Free Spoken English Course PDF Book by Azhar Nawaz - Pakistan

SPOKEN ENGLISH It doesn’t matter
how slowly you go

as long as you do
not stop. –
GRAMMER PART Confucius
Learning a skill
Parts of speech such as a new
language can take
Phrase, Clause & Sentence a long time. If you
feel like your
Tenses, Uses of Since & For progress is slow,
BY AZHAR NAWAZ bear in mind these
wise words from
Active-passive & Direct-indirect rules
Confucius. The
important thing is
Use of Articles to keep going and
you will get there
Singular & Plural Rules in the end.
Spelling Rules
Contractions, Abbreviations, Prefix & Suffix
PLEASE VISIT MY YOUTUBE CHANNEL

2019
“SPOKEN ENLGISH WITH AZHAR NAWAZ”
SPOKEN PART Informal Contractions
Phrasal Verbs Conditional Sentences
Idioms, proverbs & Maxims Polite expressions
Causative verbs
Question Tags & Short Answers
Royal pronouns
Uses of some/any & many others
18 different uses of simple present
Phrasal Adjectives & Adverb Phrases
AZHARNAWAZ@YAHOO.COM
PREFACE
Dear students this free edition of Spoken English course has been compiled & uploaded in good
faith to help student provide an editable document which they can download and take print out
anytime and anywhere in the world. Its my months long hard work. Fair caution has been taken
during compilation. However, if anymistake / anomaly is noticed please bring into my knowledge on
following e:mail address for further corrections. Regards! azharnawaz@yahoo.com
FREE LICENSE – NO COPY RIGHTS
It is hereby informed that this book is free-license and has no copy rights, any one in the world
(Individial or institution) can download/ print/ edit this book according to the requirements.
VIDEO LECTURES
You may visit my youtube channel (SPOKEN ENGLISH WITH AZHAR NAWAZ) for watching
my video lectures.
NOTE:-
Dear students before starting this spoken English course, following points may be kept in mind
to learn spoken English in a better manner:-
This book consists of two parts (Grammar part & Spoken part), Please make sure that before
starting spoken part you study the grammar part first. It will help you understand several rules and
terminologies used in the spoken part. Therefore, it is suggested that you shouldn’t directly jump
over to spoken part.
You will notice that course topics covered in this book may not be found in one single book
available in the market. So, this book stands out to be one of the unique books of its kind.
Most importantly, it must be kept in mind that although studying this course will enhance your
English grammar as well as spoken English knowledge. However, just having spoken English
knowledge is not enough until it is brought into practice. Having knowledge of driving a car is one
thing but driving it practically is another. As your final aim is to be able to speak English language
confidently. So class environment under a trained teacher and having companions for practicing
your spoken English in the class room or at home are also essentials of this course. Needless to
mention that smart use of internet – watching videos with English subtitles will help students grasp
the true English accent, exposure to new vocabulary & use of several expressions as well as use
of different phrasal verbs in real situations.
This work has been prepared for Pakistani students, keeping in mind the missing parts of spoken
English in our routine curriculum. Hope this course full fills the missing part amicably. However, it is
also expected that other nationals may also be benefitted by the information given in this book.
Dear students - just like you, I have always been an eager learner of spoken English, I studied it at
length, after getting handful knowledge, I felt the need to share the same with my other brothers
and sister as well.
Please don’t dream to be a native-like English speaker over night. Learning a language is a slow
process, but sheer commitment, regular practice and hard work will help you reach up to your
goals in months.
Wish you all the best!!!
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3
GRAMMAR PART
4
SPOKEN ENGLISH COURSE
(GRAMMAR PART)
CONTENTS:-
THE GRAMMER PART:- Page
1. Parts of speech 5.
2. Phrase, Clause 21.
3. Sentence 22.
4. Tenses 23.
5. Uses of Since & For 25.
6. Active & Passive Voice Rules
(Transitive & Intransitive Verbs) 26.
7. Direct & Indirect speech Rules 33.
8. Use of Articles 48.
9. Spelling Rules 52.
10. Singular & Plural Rules 55.
11. Prefix & Suffix 59.
Spoken Part 60
5
Parts of Speech
PARTS OF SPEECH
Words are divided into different kinds or classes, according to their use in a sentence,
these words are called Parts of Speech and they are total eight in number:
S No Topic Page
1. Noun 4
2. Pronoun 5
3. Adjective 7
4. Verb 8
5. Adverb 9
6. Preposition 11
7. Conjunction 11
8. Interjection 12
1. NOUN
The name of a person, Place or Thing is called Noun. For Example Ali, School, Apple etc.
Types of Noun
1. Proper & Common Noun – Proper noun is the name of a particular person or place, where as
common noun can be given to any person or thing. Like:-
Ali is a good boy.
In the above example Ali is a proper noun and boy is a common noun.
2. Collective Noun - A Collective Noun is the name used to represent a number or collection of
persons or things spoken of as one whole as:-
Team, flock, army, fleet, jury, family, nation, parliament, committee.
A Team = a collection of player.

A fleet = a collection of ships or vessels.
An army = a collection of soldiers.
A crowd = a collection of people.
Concrete Noun - The word concrete means somthing tangible (that can be identified by five
senses – touch, see, hear, smell and taste). A concrete Noun is usually the name of a person.,
place or thing as :- ALI, Rawalpindi, Cup etc.
Abstract Noun - The word abstract means drawn off. An Abstract Noun is usually the name of a
quality, action, or state as :-
Quality - Goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, hardness, brightness, honesty, wisdom,

bravery.
Action - Laughter, theft, movement, judgment, hatred.
State - Childhood, boyhood, youth, slavery, sleep, sickness, death, poverty.
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Parts of Speech
3. Countable Noun - Countable nouns are the names of objects, people, etc. that we can
count, e.g., book, pen, apple, boy, sister, doctor, horse.
4. Uncountable Noun - Uncountable nouns are the names of things which we cannot count,
e.g., milk, oil, sugar, gold, honesty.
Note- Countable nouns have plural forms while uncountable nouns do not. For example, we say
“books” but we cannot say “sugars”.
2. PRONOUN
A word that is used instead of a noun is called pronoun, e.g.
(I, we, You, He, She, It & They are called pronoun)
Ali is a boy, he is also a brave boy. (In this sentence word ‘HE’ is a pronoun).
Types of Pronoun:-
1. Personal pronoun – I, we, You, He, She, It, They are called personal pronoun because
these are used for persons. There are following three types of personal pronouns.
(a) First Person – I and we are called first person pronoun.
(b) Second Person- You is called second person pronoun.
(c) Third Person - He, She, They are called third person pronoun.
2. Reflexive pronoun – When word self is added to my, your, him, her, it, and word selves to
our, your, them, we get Compound Personal Pronouns and they are called Reflexive Pronouns
when the action done by the subject turns back (reflects) upon the subject as:-
I hurt myself.
We hurt ourselves.
You will hurt yourself.
She hurt herself.
The horse hurt itself.
3. Emphatic pronoun –Compound Personal Pronouns are also used for the sake of
emphasis,
I myself saw him watching cricket match.

We ourselves will watch this movie.
You yourself can best explain.
He himself said so.
4. Demonstrative pronoun - Word This, That, These & Those are called demonstrative
pronouns because they point out the objects which they refer to, as:-
This is a great book for reading English grammar. These are colorful balls.
Both cars are good; but this is better than that.
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Parts of Speech
5. Distributive pronoun - Word Each, Either, Neither, any, some, None, No one are called
distributive pronouns because they point out the persons or things one among the several, as:-
Each one of us took lunch at the Hotel.

Either of you can go home.
Neither of you is allowed to play our side.
None of us did it.
No one can jump the school wall.
6. Relative pronoun - Word who, that, which, when, where, whose, whoever, whom and
whomever, are called relative pronouns because they often introduce dependent (or relative)
clauses in sentences, as:-
I met Ali who had just returned back from Hajj.

I have found the pen which I lost.
Here is the book that you lent me.
7. Interrogative pronoun - Word who, whom, which, when, where, what are called
interrogative pronouns. It may be noticed that these Pronouns are similar to Relative
Pronouns, but the work which they do is different. They are here used for asking questions, and
are, therefore, called Interrogative Pronouns..
.
Who gave you that pen?
Whose book is this ?
Whom did you see in the class room?
Who did you see upstairs?,
To whom were you speaking?
Who were you speaking to?
What is that?
What do you want?
8. Indefinite Pronouns
These have no specific antecedents. These are usually identified with general words like: all,
any, some, or none. Indefinite Pronouns can be either singular or plural, as:-
Singular: another, both, nobody, everything, nothing, somebody, everyone, no one, something,
etc.
Plural: all, many, most, much, some
Use of Indefinite Pronouns:-

1. Somebody has stolen her bags. (Singular)
2. Everyone knows about Maria’s bags. (Plural)
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Parts of Speech
PRONOUN CASES
Nominative Cases: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who
The nominative, or subjective, case pronoun is the subject of the sentence.
Examples: She went to the store
Objective Cases: Me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom
These function as direct or indirect objects.
Examples:
We gave HER the bus money.

We gave IT to HER.
Possessive Cases: My, mine, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs, your, yours, whose
The possessive case pronoun shows possession
Example:
That is MY bag.
That bag is MINE.
HER bus was late.
3. ADJECTIVE & DESCRIPTIVE WORDS
ADJECTIVES:-
An Adjective is a word used to add something to the meaning of a noun or to show the
quality, number or state etc of a noun as,
He is a brave boy.
There are twenty boys in this class.
He looks weak due to illness.
DESCRIPTIVE WORDS:-
(Note- Descriptive words are not adjectives):-
A descriptive word looks like an adjective but it’s not an adjective and it is used to mention
personality trait, physical appearance, color, shape and weather as,
Personality Traits - Ambitious, Amusing, Artistic, competent, weak etc.

Physical appearance – Bent, bitter, broken, cold, complex, Giant etc .
Color – Amber, Black, Blue, Golden, Pink, Purple, Red and Violet etc.
Shapes – Circle, Cone, Cube, Cylinder, Pentagon, Oval, Square, Triangle etc.
Weather - Breezy, Chilly, Cloudy, Cool, Hot, Humid, Sunny, Warm etc.
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Parts of Speech
4. VERB
A verb is a word that shows some action, as:-
Ali Hits a ball.
Ibrahim Goes to School.
Hashaam eats an apple.
1. Types of Verb
(a) Regular Verb - regular verbs form their past and past participle forms by adding –ed, as:-
Work – Worked – Worked

Cook – Cooked – Cooked
Laugh - Laughed - Laughed
(b) Irregular Verb - Irregular verbs form their past and past participle forms in different ways,
there are three types of irregular verbs as:-
Type-1 (All three forms are different)
Eat – ate – eaten.

Go – Went – Gone
Type-2 (All three forms are same)
Put – Put – Put

Hit – Hit – Hit
Type-3 (both past and past participle forms are same)
Burn – Burnt - Burnt

Lose – lost – lost
2. Auxiliaries, Modals & Semi Modals
Auxiliaries
An auxiliary (helping ) verb is a verb that adds functional or grammatical meaning to the clause
in which it appears, such as to express tense, aspect, modality, voice, emphasis, etc. Auxiliary
verbs usually accompany a main verb. The main verb provides the main content of the clause
and auxiliary verb forms the tenses, moods, and voices of other verbs. The primary auxiliary
verbs in English are ‘be’ (is, am, are, was, were, will, Shall), do, and have.
Modals
modal is a type of auxiliary (helping) verb that is used to express: ability, possibility, permission
or obligation. The modal auxiliaries are can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, and
would.
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Parts of Speech
Semi Modals
Semi Modals auxiliary are followed by preposition ‘to’, as:-
Has to, have to, is to, are to, in order to, used to etc.
3. Gerund – When a verb is added with ing at the end it forms a gerund and It functions as a
noun in a sentence, as :-
Do you mind lending me your pen?

Running in the morning is a good exercise.
I am taking cooking classes these days.
4. Infinitive – it is a verb form which is generally preceded by preposition ‘to’ and functions as
a noun in a sentence, as:-
To take rest at night makes healthy.

To run a business takes skill and knowledge.
It is nice to see you.
To err is human.
Note:- It must be kept in mind that all simple verbs are also called infinitives (without use of
preposition ‘to’).
.
5. ADVERB:-
An Adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another
adverb; as,
He worked the sum quickly.

This flower is very beautiful.
She pronounced the word quite correctly.
Type of Adverbs:-
Adverbs may be divided into the following types, according to their meaning :-
1. Adverbs of Time (which show when)
I have heard this before.

That day he arrived late.
We shall now begin to work.
He called here a few minutes ago.
I had a letter from him lately.
The end soon came.
He comes here daily.
I hurt my knee yesterday.
I have spoken to him already.
Wasted time never returns.
He once met me in Cairo
I have not seen him since.
Mr. Ali formerly lived here.
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Parts of Speech
2. Adverbs of Frequency (which show how often).
I have told you twice.

I have not seen him once.
He often makes mistakes;
He seldom comes here.
The postman called again.
He always tries to do his best.
He frequently comes unprepared.
3. Adverbs of Place (which show where).
Stand here.
come there.
The little lamb followed Mary everywhere.
My brother is out.
Come in.
Walk backward.
He looked up.
Honesty is within a man?
The horse ran away.
4. Adverbs of Manner (which show how or in what manner).
Our Army fought bravely.

The boy works hard.
I was agreeably disappointed.
Is that so?
Thus only, will you succeed.
Ali reads clearly.
This story is well written.
The child slept soundly.
Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
You should not do so.
5. Adverbs of Degree or Quantity (which show how much, or in what degree or to what /
extent).
He was too careless.

Is that any better?
These mangoes are almost ripe.
I am fully prepared.
You are quite wrong.
The sea is very stormy.
I am rather busy.
He is good enough for my purpose.
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Parts of Speech
I am so glad.
You are partly right.
You are altogether mistaken.
Things are no better at present.
She sings pretty well.
He is as tall as Rama.
6. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation
Surely you are mistaken.

He certainly went.
7. Adverbs of Reason
He is hence unable to refute the charge.

He therefore left school.
6. Preposition
Preposition is a word that shows position, location, direction or time of something.

(e.g. To, from, up, over, in, into, under, above, on, at, with, by etc.)
1. Types of Preposition- There are mainly two types of prepositions, preposition of

time & preposition of place:-
Preposition of Time
Preposition At, on, in can be used as preposition of time, as:-
He arrived at 5PM.
He went to Karachi on Friday.
He visited Murree in summer.
Preposition of Place
Preposition At, on, in can be also used as preposition of place, as:-
He arrived at Rawalpindi today.
He placed a book on the table.
He works in a multinational company.
Note:- (It may be noted that preposition can be used either for time or for place ).
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Parts of Speech
I am so glad.
You are
2. uses of some common Preposition- (ON, AT, IN, INTO, BY, WITH, FROM, TO)
ON
1. Used to show covering, touching or forming part of a surface
 a picture on a wall
 There's a mark on your skirt.
 The diagram on page number 15.
 Put it down on the table.
 He had been hit on the head.
 She climbed on the hill.
2. Supported by somebody/something
 She was standing on one foot.

 Try lying on your back.
 Hang your coat on that hook.
3. Used to show a means of transport
 He was on the plane from New York.

 to travel on the bus/tube/coach
 I came on my bike. a woman on horseback
4. Used to show a day or date
 He came on Sunday.
 We met on 15 Dec, 1998.
 on May the first/the first of May
 on the evening of May
 the first on one occasion
 on your birthday
5. Immediately after something
 On arriving home I discovered they had gone.

 Please report to reception on arrival.
 There was a letter waiting for him on his return.
6. about something/somebody
 A book on South Africa

 She tested us on irregular verbs.
 He wrote a column on pollution.
 He gave a talk on Quid-e-Azam
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Parts of Speech
7. Being carried by somebody; in the possession of somebody
I am so glad.
You are
 Have you got any money on you?
8. Used to show that somebody belongs to a group or an organization
 to be on the committee/staff/jury/panel
 Whose side are you on (= which of two or more different views do you support)?
9. Eating or drinking something; using a drug or a medicine regularly
 He lived on a diet of junk food.

 The doctor put me on antibiotics.
10. Used to show direction on the left/right
 He turned his back on us.
11. at or near a place a town
 a town on the coast

 A house on the Hawks bay.
 We lived on an estate.
12. Used to show the basis or reason for something
 a story based on fact

 On their advice I applied for the job.
13. Paid for by something
 to live on a pension or on a student grant

 to be on a low wage
 You can't feed a family on Rs 500 a week.
 Drinks are on me (= I am paying).
14. By means of something; using something
 She played a tune on her guitar.

 The information is available on the Internet.
 We spoke on the phone.
 What's on TV?
 The program is on Channel 4.
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Parts of Speech
15. Used with some nouns or adjectives to say who or what is affected by something
 a ban on smoking

 He's hard on his kids.
16. Compared with somebody/something
I am so glad.
You are
 Sales are up on last year.
 Mangoes are better on oranges. (means better over or better than)
17. Used to describe an activity or a state to be on business/holiday/vacation
 The book is currently on loan.

