BABASAHEB BHIMRAO

AMBEDKAR UNIVERSITY
LUCKNOW

ASSIGNMENT ON TOPIC
GEMOLOGY
Course Title: Minerology and
Crystallography
SUBMITTED TO
Mr. Abhishek Kumar Madhesiya

SUBMITTED BY
Kumar Ankit
M.Sc. Ist semester
Session: 2018-2019
DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
 An Introduction to Gemology
Gemology is the scientific study of gemstones. Investors and collectors who are only
interested in the monetary value of gems, they’ll need a scientific approach to distinguish one
gemstone from another.

Gemstone Identification

Gem identification is the heart of gemology. Some rubies and garnets are impossible to
distinguish by observation, but their physical properties differ considerably. Ruby and garnet
crystallography varies greatly. While the visible shapes of individual stones may vary, the
crystal structures of these gems at the atomic level are distinctive. Garnets form in the cubic
system, while rubies form in the hexagonal system. Mineralogical techniques are also used to
help identify gemstones. Scratch tests, in which various substances are used to scratch an
unknown gem, determine hardness. A gem’s reaction to acid and even heat can yield
important clues to its identity. Of course, these destructive tests are not appropriate for cut
gems.

Gem Species and Gem Varieties

A gem species is a type of mineral species. Well over 140 mineral species have been utilized
as gems. Humans have selected these minerals for their beauty and durability and used them
for adornment. Gems like amber and pearls, have organic origins, most form inside the Earth
as minerals.

Distinguishes a Gem Species

Two factors define a mineral species: its chemical make-up and crystal habit.
The mineral beryl has the chemical formula: Be 3Al2Si6O18. That means each molecule of
beryl contains 3 beryllium, 2 aluminum, 6 silicon, and 18 oxygen atoms. Now, combine the
chemistry with a hexagonal crystal structure and you have the definition of the beryl species.
The beryl species includes such well-known gemstones as aquamarines, emeralds, and
morganites. That means humans have prized these beryls, which we consider gemstones. So,
gem species are mineral species, defined by their chemistry and crystal structure, which
humans have prized for beauty and adornment.
Crystal Structure

Two minerals may share the same chemical formula but have different physical properties.
Diamond and graphite both have the same chemical makeup. A molecule of either mineral is
just a single carbon atom. However, diamonds are the hardest substance on the Mohs scale
(10). Graphite, on the other hand, is the very soft stuff (1-2) from which pencil leads are
made.

Diamond has an isometric crystal structure. Its carbon atoms are arranged in a very stable
tetrahedron pattern. Each carbon atom bonds to four other carbon atoms, which accounts for
diamond’s hardness. Graphite has a hexagonal crystal structure. Its carbon atoms are arranged
in a less stable “chicken wire” pattern, which contributes to its softness.

To define a mineral species, and a gemstone species, one must consider both chemistry and
crystal structure. Not all gems with isometric structures have the hardness of diamond, nor do
all gems with hexagonal structures have the softness of graphite.

Examples of Gem Species

Beryls and diamonds are very well-known gemstone species. (Few people would probably
consider graphite a gemstone). Other examples of gem species include corundum, quartz,
opal, spodumene, and tourmaline.

Gem Variety

A variety of gemstone has special coloring or features. Gemologists and gem enthusiasts
distinguish the members of species with unique colors or optical characteristics because those
qualities contribute to their appeal.

Gem Colors

Most minerals that people consider gems are colorless in their pure state. Trace elements find
their way into these crystals as they form. These “impurities” contribute to the color of the
gems. Gems coloured by trace elements are known as allochromatic. However, few of these
gems occur in a completely pure state.

The gem species corundum is colorless in its pure state. However, add a bit of iron and
titanium and you have a blue sapphire. Chromium creates a red ruby. Ruby and sapphire are
varieties of the corundum gem species. They have the same chemistry and crystal structure as
all corundum. (Rubies are the red variety of corundum. All other color variations of
corundum, including blue, are sapphires). Different color varieties of a gem species can have
very different commercial values. Take the beryl species. Pure beryl is called goshenite. It’s
colorless and not very appealing. However, add a bit of iron and you have the blue-green
beryl variety, aquamarine, a highly desired gemstone. If, instead of iron, you have a bit of
chromium in a beryl, it becomes a deep green emerald. That beryl variety is even more
valuable.

