::g::;E:::in?o:::::i
units should be considered as a current generator for the
harmonics' ) .
CAPACITOR LEVEL
The electrical consultant has some options if he f inds conditions
are favorable for oscillations. One-the most direct-is to limit
€€Efc±:::£gt:es:f:h:=v35§. oEh:£e±:rT=::ob£¥e:a¥€Eg r:E:n:a:::±E:=
is to start with a minimum amount of capacitors to avoid circuit
resonance ( see Fig. 3 ) and then gradually increase the amount

g!i;:::e:!if::;Ei:i;:i::i:s:i:r:::i;i;i:::;:::;:::::;:e::::;;
amount of capacitance. This may be practical if a system is
static-but in a changing system, to-day's solution may not be
tomorrow ' s .

(7)
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rectified. This raises the level of harmonic frequency excitation
to a range where it can handled better. This option is
economical only for large installations.
±.|Irfm Appl,ICATIchl
fa¥:et§=a::::::nfpp=:3::i:Srt8a¥::±LE:rsha]:=rt::E:i.eat¥=;t::
can consist sixply of a reactor in series with each capacitor,
tuned near the lowest expected oscillating frequency. Most
commonly .this is the 5th harmonlc.
These series-resonant filters invite the harmonic currents to
:i:y e±:c:±:ca:ag:::Eor_:;:i::i:; E£=t 3:de:i:e3±:±:::: =:::::i:g
while providing a smooth dc to the load.
To trap. the 5th harmonic. a reactor of about 4% impedance at 60
Hz is used. This increases the voltage on the capacitor. by 5%,
which in view of the increased harmonic current that the
capacitor must .carry, leads to the recommendation that 60o V
capacitors be used on 480 V circuits. Because of the derated
£:P:::::::e3:?d the addition of reactors, the cost increase must

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loads and switched on and of f the line 'with them.
ioRTCI.USIOH
Resonance and spikes may become more common as reccif ication
loads increase in use. .The effects of spikes can be mitigated as
discussed. Resonance problems can be overcome by judicious
::i:E:i°:9a:£str£:::i:t:?r Capacitors and traps. Costs must be

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