 My family is on excursion trip these days.
18. Used when giving a telephone number

 You can get me on my mobile No 03xx-111222
 She's on extension 2401.
AT
1. used to show place of (where something/somebody is or where something happens)

 at the corner of the street
 They arrived late at the airport.
 At the roundabout take the third exit.
 I'll be at home all morning.
 She's at Tom's (= at Tom's house).
 I met her at the hospital.
 How many people were there at the concert?
2. used to say where somebody works or studies

 He's been at the bank longer than anyone else.
 She's at NUML (= NUML University).
3. used to show time (when something happens)

 We left at 2 o'clock.
 at the end of the week
 We woke at dawn.
 I didn't know at the time of writing (= when I wrote).
 At night you can see the stars.
 What are you doing at the weekend? (British English)
4. Used to state the age at which somebody does something

 She got married at 25.
 He left school at the age of 16.
5. To show something is in the direction of or towards somebody/something
 What are you looking at?
 He pointed a gun at her.
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Parts of Speech
I am so glad.
 You are
 Somebody threw flowers at the prime minister.
6. used after a verb to show that somebody tries to do something, or partly does something,
but does not succeed or complete it
 He tried to clutch at the rope as he fell.
 She nibbled at a sandwich (= ate only small bits of it).
7. used to state the distance away from something

 I held it at arm's length.
 Can you read a car number plate at fifty meters?
8. used to show the situation somebody/something is in, what somebody is doing or what is
happening
 The country is now at war.
 I felt at a disadvantage.
 I think Mr Harris is at lunch.
9. used to show a rate, speed, etc.

He was driving at 70 mph.
The noise came at two-minute intervals (= once every two minutes).
 Prices start at Rs1000.
 The book retails at Rs 1999.
10. used to say that somebody/something is as good, bad, or at their best as they can be.
 This was Shahid Khan Afridi at his best.
 The garden is at its most beautiful in June.
 Shoaib is at the heights of his performance.
 The machine is working at its limits. (At its best)
11. used with adjectives to show how well or bad somebody does something
 I'm good at French.
 She's hopeless at managing people.
 He is bad at driving a car.
12. used with adjectives to show the cause of something

 They were impatient at the delay.
 She was delighted at the result.
I am so glad.
You are
13. (formal) in response to something
 They attended the dinner at the chairman's invitation.
14. (computing) the symbol @ (at the rate of) used in email addresses
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Parts of Speech
IN
1. Used to show a point within an area or a space a country in Africa
 The kids were playing in the street. .

 It's in that drawer.
 I read about it in the paper.
Note: when there are two places in comparison to each other and mentioned in one single
sentence, the bigger one is preceded with preposition ‘in’ and smaller is with preposition ‘at’.
eg.
 He lives in Pakistan at Rawalpindi. (Pakistan is bigger than Rawalpindi)
 He lives in Rawalpindi at Shams-abad.(But Rawalpindi is bigger than Shams-abad)
2. within the shape of something; surrounded by something
 She was lying in bed.

 He was sitting in an armchair.
 Leave the key in the lock.
 Soak it in cold water.
3. into something
 He dipped his brush in the paint.

 She got in her car and drove off.
4. forming the whole or part of something/somebody; contained within something/somebody
 There are 31 days in May.

 all the paintings in the collection
 I recognize his father in him (= his character is similar to his father's).
5. during a period of time
 in 2009
 in the 18th century
 in spring/summer/autumn/winter.
 in the fall
 in March
 in the morning/afternoon/evening
 I'm getting forgetful in my old age.

 I am so glad.
 You are
6. after a particular length of time
 to return in a few minutes/hours/days/months.

 It will be ready in a week's time (= one week from now).
 She learnt to drive in three weeks (= after three weeks she could drive).
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Parts of Speech
7. (used in positive or negative sentences or after first, last, etc.) for a particular period of time
 I haven't seen him in years.

 It's the first letter I've had in ten days.
 Such a great thing happens in ages.
8. wearing something dressed in their best clothes
 the man in the hat

 to be in uniform
 She was all in black.
9. used to describe physical surroundings
 We went out in the rain.

 He was sitting alone in the darkness.
10. used to show a state or condition
 I'm in love!
 The house is in good shape.
 I must put my affairs in order.
 a man in his thirties
 The daffodils were in full bloom.
11. involved in something; taking part in something -to act in a play
 She is acting in Hollywood movie.

 He is playing in national cricket team.
12. used to show somebody’s job or profession
 He is in the army.
 She's in computers or in business.
13. used to show the form, shape, arrangement or quantity of something
 a novel in three parts

 Roll it up in a ball.
 They sat in rows.
 People flocked in their thousands to see her.
 I am so glad.
 You are
14. used to show the language, material, etc.

 Say it in English.
 She wrote in pencil.
 Put it in writing.
 I paid in cash.
 He spoke in a loud voice.
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Parts of Speech
15. concerning something
 She was not lacking in courage.

 a country rich in minerals
 three meters in length
16. while doing something; while something is happening
 In attempting to save the child from drowning, she nearly lost her own life.
 In all the rush I forgot to tell him the news.
17. used to introduce the name of a person who has a particular quality
 We're losing a first-rate editor in Alina.
18. used to show a rate or relative amount or quantity.
 There are 1000 grams in a kilo.

 Government collects tax at the rate of 10 percent in Rupees.
 You can send me medicine stock in tens. (Means ten packets/bottles in each box)
INTO
7. Conjunction - A Conjunction (and & but) is a word which merely joins together sentences, and
sometimes words, as:-
Ali and Ibrahim went to school.

Ali ate an apple but Ibrahim ate a banana.
Note: Conjunctions must be carefully distinguished from Relative pronouns, Relative

Adverbs and Prepositions, which are also connecting words.
20
Parts of Speech
8. Interjection - An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or emotion.

Interjections may express-
1. Joy; as, Hurrah!
Hurrah! We have won the match.
2. Grief; as, alas!
Alas! She has died.
3. Surprise; as, ha! What!
What! Have we won the match this time again?
4. Approval; as, bravo!
5. Bravo! You sang a lovely song.
Note: Certain groups of words are also used to express some sudden feeling or emotion.
as, Ah me! For shame! Well done! Good gracious! Oh my God!
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Phrase & Clause
PHRASE, CLAUSE
1. Phrase
A group of words which gives some meaning but not the complete meaning or complete sense,
is called phrase, moreover phrase does not have a subject and verb, as:-
In a corner.
In the east.
Of the mountains.
Above all examples give some meaning or sense but not the complete sense, hence these are
called phrases, now read the following examples:-
Ali is sitting in a corner.

Sun rises in the east.
The top of the mountain was covered with snow.
Now these sentence give complete meaning.
2. Clause
A group of word in a sentence which gives some additional information about the subject is
called clause and clause (unlike phrase) has its own separate subject and also have verb,
generally sentence is considered complete without a clause but clauses make the subject more
prominent and clear, see the difference between two sentences given below:-
Boy is sitting on a wall.

Boy, who is wearing blue shirt, is sitting on a wall.
The boy is my brother.

The boy, who is sitting on a wall, is my brother.
Note: Sometimes clauses are separated by bracketing commas, as given in above examples.
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Sentence
SENTENCE
A group of words which gives complete sense is called a sentence, means a group of words
which has a subject and a predicate is called a sentence, as:-
Ali goes to school every day.

I eat an apple daily.
In first example noun ‘ALI’ is subject and rest of the sentence is called predicate, whereas in
second example pronoun ‘I’ is subject and remaining part of the sentence is called predicate.
Types of Sentences
1. Assertive or Declarative
2. Interrogative
3. Imperative
4. Exclamatory
Types of sentence:- There are following four types of sentences:-
1. Declarative or Assertive- A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called a

Declarative or Assertive, as:-
Ali goes to school.
2. Interrogative - A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence, as:-
Who goes to school?
3. Imperative - A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty is called an Imperative

sentence, as:-
Shut the door now.

God bless you.
4. Exclamatory - A sentence that expresses strong feeling is called an Exclamatory sentence, as:-
What a great victory!

Hurrah! We have won the match!
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Tenses
TENSES
Tenses are forms of a verb that show the time, continuance or completion of an action or a state
that is expressed in connection with the moment at which a statement is made about it. There are
three main tenses:
the present,
the past,
the future.
For each of the tenses, there are four sub tenses:-
Simple or Indefinite
continuous or progressive,
perfect
perfect continuous or perfect progressive.
The present tense is used to refer to something that happens or exists now. The present tense is
also called the present simple or present indefinite.
The past tense is used to refer to something that happened or existed in the past. The past tense
is also called the past simple or past indefinite.
The future tense refers to something that hasn’t happened at the time of speaking. The future
tense makes use of the words will and shall.
The continuous aspect indicates an unfinished action or state of being at the time being referred
to. It is formed using the relevant tense of the auxiliary verb to be and the present participle of the
main verb.
The perfect aspect refers to a completed action in the present, past or future. It is formed using
the combination of the relevant tense of the auxiliary verb have and the past participle of the main
verb. The perfect continuous aspect combines both aspects of continuous and perfect. It
refers to an action that has continued up to the present, up to a time in the past, or up to a time in
the future.
The three verb tenses and four verb aspects make possible the twelve combinations of
tense and aspect, as follows:
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TABLE OF TENSES
Tense/
Indefinite Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous
Type
Urdu= Urdu= Urdu= Urdu=

H.V. = Do, Does H.V. = is, am , are H.V. = Has, Have H.V. = has been
V.F = 1St +s/es V.F = 1st + ing V.F = 3rd V.F = 1st +ing
Examples:- Examples:- Examples:- Examples:-
Present He goes to School. He is going to School. He has gone to School. He has been going to School.
Does he go to School? Is he going to School? Has he gone to School? Has he been going to School?
He does not go to He is not going to School. He has not gone to School. He has not been going to School.
School.
Note:- Since or For can be used,
here.

H.V. = Did H.V. = was, were H.V. = HAD H.V. = Had been
V.F = 2nd but (1St with V.F = 1st + ing V.F = 3rd V.F = 1st + ing
H.V.) Examples:- Examples:- Examples:-
Past Examples:- He was going to School. He had gone to School. He had been going to School.
He went to School. Was he going to School? Had he gone to School? Had he been going to School?
Did he go to School? He was not going to School. He had not gone to School. He had not been going to School.
He did not go to School.
Note:- Since or For can be used,
here.

H.V. = will, shall H.V. = will be, Shall be H.V. = will have, shall have H.V. = will have been, shall have been
V.F = 1St V.F = 1st + ing V.F = 3rd V.F = 1st + ing
Examples:- Examples:- Examples:- Examples:-
Future He will Go to School. He will be going to School. He will have gone to School. He will have been going to School.
Will he go to School? Will he be going to School? Will he have gone to Will he have been going to School?
He will not go to School. He will not be going to School? He will not have been going to School.
School. He will not have gone to
School. Note:- Since or For can be used,
here.
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Use of Since & for
USE OF SINCE & FOR
Both, Since & For are used with Perfect, Perfect continuous tenses only, however, For is also
used for Past indefinite tense. (For is used with period of time (e.g. one hour, one day, one
year) and Since is used with point in time (e.g. 7am, Sunday, 1985) since is also used when
word ‘LAST’ is used with period of time eg. (Last night, Last week, last year etc.)
Examples:-
Use of For
He has lived in Karachi for a long time. Present perfect
He has been living in Islamabad for three months. Present perfect continuous
I worked at the service station for five years. Past tense
I have known her for a long time. (Past perfect tense - Correct)
I know her for a long time. (Present indefinite tense -Incorrect)
I have lived here for ten years. (Past perfect tense - Correct)
I live here for ten years. (Present indefinite tense -Incorrect)
The use of SINCE
He has lived in Karachi since 1985. Present perfect

He has been living in Islamabad Since last 3 months. Present perfect continuous
As mentioned above, we can use For in the simple past tense but we can't use Since in the
simple past tense. Since can only be used in the perfect tenses. See examples below:-
Correct Incorrect
She went to Japan for three years. She went to Japan since 2003.
I studied in New Zealand for one month. I studied in New Zealand since one month.
He walked his dog for four hours. He walked his cat since four hours.
Note:- It should be remembered that both For and Since have other meanings in English that
are not associated with time:-
Examples:-
This is for you.

Is this the train for London?
Since you asked, I'll say yes.
Since he didn't study he didn't pass the exam
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Active & Passive Voice
ACTIVE & PASSIVE VOICE RULES

(TRANSITIVE & INTRANSITIVE VERBS)
Why do we need to convert active voice into passive while both sentences (active & passive)
carry the same meaning? – The answer is that the passive voice is an impersonal verb form
which creates distance (and avoids making accusations), hence, it does not hurt the listener so
it is considered polite as compare to active voice.
In order to learn about Active & Passive voice rules it is important to know that sentences which
have Transitive verbs can only be converted into passive voice and the sentences which have
intransitive verbs cannot be converted into passive voice, lets study-what is the difference
between transitive & intransitive verbs:-
1. Transitive verbs- Transitive verb is a verb which needs an object to give the complete
sense, moreover action of the subject passes over to the object, as:-
1. Ali eats. (incomplete sense)

2. Ali eats an apple. (complete sense)
3. An apple is eaten by Ali.
If we say Ali eats, it gives some meaning but in order to know that what is something that Ali
eats, this sentence needs an object (an Apple) to give to complete information. Hence in this
sentence verb eats is called a transitive verb. So, this sentence can be converted into passive.
1. An apple is eaten by ali.
1. Intransitive verbs- Intransitive verb is a verb which does not needs an object to give the
complete sense, moreover action of the subject does not pass over to the object, as:-
1. Ali laughs.
or
2. Ali laughs loudly.
Such sentence cannot be converted into passive because verb laugh does not need any object,
hence it is called intransitive verb and such sentences which have intransitive verbs cannot be
converted into passive.
Let’s do some practice:-
1. He kicks a foot ball. (Transitive verb)
2. A foot ball is kicked by him. (Correct)
(Correct because verb ‘KICK’ is a transitive verb and it needs an object to be kicked and action
is passed over to the object)
1. He goes to school. (Intransitive verb)

2. The school is gone by him. (Incorrect)
(In correct because verb ‘GO’ is an intransitive verb and the action ‘GO’ is not passed over to
the object).
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BUT- it may be noted that it’s not the verb that is Transitive or Intransitive but it’s the use
of the verb which makes it Transitive or Intransitive, as:-
1. He runs faster. (Here verb run is intransitive)
2. He runs a business. (Here verb run is Transitive) and sentence can be converted into
passive, as – A business is run by him.
However, there is a long list of some verbs which are always Intransitive verbs and can only be
remembered by practice. See the list given below for reference:-
LIST OF INTRANSITIVE VERBS

agree appear arrive become
belong collapse consist cost
cough cry depend die
disappear emerge exist fall
go happen have hiccup / hic-cough
inquire knock (sound) laugh lie (recline or tell untruth)
live look last (endure) occur
remain respond result Revolt
rise sit sleep smile
sneeze stand stay swim
Rules
To change an active voice sentence to a passive voice sentence:
Active = Subject + verb + object +extension-= S+V+O+E.

Passive = Object + Verb (3rd form) + by+ subject + extension=O+V (3rd) +by+S+E
Please remember that extention of the sentence is never changed, it remains the same as it
was mentioned in the active sentence. Like:-
1. Ali eats an apple, early in the morning every day.
2. An apple is eaten by Ali, early in the morning every day.
Procedure:-
1. Make the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
2. Use the verb “to be” in the same tense as the main verb of the active sentence.
3. Use the past participle of the main verb of the active sentence
4. Add word ‘by’ before subject in the passive voice.
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TABLE OF ACTIVE & PASSIVE VOICE RULES
PRESENT
ACTIVE PASSIVE
TENSE
(S+V+O) (O+V+S)
An apple is eaten by Ali.
PRE-IND Ali eats an apple.
(is, am, are + 3rd Verb Form)
An is being eaten by Ali.
PRE-CONT Ali is eating an apple.
(is being, am being, are being + 3rd Verb form)
An Apple has been eaten by Ali.
PRE-PERF Ali has eaten an apple.
(Has been, Have Been + 3rd verb form)
PAST
TENSE ACTIVE PASSIVE
An apple was eaten by Ali.
PAST-IND Ali ate an apple.
(was, were + 3rd verb form)
An apple was being eaten by Ali.
PAST-CONT Ali was eating an apple.
(was being, were being + 3rd verb form)
An apple has been eaten by Ali.
PAST-PERF Ali has eaten an apple.
(Has been, have been + 3rd verb form)
FUTURE
TENSE ACTIVE PASSIVE
An apple will be eaten by Ali.
FUT-IND Ali will eat an apple.
(Will be, Shall be + 3rd verb form)
An apple will have been eaten by Ali.
FUT-PERF Ali will have eaten an apple.
(will have been, shall have been +3rd verb form)
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Note - The following Tenses cannot be changed into Passive Voice:

1. Present perfect continuous tense
2. Past perfect continuous tense
3. Future continuous tense
4. Future perfect continuous tense
Active = S+V+O+Ext
Passive = O+V+by+S+Ext
RULES FOR MODAL VERBS
Words shown below are known as modal verbs in English grammar.
Can, Could, May, Might, Will, Would, Must, Shall, Should, Ought and word ‘BE’ is added after
these modal verbs in passive voice, as- Can be, Could be, May be, Might be, Will be, Would be,
Must be, Shall be, Should be.
Ali can drive a car. (Active)

A car can be driven by Ali. (Passive)
You should drink a glass of water now. (Active)

A glass of water should be drunk by you now. (Passive)
He must pass his exam with good marks. (Active)

His exam must be passed with good marks. (Passive)
CHANGING INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES INTO THE PASSIVE

Notes- The primary auxiliary verbs do, does or did do not appear in the passive form, helping
verb is, am, are, was, were are used instead and question mark (?) is added in the end.
The verbs has, have, had, will, shall, can, may etc., do not change their position at the
beginning of the sentence when the active voice is changed to the passive voice.
Read the following sentences.

