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Superimposed Energy-based Fault Detection and Classification Scheme for

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DOI: 10.1080/15325008.2016.1148082

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 Electric Power Components and Systems

ISSN: 1532-5008 (Print) 1532-5016 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uemp20

Superimposed Energy-based Fault Detection and

Classification Scheme for Series-compensated Line

Om Hari Gupta & Manoj Tripathy

To cite this article: Om Hari Gupta & Manoj Tripathy (2016) Superimposed Energy-based Fault
Detection and Classification Scheme for Series-compensated Line, Electric Power Components
and Systems, 44:10, 1095-1110, DOI: 10.1080/15325008.2016.1148082

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 Electric Power Components and Systems, 44(10):1095–1110, 2016
Copyright C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1532-5008 print / 1532-5016 online

DOI: 10.1080/15325008.2016.1148082

Superimposed Energy-based Fault Detection and

Classification Scheme for Series-compensated Line
Om Hari Gupta and Manoj Tripathy
Electrical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee], [Om Hari Gupta] at 10:00 09 June 2016

CONTENTS
Abstract—This article presents a fault detection and classification
1. Introduction scheme for a series-compensated transmission line that is based on
2. TCSC post-fault superimposed energy. The derivations of the scheme pre-
sented in this article are obtained with consideration of both the
3. SE-Based Fault Detection Scheme real and reactive components of the power system. However, the cri-
4. Results terion depends only on the real components of the power system.
5. Discussion For a forward fault, superimposed energy is negative, whereas it is
positive for a reverse fault. If the relays of both ends detect for-
6. Conclusion
ward fault, it is an internal fault; else, it is an external fault. The
References magnitude of superimposed energy depends on the fault type, loca-
Appendix A: Data for Test Power System tion, and resistance, which makes it difficult to classify the type of
fault as a fixed threshold cannot be set. Therefore, to classify the
type of fault, energy coefficients have been introduced that depend
on the superimposed energy measured at the relay. To test the ca-
pability of the superimposed energy based scheme, the test system
has been simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC (Manitoba HVDC Research
Centre) and an algorithm has been implemented in MATLAB (The
MathWorks, Natick, Massachusetts, USA). Results proved that the
scheme is accurate and robust against different system conditions and
uncertainties.

Keywords: fault detection, fault classification, protection of compensated
line, superimposed components, superimposed energy, thyristor-controlled
series capacitor
Received 20 January 2015; accepted 17 January 2016
Address correspondence to Mr. Om Hari Gupta, Electrical Engineering
Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, 247667,
India. E-mail: omggupta@gmail.com
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online
at www.tandfonline.com/uemp.
1. INTRODUCTION
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices are used
to improve the power transfer capability of a transmission line
by changing the system parameters [1]. Though the FACTS
device improves the power flow, it seriously affects the trans-
mission line protection. The reason behind this is that a
FACTS device changes the system parameters, such as line
impedance and load current. The impact of FACTS devices
on the protective scheme changes with the system condi-
tions and degree of compensation. Besides changing the line
impedance, the presence of a thyristor-controlled series ca-
pacitor (TCSC) may also cause problems, such as voltage or
current reversal at the relay bus during fault, and subsequently
affects the protection schemes [2, 3]. The ordinary protection
schemes lead to mal-operation for a TCSC-compensated trans-
mission line [4], and hence, distinct protection schemes are
required.

1095
 1096 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 44 (2016), No. 10

Many directional relaying schemes are available [5–9] that

are based on the phase angle difference of certain parame-
ters. However, the relaying schemes proposed in [5–9] did
not classify the type of fault that is required for single-pole
tripping. In another study [10], the analysis of sequence di-
rectional elements has been conducted, and it has been con-
cluded that the change in source impedance may lead to mal-
function of the directional element. A current transient-based
directional scheme for a fixed-series compensated line was
presented in [11]. However, a very high sampling rate is re-
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee], [Om Hari Gupta] at 10:00 09 June 2016

