THEORY

Experiment 1

Temperature is a measure of hotness. Together with a measure of ‘thermal mass’ of a body it

gives an indication of the total thermodynamics energy that body contains. There are many
scales for the comparison of temperatures, the most important is with their corresponding
values for melting ice and boiling water (which are common reference temperatures) being
given in the table below.

Scale Melting Ice Boiling Water

Celsius (or Centigrade) 0℃ 100 ℃
Fahrenheit 32 ⁰F 212⁰F
Kelvin (Absolute Scale) 273 K 373 K

In this experiment you will be familiarized with the following temperature measurement
devices:

a) Resistance thermometer (TYPE K)

b) Thermistor (NTC)

I. The Liquid Filled Thermometer

This type of thermometer depends on the expansion of a liquid associated with an

increase in temperature. The most common type is the mercury-in-glass thermo meter.
This thermometer consists of a capillary tube with a bulbous end,clean,dry mercury is
introduced and the thermometer heated to drive off the air. The end is then scaled leaving
mercury and mercury vapour only.
On heating, the mercury expands relative to the glass container and a column is pushed
along the bore of the tube. A scale along the tube, calibrated in units of temperature, gives
a direct reading of temperature. The mercury-in-glass thermometer is an accurate device
but is very fragile and care should be exercised in use. This type of thermometer should
 not be used in applications such as the food industry where mercury poisoning could
occur in the event of breakage.
The mercury may be replaced by other fluids according to the application. For example,
alcohol is cheaper and may be used at lower temperatures than mercury. A mercury-in-
glass thermometer is supplied with the Temperature Measurement Bench due to its stable
and accurate performance. For accurate measurement of temperature using a liquid filled
thermo meter, it is important that the thermometer is immersed into the medium being
measured by the correct amount. The depth of immersion is usually stated on the stem of
the thermo meter and defines the condition under which calibration is maintained. The
immersion depth may be partial or total and is independent of filling or range

II. The Vapor Pressure Manometer

For industrial applications, the liquid-in-glass thermometer is far from suitable

due to its fragility and the difficulty in reading. In these applications the glass is
replaced by a metal container and mechanical indication is substituted. One example of
this type of thermo meter is the vapor pressure thermo meter.
This consists of a metal bulb partially filled with fluid, which is connected to the
sensing element of a Bourdon gauge. The space above the fluid is filled with vapor of
the fluid, the pressure of which is display on the Bourdon gauge. The gauge is
calibrated directly in units of temperature corresponding to the equivalent, pressure of
the vapor but calibration is far from linear due to the pressure increasing more and more
rapidly as the temperature increases. For this reason, the vapor pressure thermometer is
suitable only for operation over short ranges of temperature and suffers from lack of
sensitivity at low readings. In service, the range should be selected so that the gauge
remains within operational limits with the normal operating point at approximately two
thirds of fullscale reading.
Vapor pressure thermometers offer the advantage of remote reading. The
thermometer may be ordered with a metal capillary tube connecting the bulb to the
gauge, permitting remote operation over distances up to sixty meters. Correct
orientation of the bulb and gauge should be preserved f or ac- curate results. The vapor
pressure thermometer supplied with the bench has the Bourdon gauge connected
directly to the stem f or case of operation
III. The Bi-Metal Thermometer

Expansion of solids may be used to measure temperature but direct measurement

is impractical due to the very small movements involved. However, if two thin metal
strips, having different coefficients of linear expression, are mechanically fastened
together, the result is a strip which bends significantly when heated. This combination is
called a Bi-metal strip and the sensitivity may be increased by coiling the strip into a
spiral. One end of the strip is fixed to the case and a pointer is attached to the other end.
Linear scale may be obtained by suitable choice of metals.
This type of thermometer is very robust and has many applications throughout
industry where accuracy of measurement is not important. The bi-metal thermometer
supplied w ith the bench is mounted on the back-board and gives a direct reading of
ambient air temperature.

IV. Thermal Response

The thermal response of a thermometer to changes in temperature is probably the

most important characteristic to consider when selecting instrumentation for a particular
application. A thermometer may be extremely accurate and stable in performance but
totally unsuitable for use in a dynamic situation, due to a time lag between system
temperature and thermometer reading.
The diagram below shows typical response curves for a thermometer when step
changes in temperature are applied. The response of the thermometer is defined by the
time taken for the temperature reading to change by 63.2% of the step change. For any
thermometer, this time will be a constant value irrespective of step change and is
defined as the "time constant" for the thermometer. The time constant and response
profile for a thermometer will change if the system is modified.
For example, the speed of response of a thermometer will be slowed down if it
is protected from the system being measured by a ther mometer. The response will also
be affected by the thermal contact between the thermometer and pocket, fluid filling of
the pocket resulting in a reduction in time constant.
 Figure 1.1

The response of the thermometer is defined by the time taken for the temperature
reading to change by 63.2% of the step change. For any thermometer, this time will be a
constant value irrespective of step change and is defined as the "time constant" for the
thermometer. The time constant and re- sponse profile for a thermometer will change if
the system is modified. For example, the speed of response of a thermometer will be
slowed down if it is protected fromthe systembeing m easured by a thermometer. The
response will also be affected by the thermal contact between the thermometer and
pocket, fluid f illing of the pocket resulting in a reduction in time constant.

Experiment 2

i. Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. Relative humidity is defined as
the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in a parcel of air to the saturated vapor
pressure of water vapor at a prescribed temperature. Humidity may also be expressed as
specific humidity. Relative humidity is an important metric used in forecasting weather.
Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog. High humidity makes
people feel hotter outside in the summer because it reduces the effectiveness of
sweating to cool the body by reducing the evaporation of perspiration from the skin.
This effect is calculated in a heat index table.
Hygrometers are instruments used for measuring humidity. A simple form of a
hygrometer is specifically known as a psychrometer and consists of two thermometers,
one of which includes a dry bulb and the other of which includes a bulb that is kept wet
to measure wet-bulb temperature. Modern electronic devices use temperature of
condensation, changes in electrical resistance, and changes in electrical capacitance to
measure humidity changes. Hygrometers measure humidity while psycrometers
measure realative humidity in the air.
In a psychrometer, there are two thermometers, one with a dry bulb and the other
with a wet bulb. Evaporation from the wet bulb lowers the temperature, so that the wet-
bulb thermometer usually shows a lower temperature than that of the dry-bulb
thermometer, which measures dry-bulb temperature. When the air temperature is below
freezing, however, the wet bulb is covered with a thin coating of ice and yet may be
warmer than the dry bulb. Relative humidity is computed from the ambient temperature
as shown by the dry-bulb thermometer and the difference in temperatures as shown by
the wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers. Relative humidity can also be determined by
locating the intersection of the wet- and dry-bulb temperatures on a psychrometric
chart. One device that uses the wet/dry bulb method is the sling psychrometer, where
the thermometers are attached to a handle or length of rope and spun around in the air
for a few minutes.
EQUIPMENTS

Figure 1.2
Apparatus Setup

A= Type-K thermocouple
B= Pt 100 thermocoupe
C= mV meter
D= Main switch 240VAC
E= ELCB/MCB
F= Heater Switch
G= Blower switch and speed controller
H= Pt 100 temperature meter
I= Type K temperature meter
J= Bi-metallic thermometer
K= Vapor compression thermometer
L= Vacuum flask
M= Hot water pot
N= Whirling psychrometer
O= Thermistor temperature meter
P= Mercury filled thermometer
Q= Spirit filled thermometer
Figure 1.3 Whirling hygrometer