Active voice: Did she recognize you?
Passive voice: Were you recognized by her?
Active voice: Can anybody cure it?
Passive voice: Can it be cured (by anybody)?
Active voice: Who wrote this book?
Passive voice: By whom was this book written?
Active voice: Have you finished work?
Passive voice: Has the work been finished by you?
Active voice: When will they announce the results?
Passive voice: When will the results be announced (by them)?
Active voice: Have you invited them?
Passive voice: Have they been invited by you?
Active voice: Will you help him?
Passive voice: Will he be helped by you?
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The question words when, why, where, who or what do not change their position at the
beginning of the sentence when the active voice is changed into the passive voice. Note that
who changes to by whom.
What did he say? (Active Voice)

What was said by him? (Passive Voice)
Whom did you invite? (Active Voice)
Who was invited by you? (Passive Voice)
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CHANGING IMPERATIVE SENTENCES INTO THE PASSIVE
RULES:-
1. An active imperative sentence does not have a subject but it starts with a verb, it has an
order, request or advice, hence subject is also not mentioned in the passive sentence.
2. in passive voice, imperative sentence begins with the word ‘LET’ and followed by object word
‘BE’ is added and ‘3RD’ form of the verb is used.
When the active voice is in the negative, the passive voice is also in negative. However it takes
the form: Let + object + not + be + past participle.
1. Shut The Door. (ACTIVE)

2. Let The Door Be Shut. (PASSIVE)
3. Bring me a glass of water for me. (Active)
4. Let a glass of water be brought for me. (Passive)
5. Change the password of your computer today. (Active)
6. Let the password of your computer be changed today. (Passive)
Another example of imperative sentences:-

Active: Do not beat the dog.
Passive: Let the dog not be beaten.
Note that do is not used in the passive form.
Note:- We can begin the passive sentence with you if we want to put emphasis on the person
addressed to.
Compare:
Active: Help me.
Passive: Let me be helped.
Passive: You are requested to help me.
Active: Learn the poem.
Passive: Let the poem be learned.
Passive: You are asked to learn the poem.
Active: Don’t touch it.
Passive: Let it not be touched.
Passive: You are warned not to touch it.
Note that the passive form has to begin with you when the object of the active verb is not
mentioned.
Active: Work hard.
Here the active verb does not have an object. Therefore the passive form should begin with you.
Passive: You are advised to work hard.
Active: Get out.
Passive: You are ordered to get out.
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CHANGES IN PRONOUNS IN PASSIVE SENTENCES
ACTIVE PRONOUN PASSIVE PRONOUN

I Me
We us
You You
He Him
She Her
They Them
it it
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Direct & Indirect speech rules
DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH RULES
12 Points to be kept in mind while converting direct speech into indirect speech.
1. Reporting speech, and reported speech.
Ali said, “I am going to school”.
2. if object is not mentioned in the reporting speech, consider it as (to me).

Ali said
Ali said (to me)
If the object is mentioned in the reporting speech its fine.

Ali said to Saima.
3. Pronouns of reported speech (1st, 2nd and 3rd person) are changed according to the “SON”
formula.
(a) 1st person (I and WE) are changed according to the subject of the reporting speech.
(b) 2nd person (You) is changed according to the object of the reporting speech.
(c) 3rd person (He, She, it & They) is not changed while converting direct into indirect
speech.
Ali said to me, “I am going to school”.

Ali said to me that he was going to school.
Ali said to me, “ you are going to school”.

Ali said to me that I was going to school.
Ali said to me, “ She was going to school”.

Ali said to me that she was going to school.
4. if reporting speech is in present or future tense, the

tense of reported speech will not be changed.
5. Tense of reported speech is only changed if the tense

of reporting speech is in past tense.
6. However, it must be kept in mind that if some universal

truth is told in reported speech the tense of the universal truth
is not changed even the tense of the reporting speech is in past tense.
Teacher said to me, “ sun rises in the east”.

Teacher said to me that sun rises in the east.
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7. Out of 12 only 06 tenses are changed while converting direct into indirect speech.
1. All 04 present tenses into all 04 past tenses.
Present ind into past ind

Present cont into past cont
Present perfect into past perfect
Present perfect cont into past perfect cont
2. Only first 02 tenses of past tense are converted
Past ind into past perfect

Past cont into past perfect cont
There will be no change of tense for

Past perfect & past perfect continuous, while conversion
from direct into indirect speech.
3. There will be no change of tense for all 04 future tenses,

however only helping verb “will” is changed into would.
Will – would (Future ind)

Will be – would be (Future cont)
Will have – would have (Future perf)
Will have been – would have been (Future perf cont)
8. Change of time, the adverbs of nearness should be put into those of distance.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Now then
Here there
This that
these those
to-day that day
last night the previous night
yesterday the previous day
tomorrow the following day
last week the previous week
next week the following week
last month tthe previous month
next month the following month
9. Following modal verbs are changed as mentioned below:-
Will would
Shall Should
may might
can could
must had to (or) must
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Example:-
Ali said, “I must go to school”. (D.S)
Ali said that he must (or) had to go. (I.S)
But please remember that if past form of the modal verbs has been used in direct
tense, the modals (Should, would, might, could and ought to) cannot be changed further in
the indirect speech but they remain unchanged.
Example:
He said, “I should start a job”.

He said that he should start a job.
10. Omit the interjections such as Alas, hurrah, Oh, how, what.
Change the reporting verb (said) to ‘exclaimed with joy or joyfully’
for happy incidents and use ‘exclaimed with sorrow or sorrowfully
for sorrowful incidents.
Example:
Ali said to me, “Hurrah we have won the match”.

Ali exclaimed with joy that they had won the match.
11. word “THAT” is not used in imperative & interrogative indirect speech. Moreover, if
reported speech in interrogative sentence starts with WH word (Who, where, what, when etc)
.) they will remain unchanged in the indirect speech.
Example:
The teacher said to the boys “Keep silence in the class”. (D.S.)
The teacher advised the boys to keep silence in the class. (I.S.)
Sam said to me, “ is it Sunday today”?

Sam asked me whether/if it was Sunday that day.
12. Note:- Please note that there are two types of questions,
one that can be answered with yes or no and second that cannot be
answered with yes or no.
Ali said to me, “do you go to school”. (YES/NO)

Alis said to me, “ where do you study”? (cannot be answered YES/NO)
If and whether can only be used with
the type of questions which can be answered with YES or NO,
but if the question cannot be answered with yes or no (such
question usually start with- what, why, how, when etc) but
needs some detailed explanation if and whether are not used.
Please see the examples below:-
36
Questions that can be answered with YES or No

Ali said to me, “do you go to school”.
Ali asked me if I go to school.
Questions that cannot be answered with YES or No
Ali said to me, “ where do you study”?
37
Ali asked me where did I study.
Direct Speech
Quoting the exact words of the speaker is called “The Direct Speech”.
Ali said, “I am writing a letter now”.
Indirect Speech
Reporting of what a speaker said without quoting his exact words is called ‘Indirect Speech’.
Ali said that he was writing a letter then.
Note:- The first part of the sentence before Comma (,) is called reporting speech and the
second part in inverted commas (“ “) is called reported speech.
Procedure for changing Direct Speech into Indirect Speech.
Note: If the reporting verb is in the Present or Future tense (e.g., say, will say) there is no
change in the tense of the verb in the Indirect speech.
Ali says, “I eat mangos”. (D.S.)

Ali says that he eats mangos”. (I.S.)
Ali will say, “I eat mangos”. (D.S)

Ali will say that he eats mangos. (I.S.)
However, If reporting verb is in the Past Tense then the subject and tense of the verbs in the
reported speech is changed in the Indirect Speech according to the procedure mentioned
below:-
Procedure:
1. Remove the quotation marks in the statement

2. Use the conjunction ‘that’ (But please remember that conjunction that is not used when
reported speech is starting with WH words (what, where, when, who etc).
4. Change the reporting verb ‘say’ into ‘tell’ or said into told (its optional say/ said may also
be used in indirect tense).
5. Change the subject & tense of the reported speech according to the table given below:-
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Direct speech Indirect Speech

Present Tense
Present indefinite changed into past indefinite
He said “ I go to school”. He said that he went to school.
Present continuous changed into past Past continuous
He said “ I am going to school”. He said that he was going to school.
Present perfect into past perfect
He said “I have gone to school” He said he had gone to school.
Present perfect continuous into past perfect continuous
He said “I have been going to school He said that he had been going to school.
Past Tense
Past indefinite changed into past perfect
He said “ I went to school”. He said that he had gone to school.
Past continuous changed into past perfect continuous
He said “ I was going to school”. He said that he had been going to school.
Past perfect (No change)
He said “I had gone to school” He said he had gone to school.
Present perfect continuous (No change)
He said “I had been going to school He said that he had been going to school.
Future Tense
Future indefinite (Will into would)
He said “ I will go to school”. He said that he would go to school.
Future continuous (will be into would be)
He said “ I will be going to school”. He said that he would be going to school.
Future perfect (will have into would have)
He said “I will have gone to school” He said he would have gone to school.
Future perfect continuous (will have been into would have been)
He said “I will have been going to school He said that he would have been going to school.
1. Present indefinite Tense in the Direct becomes Past indefinite tense in indirect
speech.
Alina said, “I write a letter”. (D.S)

Alina said that she wrote a letter. (I.S)
3. Present Continuous in the direct becomes past continuous.

John said, “I am going to church”. (D.S)
John said that he was going to church. (I.S)
5. Past Continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.

Nelson said, “I was playing cricket”. (D.S)
Nelson said that he had been playing cricket. (I.S)
5. Present Perfect in the direct becomes past perfect.

Kamal said, “I have done my home work”. (D.S)
Nelson said that he had done his home work. (I.S)
6. Present Perfect Continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.
He said, “I have been reading a novel”. (D.S)

He said that he had been reading a novel. (I.S)
2. Past indefinite Tense in the direct becomes past perfect or remains unchanged.
Angel said, “I brought a pen yesterday”. (D.S)
Angel said that she had bought a pen the day before. (I.S)
Note: if future tense is used in reported speech, then will and shall are converted into would
and should. Rest of the sentence remains unchanged.
7. ‘Will’ and ‘Shall’ are changed to ‘would & Should’.

He said, “I will go to London tomorrow”. (D.S)
He said that he would go to London the next day. (I.S)
Rule :2
Exception to the above rule:
Note: If the direct speech contains the Universal Truth, the tense of the direct speech
remains unchanged even if the reporting verb is in the past.
The teacher said, “The sun rises in the East”. (D.S)

The teacher said that the sun rises in the East. (I.S)
Rule :3
STATEMENT (OR) ASSERTIVE SENTENCE RULES :
Remove the quotation marks in the statement

Use the conjunction ‘that’
Change the reporting verb ‘say’ into ‘tell’
Change the reporting verb ‘said’ into ‘told’ (its optional/ said may also be used in indirect
tense)
1. “I will work hard to get first class” said Ali (D.S.)

Ali said that he would work hard to get first class. (I.S.)
2. “You can do this work” Ali said to Ibrahim (D.S.)
Ali told Ibrahim that he could do that work. (I.S.)
3. He says, “I am glad to be here this evening”(D.S.)
He says that he is glad to be there that evening. (I.S.)
4. “I‘m going to the library now” said Ali (D.S.)
Ali said that he was going to the library then. (I.S.)
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IMPERATIVE SENTENCE (ORDER OR REQUEST) RULES :
1. Remove the quotation mark in an Imperative sentence.

2. Don‘t use ‘that’
3. Use ‘to’ if it is an affirmative sentence. (without don‘t)
Example:-
The teacher said to the boys “Keep silence in the class”. (D.S.)
The teacher advised the boys to keep silence in the class. (I.S.)
4. Use ‘not to’ if the sentence begins with Don‘t.
Example:-
The teacher said to the boys “Don‘t talk in the class” (D.S.)
The teacher advised the boys not to talk in the class. (I.S.)
5. Omit the word ‘please’. Use the word ‘request’ instead of ‘said’.
Example:-
The old man said to them “Please give me something to eat. I am hungry”. (D.S.)
The old man requested them to give him something to eat and said that he was hungry (I.S.)
6. If the direct speech contains a request or a command, the reporting verb (said) is
changed into tell, ask, request, order, warn, caution, command etc. In its correct
tense.
Example:-
he said to her “Be careful”. (D.S.)
He warned her to be careful. (I.S.)
Ali said to Hashaam “Bring me a cup of tea”. (D.S.)
Ali requested Hashaam to bring him a cup of tea. (I.S.)
The leader said, attack the enemy now”. (D.S)
The leader commanded to attack the enemy then.(I.S.)
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Changes in Time:
Note: if there is time mentioned in direct speech it will be changed according to the list
given below:-
Examples:-
She said, “I am buying a laptop today”.
She said that she was buying a laptop that day.
He said, “I need your help now”.
He said that he needed my help then.
The adverbs of nearness should be put into those of distance.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Now then
Here there
here after there after
This that
these those
Ago before
Thus so
to-day that day
to-night that night
last night the previous night
yesterday the day before (or) the previous day
tomorrow the next day (or) the following day
last week the week before (or) the previous week
next week the week after (or) the following week
last month the month before (or) the previous month
next month a month after, or the following month
hither thither
hence thence
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Following modal verbs are changed as mentioned below:-
Will would
Shall Should
may might
can could
must had to (or) must
These Modals Do Not Change: Would, could, might, should, ought to.
Would They said, "we would apply for a visa" They said that they would apply for visa.
Could He said, "I could run faster" He said that he could run faster.
Might John said, "I might meet him". John said that he might meet him.
Should He said, "I should avail the He said that he should avail the
opportunity" opportunity.
Ought to He said to me, "you ought to wait for He said to me that I ought to wait for
him" him.
Example:-
Ali said, “I must go now”. (D.S)

Ali said that he must (or) had to go then. (I.S)
But please remember that if past form of the modal verbs has been used in direct tense,
the modals (Should, would, might, could and ought to) cannot be changed further in the
indirect speech but they remain unchanged.
Example:
He said, “I should start a job”.

He said that he should start a job.
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INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE (QUESTIONS) RULES:-
1. Remove the quotation marks and question mark in the interrogative sentence.
2. Don‘t use ‘that’
3. Changing the reporting verb (said) into ‘asked’ or ‘enquired’.
4. Use ‘if’ or ‘whether’ if the sentence inside the quotation marks begins with a helping
verb (Auxiliary verb and the answer can be given in YES/NO).
Example:
Sam said to me, “ is it Sunday today”?
Sam asked me whether/if it was Sunday that day.
5. If reported speech starts with WH word (what, when, where,

why, who, whom, whose, which, etc.) they will remain unchanged
in the indirect speech.
Example:-
He said to me, “what are you doing”?

He asked me what I was doing.
6. Omit helping verb like ‘do, does, did’. But don’t omit them when
they are with ‘not’.
Example:-
Ali said to Sultan, “Do you like mangoes?” (D.S.)

Ali enquired Sultan if he liked mangoes. (I.S.)
Ali said to Sultan, “Don’t you like mangoes?” (D.S.)
Ali enquired Sultan whether he didn’t like mangoes. (I.S.)
44
Note:- Please note that If and whether can only be used with
the type of questions which can be answered with YES or NO,
but if the question cannot be answered with yes or no (such
question usually start with- what, why, how, when etc) but
needs some detailed explanation if and whether are not used.
Please see the examples below:-
Questions that can be answered with YES or No
1. Sam said to me, “ is it Sunday today”?

Sam asked me whether it was Sunday that day.
2. Ali said to Sultan, “Do you like mangoes?” (D.S.)

Ali inquired Sultan if he liked mangoes. (I.S.)
3. I said to my friend, “will you help me carry this box?”. (D.S.)