The presence of the same trace element in different gems doesn’t mean the stones will have
the same color. For example, chromium in corundum creates a red ruby, but chromium in
beryl creates a green emerald. Many factors contribute to the color we see in a gemstone.

Gem Varieties with Special Optical Features

Sometimes, optical features distinguish gem varieties. For example, some gem species
include varieties with phenomenal effects, such as asterism, or color change.
Gems that show asterism display a beautiful 4 or 6-rayed star effect flashing across their
surface. These “star stones” are special varieties of their species and usually command high
values. In some cases, as with star sapphires, these are varieties of a variety of a gem species!

A few gems exhibit color change. These gems change color depending on the type of light
that illuminates them. For example, alexandrite, perhaps the best known and most expensive
color change gem, appears green by sunlight but red by incandescent light. Alexandrite is the
color change variety of the chrysoberyl gem species. Garnets, sapphires, and tourmalines also
have color change varieties.

Gem Formation

Most gems form naturally as minerals within the Earth. Most form as crystals, solids whose
atoms are arranged in highly ordered repeating patterns called crystal systems. Learning
about mineral crystallization and the geological processes involved in gem formation will
help gemologists understand some of the properties they’ll encounter in gemstones.

Mineral Crystallization

Four of the five requirements for mineral crystallization to occur.

Ingredients

Temperature

Pressure

Time

Space

Inside the Earth, the ingredients of crystals are more complex and numerous than our sugar
solution. Solutions may contain many different minerals.

At a high enough temperature, a solution can hold many minerals in suspension. As the
temperature drops, the amount of solid ingredients it can hold in suspension drops as well.
When that occurs, crystals form. In fact, different minerals in the same solution will
crystallize at different temperatures. For example, corundum might crystallize first. As the
solution continues to cool, topaz might form next, then quartz.

Pressure has no effect on the formation of rock candy. However, it takes the proper
combination of pressure and temperature for minerals to crystallize. The gems that crystallize
underground typically require very high pressures and temperatures.

Time and space are fairly straightforward requirements. The right combination of ingredients,
heat, and pressure must last long enough for the minerals to crystallize. They also need room
to grow. Obviously, you can’t grow a crystal 3 cm long in a cavity only 3 mm long.
Color Zoning

The successive layers of growth will have slightly different chemical compositions. When
this happens, colour zoning seen in the crystal.

Twinning

Occasionally, the new layers will have different orientation. This causes twinning.

Parting

In some crystals with twinning, the new layers don’t bond completely with each other. When
you see parting on a star ruby, for example, the layers didn’t bond.

Star ruby.

Geological Processes and Gem Formation

Gemologists now understand mineral crystallization fairly well. Advances in geology as well
as synthetic gem manufacturing have unraveled some of these mysteries of nature.

Geologists prefer to describe rock formation as involving four processes:

 Molten rock and associated fluids

 Environmental changes

 Surface water

 Gem formation in the Earth’s mantle

Diamond Crystallization

Diamonds crystallize at temperatures higher than other minerals. Scientists now believe that
most diamonds may form in the magma, near the Earth’s crust where it’s the coolest.
Diamonds may actually be the most plentiful crystals in the Earth. They just aren’t the easiest
to reach.

Diamond Gem Formation

Diamond formation is better understood. Most diamonds actually crystallize in the magma
below the crust. However, the magma formations they’re found in have a different chemical
composition. They may come from greater depths, 110 to 150 miles (approximately 177 to
241 km) below the surface. At this depth, the temperatures are higher, and the magma is very
fluid.

This hot and fluid magma can force its way through the crust faster and more violently than
other volcanic eruptions. During this process, it will break up and dissolve lower mantle
rocks and then carry them to the surface.

If the magma rose slower, the diamonds would probably not survive. The changing
temperatures and pressure would cause them to vaporize or recrystallize as graphite. The
speed of the magma rise may be so quick that the diamonds don’t have time to transform.

How diamonds reach the surface. 1. A magma pocket comes in contact with a weak area in the crust. 2. A quick explosion results, carrying
diamond-bearing magma to the surface. During the eruption, a cone builds on the surface. 3. The carrot-shaped pipe eventually cools. 4. The
cone quickly erodes away (geologically speaking), leaving the diamond-bearing earth where people can reach it.

Gemstone Hardness

Gemstone hardness is a very misunderstood property. The word “hardness” has a very
specific scientific meaning in gemology that differs considerably from its everyday usage.
The scientific definition of hardness is the ability to resist scratching.