I asked my friend if he would not help me to carry that box. (I.S.)
Questions that cannot be answered with YES or No
1. Ali said to me, “Why did not you attend the meeting yesterday”? (D.S.)
Ali asked me why I had not attended the meeting the previous day. (I.S.)
2. Ali said to Ibrahim, “How often do you go to the theatre?” (D.S.)

Ali asked Ibrahim how often he went to the theatre. (I.S.)
3. He said to me, “what are you doing”?

He asked me what I was doing.
45
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE RULES :
Change the exclamatory sentence into statement or Assertive

1. Remove the quotation marks and exclamatory mark.
2. Use the conjunction ‘that’
3. Omit the interjections such as Alas, hurrah, Oh, how, what..
4. Change the reporting verb (said) to ‘exclaimed with joy or
joyfully’ for happy incidents and use ‘exclaimed with sorrow or sorrowfully for sorrowful
incidents.
5. Add the word ‘very’ to the adjective or adverb if necessary.
6. If the verb is not given, use ‘Be’ form verb (is, was, are,
were, am) in its correct tense according to the subject.
Examples:
1. Alina said, “Oh, what a beautiful flower that is!” (D.S.)

Alina exclaimed joyfully that that was a very beautiful flower. (I.S.)
2. we said, “What a horrible sight it is!”. (D.S.)

We all exclaimed that it was a very horrible sight. (I.S.)
3. he said, “Alas! I have broken my brother’s watch”.

He exclaimed sorrowfully that he had broken his brothers watch. (I.S.)
4. Alina said. “How beautiful I am!” (D.S.)

Alina exclaimed joyfully that she was very beautiful. (I.S.)
46
Changes in Pronouns:
Note: The pronoun mentioned in direct speech will be changed

in the indirect speech according to the following rules :-
Please keep a “SON” (S=SUBJECT, O=OBJECT, N=No change

of subject of reported speech) formula in mind while changing pronouns
in the indirect speech.
Rule No 1: If the pronoun of reporting speech is 3rd person (He, She, They)
and pronoun of reported speech is first person (I or WE) , it will be changed
according to the subject of the reporting speech.
Example:
Direct Speech: She said to me, “I will go to London”.
Indirect Speech: She said to me that she would go to London.
Rule No. 2: If the pronoun of reporting speech is first person (I, we) and the Pronoun of
reported speech is also first person (I, we) then there will be no change of pronoun in the
indirect speech.
Examples:
Direct Speech: I said, “I had applied for a Job”
Indirect Speech: I said that I had applied for a Job.
Direct Speech: We said, “We sing a song”
Indirect Speech: We said that we sang a song.
Rule No. 3: If the pronoun of reported speech is second person (you),

it will be changed according to the Object of the reporting speech.
Example:
Direct Speech: She said to me, “you will go to London”.
Indirect Speech: She said to me that i would go to London.
Rule No. 4: If the pronoun of reported speech is 3rd person (He, She, It, They),
it will never be changed in the indirect speech.
Example:
Direct Speech: She said to me, “he will go to London”.
Indirect Speech: She said to me that he would go to London.
47
OPTATIVE SENTENCES
Those sentences, which express hope, prayer, or wish, are called optative sentences.
Usually, there is a mark of exclamation at the end of optative sentence. For example:
 May you succeed in the test!
 May you get well soon!
 Would that I were rich!
To change optative sentences into indirect speech, follow the following rules along with
the above-mentioned rules:
1. In case, the reported speech starts with the word may, then the reporting verb said is
replaced with the word prayed.
2. In case, the reported speech starts with the word would, then the reporting
verb said is replaced with the word wished.
3. May is changed in might.
4. Mark of exclamation is omitted.
5. In indirect speech, the optative sentences become assertive sentences.
6. Change the optative sentence into statement or Assertive.
7. Use the conjunction ‘that’.
8. Change the reporting verb (said) into ‘prayed/wished.
Examples
He said to me, “May you live long!”
He prayed that I might live long.
My mother said to me, “May you succeed in the test!”

My mother prayed that I might succeed in the test.
She said, “Would that I were rich!”

She wished she had been rich.
I said to him, “Would that you were here on Sunday!”

I wished he had been there on Sunday.
You said to me, “ May you find your lost camera.”

You prayed that I might find my lost camera.
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Uses of Articles
USES OF ARTICLES
The words a or an are called Articles. They come before nouns.

There are two Articles - a (or an) and the.
A or an is called the Indefinite Article, because it usually leaves indefinite the

person or thing spoken of; as, A doctor; that is, any doctor.
The is called the Definite Article, because it normally points out some particular
person or thing; as,
He saw the doctor; meaning some particular doctor. The indefinite article is used before
singular countable nouns, e.g.
A book, an orange, a girl
The definite article is used before singular countable nouns, plural countable nouns and
uncountable nouns, e.g., The book, the books, the milk
A or An
The choice between a and an is determined by sound. Before a word beginning with
a vowel sound ‘an’ is used; as,
An ass, an enemy, an ink-pad, an orange, an umbrella, an hour, an honest man. An heir.
It will be noticed that the words hour, honest, heir begin with a vowel sound, as the initial
consonant h is not pronounced,
Before a word beginning with a consonant sound ‘a’ is used; as,

A boy, a reindeer, a woman, a yard, a horse, a hole, also a university,, a union, a
European, a ewe, a unicorn, a useful article. because these words (university, union, etc.)
begin with a consonant sound, that of yu.
Similarly we say,
A one-rupee note, such a one, a one-eyed man.
because one begins with the consonant sound of ‘w’.
Some native speakers use ‘a’ before words beginning with ‘h’ if the first syllable is not
stressed
An hotel (More common: a hotel)
an historical novel (More common: a historical novel)
Use of the Definite Article
The Definite Article the is used-
(1) When we talk about a particular person or thing, or one already referred to (that is,
when it is clear from the context which one already referred to (that is, when it is clear
from the constant which one we mean);

The book you want is out of print. (Which book? The one you want.)
Let's go to the park. (= the park in this town)
The girl cried, (the girl = the girl already talked about)
(2) When a singular noun is meant to represent a whole class; as,

The cow is a useful animal.
[Or we may say, "Cows are useful animals."]
The horse is a noble animal.
The cat loves comfort.
The rose is the sweetest of all flowers.
The banyan is a kind of fig tree.
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Uses of Articles
[Do not say, "a kind of a fig tree". This is a common error.]
The two nouns man and woman can be used in a general sense without either article.
Man is the only animal that uses fire.
Woman is man's mate.
But in present-day English a man and a woman (or men and women) are more usual.
A woman is more sensitive than a man.
(3) Before some proper names, viz., these kinds of place-names:

(a) oceans and seas, e.g. the Pacific, the black Sea
(b) rivers, e.g. the Sindh, the Nile
(c) canals, e.g. the Suez Canal
(d) deserts, e.g. the Sahara
(e) groups of islands, e.g. the West Indies
(f) mountain-ranges, e.g. the Himalayas, the Alps
(g) a very few names of countries, which include words like republic and kingdom (e.g.
the Irish Republic, the United Kingdom) also: the Ukraine, the Netherlands (and its seat
of government the Hague)
(4) Before the names of certain books; as,

The Holy Quran, the Bible.
(5) Before names of things unique of their kind; as,

The sun, the sky, the ocean, the sea, the earth.
[Note-Sometimes the is placed before a Common noun to give it the meaning of an
Abstract noun; as, At last the wamor (the warlike or martial spirit) in him was thoroughly
aroused.]
(6) Before a Proper noun when it is qualified by an adjective or a defining adjectival

clause; as,
The great Caesar : the immortal Shakespeare.

The Mr. Jinah whom you studied about is founder of Pakistan.
(7) With Superlatives; as,

The darkest cloud has a silver lining.
This is the best book of elementary chemistry.
(8) With ordinals; as,

He was the first man to arrive.
(9) Before musical instruments; as,

He can play the flute.
(10) Before an adjective when the noun is understood; as,

The poor are always with us.
(11) Before a noun (with emphasis) to give the force of a Superlative; as,
The Verb is the word (= the chief word) in a sentence.
(12) As an Adverb with Comparatives; as,

The more the merrier.
(= by how much more, by so much the merrier)
The more they get, the more they want.
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Uses of Articles
Use of the Indefinite Article
The Indefinite Article is used-

(1) In its original numerical sense of one; as,
Twelve inches make a foot.
Not a word was said.
A word to the wise is sufficient.
A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
(2) In the vague sense of a certain; as,

A Kishore Kumar (= a certain person named Kishore Kumar) is suspected by the police.
One evening a beggar came to my door.
(3) In the sense of any, to single out an individual as the representative of a class; as,
A pupil should obey his teacher.
A cow is a useful animal.
(4) To make a common noun of a proper noun; as,

A Daniel comes to judgment! (A Daniel = a very wise man)
51
Uses of Articles
OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE
The Article is omitted-

(1) Before names of substances and abstract nouns (i.e. uncountable nouns) used in a
general sense; as,
Sugar is bad for your teeth.
Gold is a precious metal.
Wisdom is the gift of heaven.
Honesty is the best policy.
Virtue is its own reward.
Note:- Uncountable nouns take the when used in a particular sense (especially when
qualified by an adjective or adjectival phrase or clause); as,
Would you pass me the sugar? (= the sugar on the table)
The wisdom of Solomon is great.
I can't forget the kindness with which he treated me.
(2) Before plural countable nouns used in a general sense; as,

Children like chocolates.
Computers are used in many offices.
52
Basic spelling rules
BASIC SPELLING RULES
Note: These Basic rules should only be used as a reference and should not replace
assignment guidelines.
Correct spelling increases credibility and clarity. Although there are always exceptions to
the following rules, they serve as general guidelines.
Adding a Suffix
When a suffix (an ending) is added to a word, the word’s spelling usually changes in the
following ways:
One-syllable Words
When a suffix that begins with a vowel (-ed, ing, -er, -est) is added to a one-syllable word
that ends in a consonant-vowel-consonant pattern, the final consonant of the word is
doubled.
EXAMPLES:
plan + ed = planned
swim + ing = swimming
run + er =runner
thin + est = thinnest
Multi-syllable Words
When a suffix that begins with a vowel (-ed, -ing, -er, -est) is added to amulti-syllable
word, the final consonant is doubled if
(1) the word ends in a consonant-vowel-consonant pattern, and

(2) The accent or stress is on the last syllable.
EXAMPLES
:
begin + ing= beginning
control + ed = controlled
Words Ending in –e
When a suffix that begins with a vowel (-ing, -ence, -able) is added to a word ending in -e,
the word’s final –e is usually dropped. However, if the suffix begins with a consonant (-
ment,-less,-ly), the word’s final -eusually remains.
EXAMPLES:
move + ing = moving

note + able = notable
advertise + ment = advertisement
home + less = homeless
Some exceptions to this rule include the words argument, awful, courageous, judgment,
manageable, noticeable, truly, and simply.
53
Words Ending in –y
For most words that end in -y,if the letter before the –y is a consonant, the -y
becomes an –i when the suffix is added. However, if the letter before the -y
is a vowel, the-y remains unchanged.
EXAMPLES:
happy + ness = happiness
portray + ed = portrayed
Some notable exceptions are the words
daily, laid, paid, and said. Also, anytime-ingis added to a word ending in -y, the -y
is not dropped.
EXAMPLES:
copy + ing = copying
delay+ ing = delaying
Choosing Between –s and –es
If a word ends in a consonant, the suffix -s, rather than -es, is usually added. However, -
es is used for words ending in -ch, -sh, -ss, -x, or -z.
EXAMPLES:
relax + es= relaxes
crutch + es = crutches
For words where the final –y is changed to an -i , -es is used.
EXAMPLES: fry + es =fries, marry + es = marries,
When a word ends in -o, -es is used rather than -s.
EXAMPLES:
do + es = does
echo + es = echoes
tomato + es = tomatoes
Some exceptions to this rule are the words

pianos, radios, sopranos, and solos
.
54
Choosing Between–ie and –ei
The letter-e precedes the letter –I when the two letters create an “ay” sound, as in
Neighbor and weigh. In other cases, however, -I is always placed before –e unless the
letter –c precedes them both.
EXAMPLES:
vein, niece friend, receipt
Furthermore, even when the letter –c precedes the-i and -e, the word should be spelled
with an –ie if the letters combine with the -c to create a “shen” sound.
EXAMPLES:
ancient, conscience, efficient, sufficient
Hints for Improving Your Spelling

1.
Use creative strategies to remember the correct spelling of words. For example,
remember that the –a ’s in separate are separated by an -r, and dessert has two
-s’s because you want two desserts.
2.
Refer to a dictionary, and always check essays with the computer’s spellchecker.
3.
Watch out for homonyms (words that have the same sound but different spellings and
different meanings). These are often missed by the computer’s spellchecker. Some
common homonyms are their / there/ they’re, it’s/its, and hear/here
4.
Keep a list of words you commonly misspell nearby when you write. Look over returned
essays for misspelled words, and add them to your list.
5.
Test yourself on spelling using flashcards or other memorization techniques.
6.
Put the correctly spelled words that you have problems with somewhere you will see them
every day: on a desk, on your mirror, in your car, etc. In time, you will remember the
correct spelling instead of the incorrect one.
55
Singular & Plural Rules
15 RULES OF CHANGING SINGULAR TO PLURAL NOUN
Rules of changing singular to plural: According to the definition of the noun, it is a part
of speech that functions as the name of living creatures, objects, places, actions,
qualities, the state of existence or ideas. Nouns can be classified under two number
categories; singular noun & plural noun. Singular means only one where plural
represents more than one.
There are few basic rules to remember when it comes to turning a singular noun to a
plural. In this post, we will discuss 15 such basic rules of changing singular to plural noun.
Rules of Changing singular to plural:
Rule #1:
If -s, -sh, -ch, -ss, -x and -z are the last letters of the noun, put -es to the end to make
them plural.
Example:
Class – Classes
Bus – Buses
Dish – Dishes
Toss – Tosses
Exceptions:
Monarch – Monarchs
Stomach – Stomachs
Rule #2:
If there is -o to the end of a singular noun, put -es to the end to make the singular to the
plural form.
Example:
Hero – Heroes
Zero – Zeroes
Exceptions:
Photo – Photos
Dynamo – Dynamos
Solo – Solos
Momento – Momentos
Stereo – Stereos
Rule #3:
If there are double vowels to the end, put only -s to the end to change singular to plural.
Example:
Radio – Radios
Ratio – Ratios
Studio – Studios
Bamboo – Bamboos
Rule #4:
If -y is the last letter of a singular noun and it is preceded by a constant, to make it plural
just change -y into -ies.
56
Example:
Spy – Spies
Lady – Ladies
Baby – Babies
History – Histories
Rule #5:
If -y is the last letter preceded by a vowel, add -s to the end to make the plural form.
Example:
Boy – Boys
Toy – Toys
Lay – Lays
Ray – Rays
Rule #6:
If -f and -fe ate the last letter/letters of a singular noun, to make it plural we write -ves
instead of -f/-fe.
Example:
Knife – Knives
Wife – Wifes
Leaf – Leaves
Thief – Thieves
Exception:
Proof – Proofs
Roof – Roofs
Belief – Beliefs
Roof – Roofs
Chief – Chiefs
Gulf – Gulfs
Rule #7:
Few singular nouns form their plural forms by changing the inside vowel.
Example:
Man – Men
Woman – Women
Tooth – Teeth
Goose – Geese
Mouse – Mice
57
Rule #8:
Adding -en to the singular form to transform into the plural.
Example:
Ox – Oxen
Child – Children
Rule #9:
There are some nouns, whose singular and plural forms are alike.
Swine – Swine
Deer – Deer
Pair – Pair
Dozen – Dozen
Score – Score
Stone (unit) – Stone
Rule #10:
There are some nouns which are only used in plurals.
(a) Names of the instruments which have two parts forming a kind of pair.
Example: spectacles, scissors, pincers etc.
(b) Names of certain articles of dress.
Example: trousers, drawers, breeches etc.
(c) Names if disease.
Example: Measles, Mumps etc.
(d) Names of games.
Example: Billiards, Draughts etc.
Rule #11:
There are some plural forms of nouns which are actually singular.
Example: Innings, Mathematics, News, Civics, Politics, Physics, Ethics, Economics,
Mechanics etc.
NOTE: If plural-looking subjects are particularized or possessed, they become plural
nouns.
For example; Mathematics (singular) is an easy subject. -> (possessed) -> My
mathematics (plural) are strong.
Rule #12:
The following nouns are always used in singular forms.
Scenery Machinery Luggage Breakage Furniture

Wastage Traffic Information Coffee Dust etc.
58
Rule #13:
Some collective nouns though are singular in form but always use as plural.
Example: Poultry, Cattle, People, Vermin etc.
Rule #14:
To make some compound nouns from singular to plural we add -s to the main word.
Example:
Father-in-law -> Fathers-in-law
Daughter-in-law -> Daughters-in-law
Mother-in-law -> Mothers-in-law
Maid servant -> Maid servants
Man killer -> Man killers
Chief minister -> Chief ministers
Rule #15:
Some -um ending latin words take only -s in plurals.
Example:
Harmonium – Harmoniums
Premium – Premiums
Forum – Forums
Stadium – Stadiums
Pendulum – Pendulums
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Prefix & Suffix
PREFIX & SUFFIX
PREFIX
A prefix is a group of letters placed before the root of a word. For example, the word
"unhappy" consists of the prefix "un-" [which means "not"] combined with the root (stem)
word "happy"; the word "unhappy" means "not happy."
A Short List of Prefixes:
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES

de- from, down, away reverse, opposite decode, decrease
dis- not, opposite, reverse, away disagree, disappear
ex- out of, away from, lacking, former exhale, explosion
il- not illegal, illogical
im- not, without impossible, improper
in- not, without inaction, invisible
mis- bad, wrong mislead, misplace
non- not nonfiction, nonsense
pre- before prefix, prehistory
pro- for, forward, before proactive, profess, program
re- again, back react, reappear
un- against, not, opposite undo, unequal, unusual
SUFFIX
A suffix is a group of letters placed after the root of a word. For example, the word
flavorless consists of the root word "flavor" combined with the suffix "-less" [which means
"without"]; the word "flavorless" means "having no flavor."
A Short List of Suffixes:
SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLES

-able able to, having the quality of comfortable, portable
-al relating to annual, comical
-er comparative bigger, stronger
-est superlative strongest, tiniest
-ful full of beautiful, grateful
-ible forming an adjective reversible, terrible
-ily forming an adverb eerily, happily, lazily
-ing denoting an action, a material, or a acting, showing
gerund
-less without, not affected by friendless, tireless
-ly forming an adjective clearly, hourly
-ness denoting a state or condition kindness, wilderness
-y full of, denoting a condition, or a glory, messy, victory,
diminutive
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SPOKEN PART
61
SPOKEN ENGLISH COURSE
(SPOKEN PART)
CONTENTS:-
THE SPOKEN PART:- Page
1. Phrasal Verbs 62.

2. Pharasal Adjectives 72
3. Adverb Phrases 76
4. Idioms 79.
5. Proverbs 81.
6. Maxims 82.
7. 18 different uses of Present indefinite Tense 83.
8. Informal Contractions 86.
9. Question Tags 88.
10. Short Answers 88.
11. Politeness and Polite expressions 89.
12. Royal Pronouns 91
13. Causative Verbs 92.
14. Conditional Sentences 92.
15. Uses of Quantifiers (Some- Any, Much-Many & A lot of) 99.
16. Uses of Just, Yet, Still & Already 100.
17. Modal verbs 101
18. Semi Modal verb Used To Do / 106
Would Do / Be Used To Doing
19. Uses of Have & Have got 108.
62
Phrasal Verbs
PHRASAL VERBS
A phrasal verb is a combination of words (a verb + a preposition or verb +adverb)

that when used together, usually take on a different meaning to that of the original verb.
Why phrasal verbs are important to learn?
Because these are most commonly used in spoken English. Generally these are not
studied at school, hence it makes very difficult for students to understand spoken English
while watching movies, live commentaries or TV Shows etc.
Bottom Line- If you don’t know phrasal verbs you don’t understand spoken
English.
Phrasal Verb Examples
Take:-
1. Take on = To have a competition or to play a match

2. Take off= To fly up from Air port runway. Or To progress
3. Take off= To remove (Shoes or clothes etc)
4. Take away= To get food from a restaurant
5. In take= To drink or to eat something
6. Take place= To happen
Set:-
1. Set up= Arrangement or Trick

2. Set in= To begin or To start
3. Set on= To attack, assault, hit, strike or beat
4. Set off= To begin a journey
5. On set=Taking place during or relating to the rehearsing of a play
6. Upset= To be disturbed
When we use phrasal verbs, we use them like normal verbs in a sentence, regardless if
it’s a regular or irregular verb.
1. Alina tore up the letter after she read it.

2. Their car broke down two miles out of town.
3. Did the manager deal with that customer’s complaint.
63
Phrasal Verbs
More phrasal verb examples:
1. Be sure to put on a life jacket before getting into the boat.

2. We left out the trash for pickup.
3. It’s time to get on the plane.
4. What will she think up next?
5. I’m having some trouble working out the solution to this equation.
6. We’re going to have to put off our vacation until next year.
7. Stand up when speaking in class, please.
8. We’ll have to wake up early if we want breakfast.
9. Take off your shoes before you walk on the carpet.
10. My dog likes to break out of his kennel to chase squirrels.
Phrasal Verb Exercises
Choose the correct phrasal verb from the parenthesis at the end of the sentence.
(A) Someone broke into my car last night and stole the stereo. (broke down/broke into)
(B) Will you be able to get by this month with the little you have?(get off / get by)
1. His father always taught him not to _____ those people with less money. (look up to /
look down on)
2. Stop complaining and _____ your work! (get on with / get over)
3. The boss wants you to _____ your figures for this month to him. (hand out / hand in)
4. We’re going to have to _____ our trip to Spain until September. (put up/ put off)
5. I _____ Amir today at the supermarket. It was great to see him. (ran out of / ran into)
6. I’m so tired of Sophie _____ her engagement ring all the time. (showing off, showing
up)
7. The police would not _____ to the kidnapper’s demands. (give up/ give in)
8. I thought I would _____ for a cup of coffee. Is that okay? (drop off/ drop in)
9. Have you ever _____ such an unusual piece of art? (come forward/come across)
10. It’s important to _____ on time. (show up / show off)
11. _____ your feet when walking; you don’t want to trip! (uplift / lift up)
12. The tree was _____ by the wind. (blown up / blown over)
13. He _____ his hat to show me his new haircut. (took off / took up)
14. I just can’t seem to _____ this book. (get off / get into )
64
Phrasal Verbs
Answers:
1. Look down
2. get on with 3. hand in 4. put off
on
5. ran into 6. showing off 7. give in 8. drop in
10. show 11. lift 12. blown
9. come across
up up over
13. took off 14. get into
Note: - See an extensive list of phrasal verbs below:-.
65
Phrasal Verbs
EXTENSIVE LIST OF PHRASAL VERBS
S
Phrasal Verb Meaning Example
No
To respect or obey a If you want to keep your job here, you
1. abide by
decision, a law or a rule must abide by our rules.
I hope you can account for the time
2. account for To explain, give a reason
you were out!
To make sense, seem
3. add up The facts in the case just don’t add up.
reasonable
To recommend not doing I advise against walking alone in this
4. advise against
something neighborhood.
To have the same opinion as I agree with you. I think you should go
5. agree with
someone else. as well.
We need to allow for unexpected
6. allow for To take into consideration
charges along the way.
1. To plead or 1. He appealed to the
make a request court to change its decision.
7. appeal to
2. To be 2. A vacation of
attractive or interesting sunbathing doesn’t appeal to me.
To make a formal request for
He applied for a scholarship for next
8. apply for something (job, permit, loan
semester.
etc.)
To move backwards, in fear When he saw the bear, he backed
9. back away
or dislike away in fright.
Local authorities backed down on their
10. back down To withdraw, concede defeat threats to build on that part of the
beach.
1. I’m going to be very
1. To give strict with him. I hope you’ll back me
support or encouragement up on this?
11. back up
2. To make a 2. You should back up
copy of (file, program, etc.) all your computer files in a secure
location.
To base your hopes on I’m banking on you to help with the
12. bank on
something / someone charity event.
Jenna fell in the parking lot and
13. black out To faint, lose consciousness
blacked out.
The police blocked off the street after
14. block off To separate using a barrier.
the explosion.
1. Tommy blew up the
1. To explode red balloon.
15. blow up
2. To get angry 2. Don’t blow up at me.
It’s not my fault.
It all boils down to who has more
16. boil down to To be summarized as
power.
To start a computer by
You need to boot up your computer
17. boot up loading an operating system
before you begin to work.
or program
One of the wolves broke away from
18. break away To separate from a crowd
his pack.
66
Phrasal Verbs
1. The washing machine

1. To go out of
broke down so we had to call in the
order, cease to function
19. break down repair technician.
2. To lose
2. John broke down
control of one’s emotions
when he heard the news.
20. break into To enter by force Burglars broke into my car last night.
Rioting broke out after the government
21. break out To start suddenly
raised the fuel prices again.
To escape from a place by
22. break out of Several prisoners broke out of jail.
force
To come to an end (marriage, She broke up with Daniel after dating
23. break up
relationship) him for five years.
Sara is bringing up her children by
24. bring up To raise (a child)
herself.
To improve, refresh one’s I must brush up on my French before
25. brush up on
knowledge of something going to Paris next month.
To meet by chance or I bumped into Adam at the bank. He
26. bump into
unexpectedly says “hello”.
1. The light bulb burnt
1. stop
out. Please change it.
(something) working
27. burn out 2. She needs to work
2. become
fewer hours. Otherwise she will burn
exhausted from over-working
out.
28. call back To return a phone call Could please call back in ten minutes?
The game was called off because of
29. call off To cancel
bad weather.
To become more relaxed, It took Kylie several hours to calm
30. calm down
less angry or upset down after she saw the accident.
The soldiers carried on walking in
31. carry on To continue
order to get to their post before dark.
1. To do
1. His orders were
something as specified (a
carried out to the letter.
32. carry out plan, an order, a threat)
2. That company does
2. To perform
not carry out tests on animals.
or conduct (test, experiment)
To register at a hotel or They said I must check in at least
33. check in
airport three hours before my flight.
1. Donna checked out of the
1. To pay one’s bill and
hotel this morning.
34. check out leave (a hotel)
2. I don’t know if this price is
2. To investigate
correct. I’ll check it out online.
When the police started asking
35. clam up To refuse to speak
questions, the suspect clammed up.
The local authorities have decided to
To act strictly to prevent
36. clamp down on clamp down on illegal parking in
something
handicapped parking places.
1. I was cleaning up and came
1. To find by chance across some old photos of you.
37. come across 2. To appear, seem, 2. The politician came across as
make an impression a complete fool during the TV
interview.
67
Phrasal Verbs
Has the owner of the winning lotto

38. come forward To present oneself
ticket come forward?
To rely or depend on (for You can count on me to keep your
39. count on
help) secret.
I’ve decided to cut down on the
40. cut down on To reduce in number or size
amount of sweets I eat.
1. To remove using 1. She cut out a coupon from the
scissors newspaper.
41. cut out
2. To stop doing 2. You need to cut out all red
something meat from your diet.
To handle, take care of Catherine is not good at dealing with
42. deal with
(problem, situation) stress.
After the storm died down, we went
To calm down, become less
43. die down outside to see the damage it had
strong
caused.
She didn’t get a salary this month, so
44. do without To manage without
she’ll have to do without extra treats.
The suspect’s trial dragged on longer
45. drag on To last longer than expected
than we had expected!
To write (contract, agreement, They drew up a contract and had me
46. draw up
document) sign it.
Their wedding gave us a chance to
47. dress up wear elegant clothes
dress up and get out of the house.
To visit, usually on the way Why don’t you drop in to see us on
48. drop in
somewhere your way home?
1. I’ll drop off the papers later
1. To deliver someone or
today.
49. drop off something
2. I often drop off in front of the
2. To fall asleep
TV.
To leave school without Zack dropped out of college and
50. drop out
finishing joined the army.
To reduce, become less
51. ease off severe or slow down (pain, Traffic usually eases off about 7pm
traffic, work)
To finish in a certain way;
52. end in Her marriage ended in divorce.
result in
To finally reach a state, place If you don’t improve your work habits,
53. end up
or action you’ll end up being fired.
His plans to trek through South
54. fall through To fail; doesn’t happen
America fell through when he got sick.
He’s trying to figure out how to earn
To understand, find the
55. figure out enough money to go on the trip to
answer
Spain.
To complete (a form/an Please fill out the enclosed form and
56. fill out
application) return it as soon as possible.
To discover or obtain I’m going to find out who’s responsible
57. find out
information for the power cut.
Tom had difficulty focusing on work
58. focus on To concentrate on something
the day before his holiday started.
To be on good terms; work It’s important to get along with your
59. get along (with)
well with team supervisor.
68
Phrasal Verbs
What are you getting at? Do you think

60. get at To imply
I’m to blame?
I think we should get away for the
61. get away To escape
weekend.
To manage to cope or to Students without jobs have a hard time
62. get by
survive getting by.
63. get in To enter When did you get in last night?
get into How did you get into your car without
64. To enter
(+noun) the keys?
1. You should get off the train in
1. To leave (bus, train,
Kings Heath.
65. get off plane)
2. I can’t get the ink stain off my
2. To remove
shirt.
I’m trying to get on the flight to
66. get on To board (bus, train, plane)
Brussels.
get on with To continue to do; make After they split up, she had a hard time
67.
(something) progress getting on with her life.
get on (well)
To have a good relationship He doesn’t get on very well with the
68. with
with other members of the committee.
(somebody)
He had a hard time getting out of
69. get out To leave
Newark because of the snow?
Edna’s trying to get out of working the
70. get out of To avoid doing something
night shift.
To recover from (illness,
71. get over Has she gotten over the flu?
disappointment)
To recover from (illness, Mary had the chickenpox last week but
72. get over
disappointment) she got over it.
Please get rid of that old t-shirt. It’s so
73. get rid of To eliminate
ragged.
Let’s get together for your birthday on
74. get together To meet each other
Saturday.
Will you please get up? You’ve got a
75. get up To rise, leave bed
class in 20 minutes.
1. To cease opposition; 1. We will never give in to the
76. give in yield terrorists’ demands.
2. To hand in; submit 2. I’ll give in my paper tomorrow.
77. give up To stop doing something Morris gave up drinking 10 years ago.
Andy went through a lot of pain after
78. go through To experience
his mother died.
To spend one’s childhood; He’s like Peter Pan. He never really
79. grow up
develop; become an adult grew up at all.
Please hand in your papers before
80. hand in To submit (report, homework)
Friday.
Susan volunteered at the shelter where
81. hand out To distribute
she handed out warm clothes.
To spend time in a particular
Which pub does the team hang out at
82. hang out place or with a group of
after the game?
friends
If you hang up now, I’ll never speak to
83. hang up To end a phone conversation
you again.
69
Phrasal Verbs
1. Please hold on and a

representative will answer your call.
1. To wait
84. hold on 2. She was so scared on the
2. To grip tightly
rollercoaster ride that she held on for
dear life.
Hurry up and finish your lunch or we’ll
85. hurry up To be quick, act speedily
miss the train.
The two countries met at the
To resolve by discussion,
86. iron out conference to iron out their
eliminate differences
differences.
Yes David, you can join in the
87. join in To participate
discussion any time you like.
1. There was a war on, so some
1. To engage in, become kids were only sixteen when they
88. join up a member of joined up.
2. To meet and unite with 2. Let’s separate now and join up
later at the restaurant.
If you keep on making that noise I will
89. keep on To continue doing something
get annoyed.
To stay at the same level as I read the paper every day to keep up
90. keep up with
someone or something with the news.
The rugby match kicked off at 3
91. kick off To begin, start
o’clock.
Please check your form again and
92. leave out To omit, not mention
make sure nothing is left out.
I feel so let down because they
93. let down To disappoint promised me a puppy but all I got was
a doll.
Andy can you look after your sister
94. look after To take care of
until I get back?
She’s such a snob. She always looks
95. look down on To consider as inferior
down on anyone who is poor.
If you don’t want to take part in the
96. look on To be a spectator at an event
game you can look on for now.
Harry went to the shop to look for a
97. look for To try to find something
new computer.
To await or anticipate with I’m looking forward to my birthday.
98. look forward to
pleasure It’s in two days time.
I always looked up to my father. He
99. look up to To admire
was a great man.
To laugh at/ make jokes It’s not nice to make fun of people in
100. make fun of
about wheelchairs.
That’s a good excuse. Did you make
101. make up To invent (excuse, story)
up it up yourself?
To mistake one thing or She had so many cats that she kept
102. mix up
person for another mixing up their names.
To arrive in a new home or Did you hear? Our new neighbors are
103. move in
office moving in this afternoon.
To leave your home/office for When are you moving out? We need
104. move out
another one. your office for the new guy.
70
Phrasal Verbs
You were so tired after the game that

105. nod off To fall asleep
you nodded off on the couch.
To admit or confess
106. own up Come on. Own up. We know you did it!
something
Your grandfather passed away
107. pass away To die
peacefully in his sleep last night.
He didn’t drink enough water so he
108. pass out To faint
passed out at the end of the race.
I’ll pay you back as soon as I get the
109. pay back To reimburse
loan.
To postpone, arrange a later Don’t put off until tomorrow, what you
110. put off
date can do today.
It’s very dark in here. Please put on
111. put on To turn on, switch on
the light on.
The fire fighters were able to put out
112. put out To extinguish
fire in ten minutes.
To accommodate, give I can put you up until the weekend but
113. put up
somebody a bed then I’m going away.
To tolerate or accept
something, even though you We'd been unhappy for years, but I put
114. Put up with find it unpleasant or up with it for the sake of the kids.
unsatisfactory.
I’ll pick you up at around 7:00 to take