Hardness depends on the bonds that hold the atoms together within a crystal structure. This
bonding is evident in the ease with which the layers of atoms at a surface can be separated by
applying pressure with a sample of another material. If the second material is harder than the
first, it’ll leave a furrow, or scratch. That represents the breaking of millions of atomic bonds
on a microscopic scale. The hardness of a mineral is, specifically, its “scratchability.” Every
mineral can be ranked based on those others minerals it can scratch.

The Three Basic Gem Cutting Styles

Brilliant Cut

Brilliant cuts consist of triangular and kite-shaped facets that spread outward from the center
of the gem. As befits its name, the brilliant cut gives off the most scintillation of any cut.
Round brilliant facet chart. Image by Jasper Paulsen. Licensed under CC By-SA 3.0.

Step Cut

Step cuts consist of rectangular facets that ascend the crown and descend the pavilion in
steps. Examples of step cuts include emerald and baguette cuts. These are popular because
they show off the stone’s color and clarity and produce a subtle gleam.

Emerald cut. Image by Ducky. Licensed under CC By-SA 3.0.

Mixed Cuts

Mixed cuts combine step cut and brilliant cut styles. They have brilliant facets on the crown
and step facets on the pavilion, or vice versa. Mixed cuts may even combine cabbing and
faceting techniques.

Mixed-cut oval citrine. Photo by Wela49. Licensed under CC By-SA 3.0.

Instruments for studying Gems

The 10X Loupe
For gemologists, the 10X loupe (with ten-power magnification) is the standard for hand-held gem
identification. Although to find more powerful loupes, the depth of field (the area that’s in focus) is so
small above 10X that they’re hard to use. Instead, use a microscope when needed higher
magnification. With lower-powered magnification, can’t see as much detail.
The Microscope

While you only need a 10X loupe for gem grading, a microscope will give you a larger field
of view and a brighter image. It will also show alterations like fillings, dye concentrations,
assembled stones, and diffusion treatments. Many gemologists use their microscopes for
taking photographs for their appraisals. It’s also a useful sales tool. For example, you can
show customers identifying features or why the prongs on a jewelry piece need replacing. In
addition, seeing a gem under magnification is impressive. Gemstone photomicrography can
produce fantastic images.

You can identify most gems with just 40 power. However, you can’t identify all gems without
more magnification. While 80 power has long been considered adequate, new and higher
quality synthetics sometimes require even more magnification.

Polariscope

The polariscope is one of gemology’s simplest and most useful tools. With a little practice
and our three-part polariscope guide, you’ll soon be able to conduct some fundamental gem
identification tests. You can test gemstone refraction to determine if a gem is singly or doubly
refractive, learn the optic figure and sign of a doubly refractive gem, and see gemstone
twinning, dichroic colors, and strain.

The Gemmological Spectroscope

This is an instrument used to analyze the light from a gemstone. The light through a
spectroscope without a gemstone will show a rainbow that is the visible part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. When the light goes through (transmitted) or reflects off of a
gemstone a pattern of black lines or bands is seen through the spectroscope. This pattern is
called an absorption spectrum.

Prism Spectroscope with Gems

A prism spectroscope is constructed of a train of three or more prisms that are alternately
made of flint and crown glass. There is a collimating lens that focuses the light rays onto the
first prism and assure that the light rays are parallel and produce a pure spectrum. The
dispersed rays produce the visible spectrum. The diffraction grating spectroscope has fine
lines and spaces (approximately 60,000 lines per centimeter) and the light is diffracted (bent)
spreading the different wavelengths into the rainbow pattern of the visible spectrum.

The prism spectroscopes have an adjustable focus. The amount of light entering the slit can
also be adjusted. The diffraction grating spectroscopes are smaller and do not have any
moving parts. If you are examining the spectrum produced by a prism spectroscope the blue
area will be spread out and the red area is compressed. The diffraction spectroscope
distributes the wavelengths evenly. When comparing the spectrum that you see to published
spectrum, note which type of spectroscope you are using and which type of spectrum is
included in the published spectrum.
 REFERENCES
 Mineral Science by Cornelis Klein & Barbara Dutrow

 https://www.gemsociety.org/gemology/

 https://learnaboutgemstones.wordpress.com/2011/12/16/use-of-a-
spectroscope-with-gemstones/