115. pick up To collect somebody
you to the airport.
To indicate/direct attention to As I already pointed out, there was a
116. point out
something mistake in your calculation.
You can rely on me. I always arrive on
117. rely on To count on, depend on, trust
time.
Since he had a sound alibi, the police
118. rule out To eliminate
ruled him out as a suspect.
To escape from a place or He ran away from home and joined the
119. run away
suddenly leave circus.
To meet by accident or
I’m so glad I ran into you. I need to ask
120. run into unexpectedly (also: bump
you something.
into)
To have no more of We’ve run out of milk. I’ll just pop next
121. run out of
something. door to borrow some.
Let’s set off early to miss the rush hour
122. set off To start a journey;
traffic.
They set up their own company when
123. set up To start a business
they were still in high school.
Don’t buy that. Let’s shop around and
124. shop around To compare prices
see if we can find something cheaper.
To brag or want to be He’s such a show off. He has to tell
125. show off
admired everybody about his new computer.
I don’t think she’ll show up tonight. Her
126. show up To appear/arrive
daughter is sick.
shut up
127. To be silent, stop talking Shut up, you’re spoiling the movie!
(impolite)
71
Phrasal Verbs
I think you should sit down. It’s bad

128. sit down To take a seat
news.
The whole stadium stood up for the
129. stand up To rise from a sitting position
national anthem.
My big brother always stuck up for me
130. stick up for To defend
when I got into a fight.
To resemble, in appearance Angie really takes after her
131. take after
or character grandmother.
Please take care of my cat when I’m
132. take care of To look after
away.
The plane will take off as soon as the
133. take off To leave the ground
fog lifts.
I hear they’re taking on extra staff for
134. take on To hire or engage staff
this event.
Please take out your mobile phones
135. take out To remove; extract
and turn them off.
To reprimand/criticize The coach told her off for not trying
136. tell off
severely hard enough.
Take your time and think it over before
137. think over To consider
you decide.
To wear something to see if it
138. try on Go ahead, try it on and see if it fits?
suits or fits
I asked her out but she turned me
139. turn down To refuse
down flat.
To finish a product (so that
140. use up Your parents used up all the coffee!
there’s none left)
141. watch out To be careful Watch out! There’s a dog in the road.
1. Julie wore out her shoes
1. To become unusable running the marathons.
142. wear out
2. To become very tired 2. Julie was worn out after all that
running.
1. To do physical 1. You should work out twice a
exercise week at the gym.
143. work out
2. To find a solution or 2. Can you work this out? I’m no
calculate something good at math.
144. wipe off To clean (board, table). I’ll wash up if you wipe off the table.
72
Phrasal Adjective
PHRASAL ADJECTIVES
A phrasal adjective is a set of two or more words that, as a unit, modifies a noun. Phrasal
adjectives are often hyphenated (-) to signal the combination of two words to describe the
noun that follows, but occasionally a phrase is familiar enough that it does not warrant a
hyphen, or it is treated as a closed compound. Choose the version of each sentence that
treats the adjective or phrasal adjective correctly.
1.
a) This garment is made of high quality material.
b) This garment is made of high-quality material.
2.
a) The family owned the first self service laundry in the state.
b) The family owned the first self-service laundry in the state.
3.
a) She was delighted to see that the patent leather shoes were still on sale.
b) She was delighted to see that the patent-leather shoes were still on sale.
4.
a) He didn’t want to be a type-cast actor.
b) He didn’t want to be a typecast actor.
5.
a) Jones was a one of a kind performer.
b) Jones was a one-of-a-kind performer.
Answers and Explanations
1.
b) This garment is made of high-quality material.
High and quality combine to describe the material, so they should be hyphenated.
2.
b) The family owned the first self-service laundry in the state.
Phrasal adjectives in which the first word is self are nearly always hyphenated, as are
compound nouns beginning with self, such as self-reflection.
3.
a) She was delighted to see that the patent leather shoes were still on sale.
Some set phrases, such as “patent leather,” are unambiguous because of familiarity and
need not be hyphenated; these open compounds are listed in dictionaries.
4.
b) He didn’t want to be a typecast actor.
Typecast is one of many compound adjectives that are closed; such permanent compounds
appear in dictionaries as such.
5.
b) John was a one-of-a-kind performer.
The words in the phrase “one of a kind” should be linked with hyphens to indicate that they
combine to describe the kind of performer Jones was.
73
Phrasal Adjective
Properly Hyphenated Reference List of Phrasal Adjectives:
Health-care-related issues Twenty-hour-a-day schedule
End-of-the-year doldrums Ear-jarring sound
First-year graduate students Waiver-of-subrogation clauses
Rank-and-file employees The no-waiver-of-royalty clause
Fifty-page document Fourth-quarter projections
A twelve-member jury Air-conditioned trailer
Small-town high school Anti-Iraq coalition
Apply the common-law mirror-image

rule Bankruptcy-law protection
Big-spending cowboy Bikini-clad rock star
Blue-jeans-and-T-shirt crowd Boom-to-bust business adventure
Call-in television show Business-related lawsuits
Career-destroying scandal Civil-rights lawsuit
Cut-rate prices Day-care center
One-party strongholds Credit-card statement
Cease-fire agreement Electoral-college strategies
Dog-eat-dog world Forest-products stocks
Equal-protection clause Five-day mystery tour
Full-time employees Gay-rights activists
Get-out-the-vote activities Health-care products
Junk-bond rating Late-afternoon selloff
Latin-stock strategist Limited-liability company
Long-term, job-intensive projects Minimum-height requirement
Money-market rates commonly-talked-about strategies
Non-capital-intensive service sector Off-the-shelf operation
Pay-in-kind preferred stock Per-share earnings
Price-earnings multiple Racial-discrimination suit
74
Phrasal Adjective
Second-quarter operations plan State-of-the-art semiconductor
Six-day, eight-state investigation tour Third-largest steelmaker
Stronger-than-expected second-
30-second sound bites quarter profit
Weaker-than-usual results Top-line growth
U.S.-built tractors Year-on-year decline
Year-over-year increase White-collar workers
Weaker-than-usual results Subchapter-S corporation
Tax-law risk Take-it-or-leave-it proposition
65.5-million-dollar projection the four-story, 50-unit complex
Across-the-board cuts Big-is-better philosophy
Blue-blood, country-club
Republicans Energy-trading colossus
Client-confidentiality rules Mom-and-pop retail outlet
Third-largest oil producer Round-the-clock bargaining
Quality-enhancing advantages Sealed-bid basis
Market-share trends New-economy industries
County-approved billboard-siting
Much-argued-over issue restriction
24-hour-a-day doctor-supervised care Lawyer-client relationship
Key Exceptions to the Rule — Examples of When to Omit the Hyphen:
Example Reason/Rule
Popular opinion polls Opinion polls is a compound noun.
No hyphen when modifier follows what it

He was well trained modifies
No hyphen when phrasal adjective contains

A widely known executive adverb ending in -ly
Drop hyphen when phrasal adjective contains

Had a firmly held opinion adverb ending in -ly
75
Phrasal Adjective
No hyphen when modifying word

Granted most favored status. is very, most, least, or less
Marine cargo insurance Both modifying words can independently

policy modify the noun
No hyphen when modifier follows the noun it

This rule is well worn modifies

Very hot day is very, most, least, or less
Both modifying words can independently

Tired old dog modify the noun
No hyphen when modifier follows the noun it

A claim of bad faith modifies
The United States official No hyphen when modifying phrase contains a

resigned proper noun
An impressive Pablo Picasso No hyphen when modifying phrase contains a

painting proper noun

is very, most, least, or less, or when phrasal
A very slightly flared handle adjective contains adverb ending in –ly
76
Adverb Phrases
ADVERB PHRASES
An adverb phrase is simply a group of two or more words that function as an adverb in a
sentence. Just as an adverb can modify a verb, adjective or another adverb, an adverb
phrase of more than one word can further describe a verb, adverb, or adjective.
Adverb phrases typically answer the questions how, where, why or when something was
done, as you'll see in the adverb phrase examples below.
Consider the following sentences:
I parked the car.
I parked the car here.
I parked the car right here.
I parked the car right here under the bridge.
The first sentence does not contain an adverb or adverb phrase at all. The second sentence
contains the adverb "here" to describe where the car was parked. The third sentence
contains the adverb phrase "right here," which emphasizes where the car was parked and
employs a phrase instead of a single adverb.
The final sentence of the group contains a longer, more informative adverbial phrase. Note
that "right here under the bridge" is a prepositional phrase that uses the preposition "under"
and the object "bridge." In this case, the prepositional phrase functions as an adverb in the
sentence. Since it modifies the verb to describe location, it is both a prepositional phrase and
an adverbial phrase.
Adverb Phrases Show How, Where, Why, When
A simple adverb phrase usually contains an adverb and at least one other word before or
after it, though a prepositional phrase or infinitive phrase can also act as an adverbial.
Adverb Phrases Describing How

Surprisingly well
In total silence
Often under duress
Very carefully
Quite easily
Adverb Phrases Describing Where
Near the edge
Through the looking glass
Over the rainbow
By the mailbox
Around the sun
Adverb Phrases Describing Why
To understand better
For her happily ever after
For pity's sake
To make the most of it
To end discrimination
Adverb Phrases Describing When
As quickly as possible
Any time
Yesterday afternoon
After a few minutes
Never at midnight
77
Adverb Phrases
Adverb Phrase in a Sentence

Adverb phrases can be used in any position in a sentence. Consider these adverb phrase
examples so you'll know what you're looking for:
 Bob nodded like a bobblehead.
 Meet me at the mall later this evening.
 Without thinking, he turned down the road.
 They must kiss before sunset to break the spell.
 She went online for more information.
 In the forest, many creatures snarl and growl.
 I will not do that, never in a million years!
 Dad spoke softly to calm her fears.
 They have a house right by the ocean.
 She slammed the door in a huff.
 We will reconvene earlier than usual.
 Truly happy, I gave him my answer.
 She took some time off for a much-needed vacation.
 At every turn, problems blocked his path.
 I saw a lot of trash beside the highway.
 He decided to join a gym to get in shape.
 The dog came in for his bath, incredibly reluctantly.
 We strolled through the gardens very slowly.
 He made his decision as quickly as possible.
 Put the flowers by the birdbath.
 Jose always arrives sooner than the other students.
 She flew the plane through the fog calmly and skillfully.
 So as not to disturb anyone, Michelle tiptoed to bed.
 The seamstress mended the hem with needle and thread.
 Sometimes I don't clean under the bed.
 He performed the tasks without care.
 Come closer to get a better look.
 Take this medication as often as needed.
 The oath was recited somewhat hesitantly.
 Mary needs to drive her new car much more carefully.
 To see the view, Harry climbed to the peak.
 The mystery books were placed next to the crime dramas.
 The line was moving frustratingly slowly.
 The parade coursed around the town square.
 She runs five miles every day.
 The children opened their presents with delight.
 This product is available in all places.
 She responded very rudely.
 You need to wash your hands better than that.
 He stood on this very spot and lied to me.
78
Adverb Phrases
Adverb Phrases vs. Adverb Clauses

It is important to remember that a phrase is a group of words that does not contain a
subject and a verb. When you look at the adverb phrase examples above, you'll see that
"right here under the bridge" does not contain a verb, so it is just a long phrase.
An adverb clause, on the other hand, is a group of words that does contain a subject and a
verb. That group of words modifies a verb, adverb or adjective in the sentence, just as an
adverb phrase does. For example:
I parked the car where I could easily find it later.
This adverbial has both a subject ("I") and a verb ("find"), so it is a clause. In its entirety, it
modifies the verb "parked" to describe where the car is located.
79
IDIOMS
IDIOMS
An idiom is a word or phrase which means something different from its literal
meaning. Idioms are common phrases or terms whose meaning are changed, but can be
understood by their popular use. Idioms are peculiar to a language. These are formed
from natural, historical or cultural facts, as:-
S No Idioms Definition/Translation
A situation or information that is unpleasant but must be
1. A bitter pill
accepted.
A controversial issue or situation that is awkward or unpleasant
2. A hot potato
to deal with.
3. All ears Listening intently; fully focused or awaiting an explanation.
4. All thumbs Clumsy, awkward.
5. Apple of discord Anything causing trouble, discord, or jealousy.
6. Ball is in your court It is up to you to make the next decision or step.
Barking up the wrong
7. Looking in the wrong place.
tree
To treat a topic, but omit its main points, often intentionally or
8. Beat around the bush to delay or avoid talking about something difficult or
unpleasant.
9. Bed of roses Easy and comfortable.
10. Bird Brain a person that is not too smart; a person that acts stupid
11. Bite the bullet To endure a painful or unpleasant situation that is unavoidable.
To work late into the night, alluding to the time before electric
12. Burn the midnight oil
lighting.
13. Call a spade a spade To speak the truth, even to the point of being blunt and rude.
14. Cheap as chips Inexpensive or good value
15. Chew the fat To chat idly or generally waste time talking.
16. Couch potato A lazy person.
17. Crocodile tears Fake tears or drama tears. (In fake crying)
An obvious, pressing issue left unaddressed due to its
18. Elephant in the room
sensitive nature.
19. For a song Almost free. Very cheap.
20. From A to Z Covering a complete range; comprehensively.
Have eyes in the back Someone can perceive things and events that are outside of
21.
of one's head their field of vision.
22. Hit the road To leave.
23. Hit the sheets To go to bed to sleep.
24. Hit the spot To be particularly pleasing or appropriate; to be just right.
Kill two birds with one To accomplish two different tasks at the same time and/or with
25.
stone a single action.
Let the cat out of the
26. To reveal a secret.
bag
27. Nip It In the Bud To stop something at an early stage.
28. Once in a blue moon Something that occurs very rarely.
A job, task or other activity that is pleasant – or, by extension,
29. Piece of cake
easy or simple.
30. Pull somebody's leg To tease by telling a lie.
31. Raining cats and dogs Raining really strong or hard.
Needed, appropriate, essential, or hoped-for and has come to
32. Right as rain
mean perfect, well, absolutely right.
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33. Through thick and thin In both good and bad times.
34. Under my thumb Under my control
35. Under the weather Feel sick
36. Wild goose chase A frustrating or lengthy undertaking that accomplishes little.
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Proverbs
PROVERBS
A proverb is a short sentence that people often quote in spoken English, which gives
advice or tells you something about life.
Examples:
See also: List of proverbial phrases
1. Haste makes waste

2. A stitch in time saves nine
3. Ignorance is bliss. (Blessing)
4. Mustn't cry over spilled milk.
5. You can catch more flies with honey than you can with vinegar.
6. You can lead a horse to water, but you can't make him drink.
7. Those who live in glass houses should not throw stones.
8. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
9. Fortune favors the bold
10. Well begun is half done.
11. A little learning is a dangerous thing
12. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
13. It ain't over till the fat lady sings
14. Good things come to those who wait.
15. A poor workman blames his tools.
16. A dog is a man's best friend.
17. An apple a day keeps the doctor away
18. If the shoe fits, wear it!
19. Honesty is the best policy
20. Slow and steady wins the race
21. Don't count your chickens before they hatch
22. Practice makes a man perfect.
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Maxim
MAXIM
A maxim is a rule, or basic truth about life. Usually clever, maxims are like great
sayings everybody knows. It is a simple and memorable line, quote, or rule for taking
action and leading a good life. Simply put, it is a thought with moralistic values that
intends to motivate individuals. Maxim is, in fact, a type of saying, or a brief statement of a
great thought about life.
1. It’s better to be safe than sorry.

2. You’re never too old to learn.
3. Opposites attract.
4. You can’t teach an old dog new tricks.
5. Nothing ventured, nothing gained.
6. One man’s meat is another man’s poison.
7. We promise according to our hopes, and perform according to our fears.
8. It is easier to be wise for others than for ourselves
Difference between Proverb & Maxim
Both state a general truth, and look very similar to each other. However, there is a
little difference between both, Proverb- gives advice and Maxim- gives a rule of conduct.
Stating rules of conduct and giving advice seem identical, though.
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18 Uses of Present indefinite tense
18 DIFFERENT USES OF PRESENT

INDEFINITE TENSE IN SPOKEN ENGLISH
Present indefinite tense is most widely used in spoken English than other tenses, see
the examples below:-
The Simple Present is used: -
(1) To express a habitual action; as,
He drinks tea every morning.

I get up every day at five o'clock.
My watch keeps good time.
(2) To express general truths; as,
The sun rises in the east.

Honey is sweet.
Fortune favours the brave.
(3) In exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there to express what is
actually
taking place in the present; as,
Here comes the bus!

There she goes!
(4) In vivid narrative, as substitute for the Simple Past; as,
Soharab now rushes forward and deals a heavy blow to Rustam.

Immediately the Sultan hurries to his capital.
(5) To express a future event that is part of a fixed timetable or fixed programme.
The next flight is at 7am tomorrow morning.

The match starts at 9 o'clock.
The train leaves at 5.20.
When does the coffee house reopen?
(6) It is used to introduce quotations; as,
Keats says, ‘A thing of beauty is a joy for ever’.
(7) It is used, instead of the Simple Future Tense, in clauses of time and of
condition; as,
I shall wait till you finish your lunch.

If it rains we shall get wet.
(8) As in broadcast commentaries on sporting events, the Simple Present is used,

instead of the Present Continuous, to describe activities in progress.
In a cricket match if a batsman hit a sixer, the commentator says – Up she goes for six.
Or He hits a six.
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(9) The Simple Present is used, instead of the Present Continuous, with the type of
verbs mentioned below:-.
(1) Verbs of perception, e.g., see, hear, smell, notice, recognize.

(2) Verbs of appearing, e.g., appear, look, seem.
(3) Verbs of emotion, e.g., want, wish, desire, feel, like, love, hate, hope, refuse, prefer.
(4) Verbs of thinking, e.g., think, suppose, believe, agree, consider, trust, remember,
forget, know, understand, imagine, mean, mind.
(5) have (= possess), own, possess, belong to, contain, consist of, be (except when used
in
the passive), e.g.
Wrong – Right:-
These grapes are tasting sour -- These grapes taste sour.

I am thinking you are wrong -- I think you are wrong.
She is seeming sad -- She seems sad.
He is having a cellular phone -- He has a cellular phone.
Note:- However, the verbs listed above can be used in the continuous tenses with a
change of
Meaning, as:-
She is tasting the soup to see if it needs more salt.

(taste= lest the flavour of )
I am thinking of going to Malaysia.
(think of = consider the idea of)
They are having lunch, (have = eat)
(10) Captions- All the pictures given in a News paper have captions (A line written under
the picture to describe it) and captions are generally written in present indefinite tense.
(11) Headlines of news- Headlines of news although tell us the past event however, they
are written or spoken in present indefinite tense, as:-
Pakistan beats India in yesterday’s match. Afridi hits a century this time again.
(12) News Tickers- On Television news channels, written news bulletin running at bottom
of screen are called Tickers and these Tickers are generally written in present indefinite
tense.
Earthquake hits Japan again. Trump wins presidential election. Monsoon starts in
tropical regions.
(13) Entreaties – Entreaties (Well wishes) are also written or spoken in present indefinite
tense, as:-
God bless you.

May you live long.
May Pakistan wins this match.
Hope life treats you good.
I wish my son succeeds in the exams.
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(14) Present happenings – If something is happening in present time right in front of

your eye you can describe it in present indefinite tense, as:-
Hey every one, it rains outside. (Means- it is raining outside right now)
(15) Strong feelings – If your loved one dies you can say she died yesterday (but it is
just a news, you don’t have feelings for her). But if you say she dies yesterday (It means
you have strong feeling for her and your are hurt).
She died yester day. (News without feelings)

She dies yesterday. (News with feelings)
(16) Abilities (Abilities are things we can do) –

Ali can run really fast, or Ali runs really fast.
(17) Talents (Talent is a special skill, which may be natural or learnt though training)
Adnan plays violin really well.
She sings beautifully.
(18) Opinion & Feelings

She likes spicy foods.
I think Pakistan is a beautiful country.
Ali loves Pakistan.
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Informal Contractions
INFORMAL CONTRACTIONS
Informal contractions are short forms of other words that people use when speaking
casually. They are not exactly slang, but they are a little like slang.
For example, "gonna" is a short form of "going to". If you say going to very fast, without
carefully pronouncing each word, it can sound like gonna.
Please remember that these are informal contractions. That means that we do not use
them in "correct" speech, and we almost never use them in writing. (If you see them in
writing, for example in a comic strip, that is because the written words represent the
spoken words or dialogue.) We normally use them only when speaking fast and casually,
for example with friends. Some people never use them, even in informal speech.
It is probably true to say that informal contractions are more common in American
English.
Also note that, unlike normal contractions, we do not always use apostrophes (') with
informal contractions when written.
Listed below are some common informal contractions, with example sentences. Note that
the example sentences may be a little artificial because when we use a contraction we
may also use other contractions in the same sentence, or even drop some words
completely. For example:
What are you going to do? →

Whatcha going to do? →
Whatcha gonna do?
or
Do you want a beer?
Do you wanna beer?
D'you wanna beer?
D'ya wanna beer?
Ya wanna beer?
Wanna beer?
These informal contractions are not "correct" English. Do not use them in a written exam,
for example, except in appropriate situations.
ain't = am not/are not/is not
I ain't sure.
You ain't my boss.
ain't = has not/have not
I ain't done it.
She ain't finished yet.
gimme = give me
Gimme your money.
Don't gimme that rubbish.
Can you gimme a hand?
gonna = going to
Nothing's gonna change my love for you.
I'm not gonna tell you.
What are you gonna do?
gotta = (have) got a
I've gotta gun.
I gotta gun.
She hasn't gotta penny.
Have you gotta car?
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Informal Contractions
gotta = (have) got to

I've gotta go now.
I gotta go now.
We haven't gotta do that.
Have they gotta work?
kinda = kind of
She's kinda cute.
lemme = let me
Lemme go!
wanna = want to
I wanna go home.
wanna = want a
I wanna coffee.
whatya = what are you
Whatcha going to do?
whatya = what have you
Whatcha got there?
ya = you
Who saw ya?
Gocha= Got You
I’ve Gocha.
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Questions Tags & Short Answers
QUESTION TAGS & SHORT ANSWERS
It is a very common practice among the native English speakers to make a statement
and ask for confirmation, it is also considered polite to ask for confirmation by a question
tag as,
'It's very hot, isn't it?' The later part ('isn't it?') is called a question tag.
if the statement is positive, the question tag will be negative and if the statement is
negative the question tag will be positive, as:-
Positive statements:-
It's raining, isn't it?

You are free, aren't you?
She can swim well, can't she?
Alina broke the glass, didn't she?
Your sister cooks well, doesn't she?
Negative statements:-
You aren't busy, are you?

She can’t swim, can she?
Mohsin doesn't work hard, does he?
They haven't come yet, have they?
Note: The subject of the question tag is always a pronoun, never a noun.
Note these peculiarities:
I am right, aren't I?
Let's go to the beach, shall we?
Wait a minute, can you?
Have some more rice, will you?
There is a mosque in that street, isn't there?
There are some girls in your class, aren't there?
Somebody has called, haven't they?
SHORT ANSWERS
In spoken English when a question is asked, it is generally answered with short

answers. The following is the most usual form of short answers to verbal questions (i.e.,
questions beginning with an auxiliary):
Are you going to school? -- Yes, I am.\ No, I am not.

Can you drive a car? -- Yes, I can.\ No, I can't.
Is your son married? -- Yes, he is.\ No, he isn't.
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Politeness & Polite Expressions
POLITENESS AND POLITE EXPRESSIONS
In every language it is considered very important that the conversation is done in very
polite words. Similarly, in English a special consideration is given to politeness. Before
uttering any statement, a politeness Tag is attached in the start of the statement, as:-
If we say – give me your pen. (It is considered impolite)

If we say – Sir, would you mind lending me your pen please? (It is considered polite and
the words Sir, would you mind is called politeness Tag)
There are two types of politeness
1. showing the listener or reader that you value and respect them.
2. changing or softening what you say so as not to be too direct or forceful
IMPORTANT NOTE TO BE REMEMBERED:-
Non-native English speakers sometimes sound abrupt and impolite to native English
speakers. This is because they often use language that is too direct, and does not have
the correct “distance” from the hearer or reader. It is therefore important to use the correct
polite expressions.
You can make your speech and writing more polite by using the following:
Modal verbs (such as would, could, might)

Different verb tenses
Polite conditionals
The passive voice
Negative questions
MODAL VERBS
DIRECT: Please send me the documents.

POLITE: Could you please send me the documents?
DIRECT: If you want to send such a letter we can draft it for you.
POLITE: If you would like to send such a letter we would be happy to draft it for you.
DIRECT: You should consider the following course of action.
POLITE: You might like to consider the following course of action.
CHANGING THE TENSE OF THE VERB
The present simple tense is very direct. Choosing a different tense increases the distance
and softens the meaning of your words.
Use a progressive verb form rather than a simple verb form:
I look forward to hear from you. (Impolite & Direct)
I am looking forward to hearing from you. (Polite & indirect)
I am assuming that the rest of the documentation will follow. (Polite & indirect)
Use a past tense instead of the present (present meaning remains):
What is your name? (Impolite & Direct)
What did you say your name was? (Polite & indirect)
Use a past progressive (present meaning remains):
You would like our advice on this new issue that has arisen. (Impolite)
I was wondering whether you would like our advice on this new issue that has arisen.
(Polite)
I was thinking that you might like to meet the head of our Employment team.
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Politeness & Polite Expressions
Use the future tense (present meaning remains):
Will you mind if I copy this email. (Impolite)

I hope you won’t mind if I copy this email. (Polite)
POLITE CONDITIONALS
These use modal verbs and the past tense. Again, present meaning remains. They
can be used for requests, advice or recommendations:
Arrange for an immediate payment. (Impolite command)

I would appreciate it if you arranged for immediate payment. (Polite command)
Sign and return the document by the end of this week. (Impolite command)
I would be grateful if you signed and returned the document
by the end of the week. (Polite command)
Change the password more frequently. (Impolite advice or recommendation)

It would be more secure if you changed the password more frequently. (Polite advice or
recommendation)
Ask a tax advisor to take a look at it. (Impolite recommendation)

Due to the complexity of the matter it would be best if you asked a tax advisor to take a
look at it. (Polite recommendation)
You can also use a modal verb in the “if” clause (this is an exception to the standard rule
on conditionals):
Send it back as soon as possible. (Impolite)
I would appreciate it if you could send it back as soon as possible. (Polite)
NOTE: Remember to include “it” in the phrase “I would appreciate it if…”
THE PASSIVE VOICE
The passive voice is an impersonal verb form which creates distance (and avoids making
accusations):
DIRECT (active voice): It seems that you made an error in the calculations.
POLITE (passive voice): It seems that an error was made in the
calculations.
NEGATIVE QUESTIONS
This is a way of softening advice or recommendations. These are more commonly used in
speech than in writing.
Negative questions are a diplomatic way of speaking with clients and superiors.
DIRECT: We’ve met before.
POLITE: Haven’t we met before?
DIRECT: We should include this point in the statement of claim.
POLITE: Shouldn’t we include this point in the statement of claim?
DIRECT: This clause needs renegotiating.
POLITE: Don’t you think this clause should be renegotiated? (+ Passive)
DIRECT: We should go with 2nd scenario .
POLITE: Wouldn’t it be better if we went with 2nd scenario ? (+ Conditional)
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Royal Pronouns
ROYAL PRONOUNS
Whenever we have some conversation with a very high ranked official or a royal
personality we need to take extra caution while using vocabulary. The ordinary vocabulary
is not considered polite. Following pronouns must be added before or after the
sentences:-
My lady,
My queen,
My princess ,
Your Majesty,
Your highness or your Royal highness,
Your grace,
My lord,
Your honor. (When addressing a judge in a court of law)
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Causative Verbs
CAUSATIVE VERBS
The English verbs let, make, have, get, and help are called causative
verbs because they cause something else to happen.
Here are some specific examples of how causative verbs work in English sentences.
How to use causative verbs in English
LET = PERMIT SOMETHING TO HAPPEN

Grammatical structure:
LET + PERSON/THING + VERB (base form)

Examples:
 I don’t let my kids watch violent movies.

 Mary’s father won’t let her adopt a puppy because he’s allergic to dogs.
 Our boss doesn’t let us eat lunch at our desks; we have to eat in the cafeteria.
 Oops! I wasn’t paying attention while cooking, and I let the food burn.
 Don’t let the advertising expenses surpass Rs10, 000.
Remember: The past tense of let is also let; there is no change!
Note: The verbs allow and permit are more formal ways to say “let.” However,
with allow and permit, we use to + verb:
 I don’t allow my kids to watch violent movies.

 Our boss doesn’t permit us to eat lunch at our desks.
MAKE = force or require someone to take an action

 MAKE + PERSON + VERB (base form)

Examples:
 After Billy broke the neighbor’s window, his parents made him pay for it.
 My ex-boyfriend loved sci-fi and made me watch every episode of his favorite show.
 The teacher made all the students rewrite their papers, because the first drafts were
not acceptable.
Note: When using the verbs force and require, we must use to + verb.
 The school requires the students to wear uniforms.

“Require” often implies that there is a rule.
 The hijacker forced the pilots to take the plane in a different direction.
“Force” often implies violence, threats, or extremely strong pressure
HAVE = GIVE SOMEONE ELSE THE RESPONSIBILITY TO DO SOMETHING
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Causative Verbs
 HAVE + PERSON + VERB (base form)
 HAVE + THING + PAST PARTICIPLE OF VERB
Examples of grammatical structure #1:
 I’ll have my assistant call you to reschedule the appointment.
 The businessman had his secretary make copies of the report.
Examples of grammatical structure #2:

 I’m going to have my hair cut tomorrow.
 We’re having our house painted this weekend.
 Bob had his teeth whitened; his smile looks great!
 My washing machine is broken; I need to have it repaired.
Note: In informal speech, we often use get in these cases:

 I’m going to get my hair cut tomorrow.
 We’re getting our house painted this weekend.
 Bob got his teeth whitened; his smile looks great!
 My washing machine is broken; I need to get it repaired.
GET = CONVINCE/ENCOURAGE SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING

 GET + PERSON + TO + VERB
Examples:
 How can we get all the employees to arrive on time?
 My husband hates housework; I can never get him to wash the dishes!
 I was nervous about eating sushi, but my brother got me to try it at a Japanese
restaurant.
 The non-profit got a professional photographer to take photos at the event for free.
HELP = assist someone in doing something

 HELP + PERSON + VERB (base form)
 HELP + PERSON + TO + VERB
After “help,” you can use “to” or not – both ways are correct. In general, the
form without “to” is more common:
 He helped me carry the boxes.
 He helped me to carry the boxes.
 Reading before bed helps me relax.
 Reading before bed helps me to relax
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Conditional Sentences
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
There are four main kinds of conditionals:

 The Zero Conditional: (Always true like a universal truth)
(if + present simple, ... present simple)
If you heat water to 100 degrees, it boils.
 The First Conditional: (Highly possible)

(if + present simple, ... will + infinitive)
If it rains tomorrow, we'll go to the cinema.
 The Second Conditional: (Highly impossible)

(if + past simple, ... would + infinitive)
If I had a lot of money, I would travel around the world.
 The Third Conditional: (Impossible)

(if + past perfect, ... would + have + past participle)
If I had gone to bed early, I would have caught the train

LET’S LEARN IN DETAIL, THE ALL FOUR CONDITIONALS
The Zero Conditional

We can make a zero conditional sentence with two present simple verbs (one in the 'if
clause' and one in the 'main clause'):
If + present simple, .... present simple.

This conditional is used when the result will always happen. So, if water reaches 100
degrees, it always boils. It's a fact. I'm talking in general, not about one particular
situation. The result of the 'if clause' is always the main clause.
The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when' without changing the
meaning.
For example: If water reaches 100 degrees, it boils. (It is always true, there can't be a
different result sometimes). If I eat peanuts, I am sick. (This is true only for me, maybe,
not for everyone, but it's still true that I'm sick every time I eat peanuts)
Here are some more examples:
If people eat too much, they get fat.

If you touch a fire, you get burned.
People die if they don't eat.
You get water if you mix hydrogen and oxygen.
Snakes bite if they are scared
If babies are hungry, they cry
The First Conditional

The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future simple in the other
clause:
 if + present simple, ... will + infinitive
It's used to talk about things which might happen in the future. Of course, we can't know
what will happen in the future, but this describes possible things, which could easily come
true.
If it rains, I won't go to the park.
If I study today, I'll go to the party tonight.
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If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes.
She'll be late if the train is delayed.
She'll miss the bus if she doesn't leave soon.
If I see her, I'll tell her.
First vs. Zero Conditional:

The first conditional describes a particular situation, whereas the zero conditional
describes what happens in general.
For example (zero conditional): if you sit in the sun, you get burned (here I'm talking about
every time a person sits in the sun - the burning is a natural consequence of the sitting)
But (first conditional): if you sit in the sun, you'll get burned (here I'm talking about what
will happen today, another day might be different)
First vs. Second Conditional:
The first conditional describes things that I think are likely to happen in the future,
whereas the second conditional talks about things that I don't think will really happen. It's
subjective; it depends on my point of view.
For example (first conditional): If she studies harder, she'll pass the exam (I think it's
possible she will study harder and so she'll pass)
But (second conditional): If she studied harder, she would pass the exam (I think that she
won't study harder, or it's very unlikely, and so she won't pass)
The Second Conditional
The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:
 if + past simple, ...would + infinitive
(We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal
writing).
It has two uses.
First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be true.
Maybe I'm imagining some dream for example.
If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)
If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.
She would travel all over the world if she were rich.
She would pass the exam if she ever studied.(She never studies, so this won't happen)
Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is impossible,
because it's not true. Have a look at the examples:
If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number now, so it's impossible for
me to call him).
If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.
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How is this different from the first conditional?
This kind of conditional sentence is different from the first conditional because this is a lot
more unlikely.
For example (second conditional): If I had enough money I would buy a house with twenty
bedrooms and a swimming pool (I'm probably not going to have this much money, it's just
a dream, not very real)
But (first conditional): If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes (It's much more
likely that I'll have enough money to buy some shoes)
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The Third Conditional
We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if' and then 'would have' and
the past participle in the second part of the sentence:
 if + past perfect, ...would + have + past participle


It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to imagine the
result of this situation.
If she had studied, she would have passed the exam (but, really we know she didn't study
and so she didn't pass)
If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel
sick).
If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed the plane
She wouldn't have been tired if she had gone to bed earlier
She would have become a teacher if she had gone to university
He would have been on time for the interview if he had left the house at nine
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LET’S PUT ALL ABOVE CONDITIONALS IN A TABLE:-
If Clause Main Clause

Condition Meaning Structure
(Condition) (Result)
Zero (True)
It’s like a universal (If-clause Simple Present
(present real
that whenever it -- Main clause also
condition) If it rains We get wet
rains we always get simple present +plain
wet. infinitive)
1st (Possible) If it rains well will

get wet, but if it
(If-clause Simple Present
(Future Real We will get does not we will not
If it rains -- Main clause Will shall
Possibility) wet. get wet. (So it’s a
can may +plain infinitive)
conditional
possibility)
2nd If it rained, we
would get wet (in
(Present or Future If it rained future),
Unreal possibility) We would get If-clause Simple Past --
wet. (future) Main clause
If it rained we would/should/could/might
We would get would get wet + plain
If it rained wet (present) (Present)-but it did infinitive
not rained so it’s
impossible
imaginary situation.
3rd In the past, if it had
rained we would
If-clause Past perfect -
(Impossible past We would have got wet, but it
Main clause
imaginary If it had rained have got did not. So now it’s
would/should/could/might
situation) (gotten) wet. impossible
+ perfect infinitive
imaginary
condition.
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Uses of Quantifiers
USES OF QUANTIFIERS
(Some-Any, Much-Many & A lot of)
Some and Any
The general rule is that any is used for questions and negatives while some is used
for positive.
Both may be used with countable and uncountable nouns.
Do we need any rice?

No, we don’t need any rice.
We have some rice in the cupboard.
Some may also be used for questions, typically offers and requests, if we think the
answer will be positive.
Would you like some Juice?
May I have some more chocolate?
Much/ Many and a lot of
These work in the same way as some and any. Much may only be used with uncountable
nouns while many is used with countable.
Do we have much time?
Were there many people at the party?
A lot of is used for positive.
There were a lot of people at the party.
Again, much and many may also be used in questions if the speaker thinks that the
answer will be positive.
Note
When any, much/many are used in negative sentences, the verb is in the negative form. It
is also possible to produce negative by using no or none.
There weren’t any people in the restaurant.

There were no people at the restaurant.
Were there any problems during the project?

There were none.
100
Uses of Just, Yet, Still & Already
USE OF JUST, YET, STILL, ALREADY
These words are often used with the present perfect tense although yet, still and
already can all be used with other tenses.
Just
‘Just’ is usually used only with the present perfect tense and it means ‘a short time ago’.
 I’ve just seen Susan coming out of the cinema.

 Mike’s just called. Can you ring him back please?
 Have you just taken my pen? Where has it gone?
In the present perfect, ‘just’ comes between the auxiliary verb (‘have’) and the past
participle.
Yet
‘Yet’ is used to talk about something which is expected to happen. It means ‘at any time
up to now’. It is used in questions and negatives.
 Have you finished your homework yet? The speaker expects that the
homework will be finished.
 I haven’t finished it yet. I’ll do it after dinner.
‘Yet’ usually comes at the end of the sentence.
Still
‘Still’ is used to talk about something that hasn’t finished – especially when we expected it
to finish earlier.
 I’ve been waiting for over an hour and the bus still hasn’t come.
 You promised to give me that report yesterday and you still haven’t
finished it.

‘Still’ usually comes in ‘mid-position’
Still is often used with other tenses as well as the present perfect.
 I’ve still got all those letters you sent me.

 Are you still working in the bookshop?
Already
‘Already’ is used to say that something has happened early – or earlier than it might have
happened.
 I’ve already spent my salary and it’s two weeks before pay day.
 The train’s already left! What are we going to do?
101
Modal Verbs
MODAL VERBS
Definintion of modal verb: A modal verb is a type of auxiliary verb that expresses
possibility or necessity.
What is a Modal Verb?
A modal verb is a helping (auxiliary) verb that expresses ability, possibility, permission, or
obligation. The modal verb must be used in a verb phrase.
A verb phrase is more than one verb used in together to express an action. Modal verbs
are always paired with at least one other verb.
Modal verbs express possibility or necessity (and variations thereof).
List of Modal English Verbs
MODAL VAERBS ARE A TYPE OF HELPING VERBS

What are the English modal verbs? Here are nine most frequently used modal verb in
Modern English.
 can
 could
 may
 might
 must
 shall
 should
 will
 would
Example of Modal Verbs in Use:
Shane can swim.

“Can” is the modal verb in the verb phrase “can swim.”
Suzy could sing if she tried.

“Could” is the modal verb in the verb phrase “could sing.”
You must attend our wedding.

“Must” is a modal verb; “must attend” is the verb phrase.
Modal Verbs are Helping Verbs:

MODAL VERBS ARE FOUND IN VERB PHRASES
Since modal verbs are helping verbs, they are always a part of a verb phrase. They do
not stand alone as individual verbs. Modal helping verbs are still helping verbs, so they
must be used in a verb phrase (helping verb plus main verb) in order to be grammatically
correct.
102
Modal Verbs
Example of Modal Verb in Use:

Joe should try.
“Should” is the modal verb in the verb phrase “should try.”
“Try” is actually the main verb, stating what action Joe should take.
Modal verbs can be made negative, as well. The negative word “not” is added into the
verb phrase between the modal verb and the main verb.
To make a negative verb phrase with a modal verb:
 modal verb + not + main verb

Examples of modal verb in use (negative):
 Sandy will not go to the theater.
 “will not go” is the verb phrase
 “will” is the modal verb
 “go” is the main verb
 “not” is placed between the modal verb and the main verb to make the negative verb
phrase
 Jake must not make a mistake.
 “must not make” is the verb phrase
 “must” is the modal verb
 “make” is the main verb
 “not” is placed between the modal verb and the main verb to make the negative verb
phrase
Modal Verbs Express: What is the Purpose of Modal Verbs?
MODAL VERBS EXPRESS MANY DIFFERENT THINGS

Again, the modal verbs are,
 can
 could
 may
 might
 must
 shall
 should
 will
 would
These modal verbs are used to express different meanings of possibility and intention.
They enhance the meanings of main verbs, and certain verbs are used to express each
meaning.
103
Modal Verbs
Modal Verbs Expressing Possibility
CAN, COULD, MAY & MIGHT EXPRESS POSSIBILITY.
Certain modal verbs express possibility. They express something that may or may not
happen.The modal verbs used to express possibility include: can, could, may & might
Examples:
 He can go.
 He could go.
 He might go.
 He may go.
Modal Verbs Expressing Intention
SHOULD, WOULD, MIGHT, WILL, SHALL EXPRESS INTENTION.

Certain modal verbs express intention. They express something that the speaker plans to
do but has not yet completed.
The modal verbs used to express intention include: should, would, might, will, shall.
Examples:
 She should share.
 She would share if you let him.
 She might share.
 I will share.
 I shall share.
Modal Verbs Expressing Obligation
WILL, MUST, SHALL EXPRESS OBLIGATION.

Certain modal verbs express obligation. They express something that the speaker plans
needs to do.
The modal verbs used to express obligation include: will, must, shall.
Examples:
 You will eat.
 You must eat.
 You shall eat.

104
Modal Verbs
Modal Verbs Expressing Necessity

MUST, SHALL EXPRESS NECESSITY.
Certain modal verbs express necessity. They express something that the speaker plans
needs to do.
The modal verbs used to express necessity include: must, shall.
Examples:
 They must answer.
 They shall answer.

Modal Verbs Do Not Change Forms
NO CHANGE IN THE FORM OF MODAL VERBS.
Since modal verbs are not the main verb in a sentence, they are
not conjugated or inflectedto show grammatical changes in the subject. Put differently,
they do not change forms.
Furthermore, modal verbs do not have an infinitive form to conjugate.
105
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs with different subjects:

I can/could/may/might/must/shall/should/will/would
You can/could/may/might/must/shall/should/will/would decide.
He/She/It can/could/may/might/must/shall/should/will/would decide.
 We can/could/may/might/must/shall/should/will/would decide.
 You can/could/may/might/must/shall/should/will/would decide.
 They can/could/may/might/must/shall/should/will/would decide.
As you can see, the same verbs work with subjects in the first, second, and third persons.
Summary: What are Modal Verbs?
Definition of modal verb: the definition of modal verb is that these are specific kind of
helping verbs used to express possibility.
In summary, a modal verb:
 is a helping verb
 must be used with a main verb
 is always a part of a verb phrase
 can be made negative
 does not change forms for different subjects
106
Semi Modal Verbs
DIFERENCE BETWEEN MODAL VERBS & SEMI MODAL VERBS
Modal and Modal Phrases (Semi-Modals) A modal is a type of auxiliary (helping)

verb that is used to express: ability, possibility, permission or obligation. Modal phrases
(or semi-modals) are used to express the same things as modals, but are a combination
of auxiliary verbs and the preposition to.
Semi-modal verbs or semi-modal auxiliary verbs are so-called because they can function
as modal auxiliary verbs as well as main verbs. Semi-modal verbs combine with the
preposition to to express about the same things as the main modal verbs. The bare form
of the main verb always follows the semi-modal verbs which are had better, ought
to, used to, dare, and need. Semi-modal verbs are used with main verbs, but they cannot
be used as main verbs by themselves.
Semi-modal verbs do not have simple past tense, present participles, or past participles.
They cannot be used to form infinitives with the exception of ought to and used to. Both
these verbs are always followed by infinitives. When a semi-modal verb is used with a
third-person singular subject, it does not change its form. There are four semi-modal
verbs that are widely considered as the standard set: dare, need, used to, and ought to.
USED TO DO/ WOULD DO / BE USED TO DOING
'Used to + infinitive':
We use this expression to talk about habits or repeated actions in the past which we
don't do in the present. We also use it to talk about states in the past which are no longer
true. For example:
 I used to have long hair (but now I have short hair).
 He used to smoke (but now he doesn't smoke).
 They used to live in India (but now they live in Germany).
Watch out! With the negative and the question it's 'use' and not 'used':
 Did you use to be a teacher?
 Did he use to study French?
 She didn't use to like chocolate, but she does now.
 I didn't use to want to have a nice house. Note! With this 'used to' there is no verb
'be'. We CAN'T say I am used to have long hair.
'Would + infinitive'
We can also use 'would + infinitive' to talk about a habit or repeated action in the past. We
usually use 'would + infinitive' in this way when we're telling a story about the past. So, we
can say:
When I was a student, we would often have a drink after class on a Friday.
When I lived in Italy, we would go to a little restaurant near our house.
However, we don't use 'would + infinitive' to talk about states in the past. So, if
we're talking about the past, we CAN'T say:
I Would have long hair.
I would live in Scotland
107
Semi modal Verbs
'Be used to':
We use 'be used to + verb-ing' to talk about things which feel normal for us or things that
we are accustomed to:
I'm used to getting up early, so I don't mind doing it (= getting up early is normal for me,
it's what I usually do).
My little daughter is used to eating lunch at noon. So she was grumpy yesterday when we
didn't eat until one.
Note that we make the negative or the question with the verb 'be' in the normal way. The
'used to' doesn't change:
Lucy isn't used to staying up late, so she's very tired today.

Are your children used to walking a lot?
We can also use 'be used to + noun', which has the same meaning:
I've lived in the UK almost all my life, so I'm used to rain (= rain is normal for me).
That football team always lose, so they're used to disappointment!
We can put the verb 'be' into any tense. So we can talk about things in the past or the
future as well as the present using this expression:
It was difficult when I first started university, because I wasn't used to the amount of work
we had to do.
Soon I'll be used to driving in London and I won't be so frightened!
We can use 'get used to + verb-ing' to talk about the change of not normal to normal. We
can also use this in any tense:
Don't worry if your new job is hard at first. You'll get used to it.
It took me a while, but I got used to speaking another language every day.
It took me a few months to get used to living in Japan. At first everything seemed very
different, but then gradually it became normal for me.
108
Uses of Have & Have Got
HAVE & HAVE GOT
Have and Have got mean the same. Have is more formal whereas have got is more
informal. We use have (got) here to refer to both verbs:
I’ve got a terrible pain in my back.

I have a terrible pain in my back. (More formal)
They haven’t got a car.
They don’t have a car. (More formal)
We use have (got) to talk about possession, relationships, characteristics and illnesses. In
these contexts, it is not used in the continuous form:
She’s got two cats and a dog.
She has two cats and a dog.
Not: She is having got two cats and a dog.
Have you got a drill?

Do you have a drill? (More formal)
How many brothers have you got?
How many brothers do you have? (More formal)
She’s got a new boyfriend.
She has a new boyfriend. (More formal)
She’s got a delightful voice.
She has a delightful voice. (More formal)
It’s got 153 calories and 45g of carbohydrates.
It has 153 calories and 45g of carbohydrates. (More formal)
I have never had the measles.
She’s got a headache.
Not: She is having a headache.
109
AUTHOR’S MESSAGE
Dear students! I bow my head in front of the Almighty for giving me the light of
knowledge & guidance to produce this work for sharing it with my brothers &
sisters. Hope this work will bring some new ways of looking at spoken English and
will be a little step forward in clearing your queries regarding spoken English. The
work is intended to fill the gaps that are left in our school & college studies of
English language.
The work has been done with utmost care. However, it’s a human work and may
have some errors & mistakes. If you find any, please feel free to bring into the
knowledge of author. Your suggestions and corrections will be taken open
heartedly and thankfully on following E:mail address:-
azharnawaz@yahoo.com
I look forward for your comments, and corrections (if any).

Azhar Nawaz
110

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SPOKEN ENGLISH It doesn’t matter

how slowly you go

Contractions, Abbreviations, Prefix & Suffix

PLEASE VISIT MY YOUTUBE CHANNEL

SPOKEN PART Informal Contractions

Phrasal Verbs Conditional Sentences

Idioms, proverbs & Maxims Polite expressions

FREE LICENSE – NO COPY RIGHTS

Wish you all the best!!!

THE GRAMMER PART:- Page

Ali is a good boy.

Team, flock, army, fleet, jury, family, nation, parliament, committee.

A Team = a collection of player.

Quality - Goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, hardness, brightness, honesty, wisdom,

Action - Laughter, theft, movement, judgment, hatred.

State - Childhood, boyhood, youth, slavery, sleep, sickness, death, poverty.

(a) First Person – I and we are called first person pronoun.

(b) Second Person- You is called second person pronoun.

I myself saw him watching cricket match.

Each one of us took lunch at the Hotel.

I met Ali who had just returned back from Hajj.

Plural: all, many, most, much, some

Use of Indefinite Pronouns:-

Nominative Cases: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who

The nominative, or subjective, case pronoun is the subject of the sentence.

Examples: She went to the store

These function as direct or indirect objects.

We gave HER the bus money.

3. ADJECTIVE & DESCRIPTIVE WORDS

Personality Traits - Ambitious, Amusing, Artistic, competent, weak etc.

Work – Worked – Worked

Type-1 (All three forms are different)

Eat – ate – eaten.

Type-2 (All three forms are same)

Put – Put – Put

Type-3 (both past and past participle forms are same)

Burn – Burnt - Burnt

2. Auxiliaries, Modals & Semi Modals

Do you mind lending me your pen?

To take rest at night makes healthy.

He worked the sum quickly.

1. Adverbs of Time (which show when)

I have heard this before.

2. Adverbs of Frequency (which show how often).

I have told you twice.

3. Adverbs of Place (which show where).

4. Adverbs of Manner (which show how or in what manner).

Our Army fought bravely.

He was too careless.

6. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation

Surely you are mistaken.

He is hence unable to refute the charge.

Preposition is a word that shows position, location, direction or time of something.

1. Types of Preposition- There are mainly two types of prepositions, preposition of

1. Used to show covering, touching or forming part of a surface

 She was standing on one foot.

3. Used to show a means of transport

 He was on the plane from New York.

4. Used to show a day or date

5. Immediately after something

 On arriving home I discovered they had gone.

 A book on South Africa

8. Used to show that somebody belongs to a group or an organization

9. Eating or drinking something; using a drug or a medicine regularly