quired to extract the transients. For the protection of a transmis-

sion line, instantaneous component based directional schemes
were proposed in [12–14], which required a high sampling
rate to achieve high-speed relaying; also, the establishment
of the proposed criteria depends on the inception angle. This
dependability reduces the reliability of the scheme. Direc-
tional relaying scheme may also be used as a unit protec-
tion scheme of the line with the help of the communication
between the relays situated at both the ends of the line. In
[12], the criterion for direction detection was established us-
ing the impulse response. However, the duration of this estab-
lished criterion is very small. Moreover, in [13, 14], the power
system was considered purely reactive, and the fault classi-
fication problem was not addressed. A traveling-wave-based
scheme used to obtain the direction of a fault fails as there will
be no traveling wave appearance if a fault occurs at a zero-
inception angle [15]. Artificial neural network (ANN) based
schemes have been used for fault direction estimation in the
power system [16–20], providing valuable results. However, an
ANN requires extensive training data obtained from the power
system.
The aim of this study is to detect faults within the protected
zone and to classify the type of fault. Usually, superimposed
components are obtained by subtracting one cycle past a sam-
ple from the present sample. Hence, after the inception of a
fault, superimposed components exist for approximately one
cycle. This article presents a superimposed energy (SE) based
relaying scheme for the protection of a TCSC-compensated
transmission line. The SE [21] is measured by integrating the
superimposed power at both relay buses. Though the super-
imposed components exist for one cycle after the fault, the
measured SE oscillates and achieves a constant finite value
and remains so, even when the superimposed components are
zero. SE is calculated at both ends. If a fault occurs in front
of a relay, measured SE is negative, and if a reverse fault
occurs, measured SE is positive. If both the relays detect a
forward fault, it is an internal fault; else, it is an external fault.
The magnitude of SE depends on the fault type, location,
and resistance. Hence, it will be difficult to set the threshold
FIGURE 1. TCSC module used in the present work.
value for faulty phase selection. To deal with this problem,
energy coefficients (ECs) have been introduced and used for
fault classification. These ECs range from –1 to +1. During
the existence of superimposed components, if any phase pos-
sesses the magnitude of EC greater than 0.1, then that phase
is considered to be faulty. If more than one phase is found
faulty at any of the relay end, it is a multi-phase fault. The
criterion has been established using both the real and reactive
components of the power system. Results demonstrate that the
scheme is fast and robust against various uncertainties exist-
ing in the power system. Moreover, it does not require any
training (as required in ANN-based schemes) and is easy to
implement.
2. TCSC
A TCSC is a series-compensating device for which the re-
actance can be controlled by controlling the firing pulses of
thyristors. Both the inductive reactance and capacitive reac-
tance can be achieved by using a TCSC. Figure 1 shows the
circuit diagram of the TCSC used in the present work. It con-
sists of a parallel combination of a thyristor-controlled reactor
(TCR) and a capacitor. The metal oxide varistor (MOV) has
been used to provide the over-voltage protection to capacitor.
3. SE-BASED FAULT DETECTION SCHEME
3.1. Internal Fault
For an internal fault at a distance ρ from the sending end,
the equivalent superimposed component diagram of a two-
source power system is shown in Figure 2. Here, the effect
of shunt capacitances has been ignored as they carry very
small charging currents. However, the distributed model of a
transmission line is considered later, and all the results have
been taken on an actual system.
 Gupta and Tripathy: Superimposed Energy-based Fault Detection and Classification Scheme for Series-compensated Line 1097

FIGURE 2. Equivalent superimposed component power system for a fault at a distance of ρ (per unit) from the sending end.
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee], [Om Hari Gupta] at 10:00 09 June 2016

3.1.1. Capacitive Mode of TCSC

Consider the equivalent impedance of section F–x (ZFx ) to be
inductive (i.e., the capacitive reactance of the TCSC is less
than the total inductive reactance of the section F – x). Then
the corresponding phasor will be as shown in Figure 3(a).
Similarly, if the impedance of section F – x is capacitive, the
phasor will be as depicted in Figure 3(b).
There may be a condition where the overall impedance of
section F – x is resistive (i.e., the capacitive reactance of TCSC
is equal to the inductive reactance of section F – x). For this
situation, the phasor diagram will be as shown in Figure 3(c).
In the above three cases, Is leads the fault current by θ s
and Ir lags the fault current by θ r . The derivation according
to the capacitive mode TCSC is obtained as follows. Let the
voltage at fault-point vf and fault current if be

v f = Vf sin (ωt + α) ,
i f = I f sin (ωt + α − ϕ) ,

The superimposed currents at the receiving- and sending-end

relay buses are
ir = Ir sin (ωt + α − ϕ − θr ) ,
(1)
i s = Is sin (ωt + α − ϕ + θs ) = Is sin (ωt + θ ) ,
where θ = α – ϕ + θ s and α is the inception angle.
Applying Kirchhoff ’s law at node S of Figure 2,
di s
vs = −Rs i s − L s . (2)
dt
Substituting the value of is from Eq. (1) into Eq. (2),

vs = −Rs Is sin (ωt + θ ) − ωL s Is cos (ωt + θ ) . (3) FIGURE 3. Phasor diagrams for internal fault when (a) ZFx is
inductive, (b) ZFx is capacitive, and (c) ZFx is resistive.
Multiplying Eq. (3) by is gives

vs i s = −Rs Is2 sin2 (ωt + θ )

−ωL s Is2 sin (ωt + θ ) cos (ωt + θ ) . (4) similarly, for the receiving-end side,
Taking the integral of Eq. (4) for one cycle gives
 2π /ω  2π /ω
I 2 Rs π Ir2 Rr π
ET s = (vs i s ) dt = − s ; (5) ET r = (vr ir ) dt = − . (6)
0 ω 0 ω
 1098 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 44 (2016), No. 10
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FIGURE 4. Phasor for internal fault with inductive mode of
the TCSC.
It is clear that for an internal fault, SEs at both the ends are
negative. It is also clear that SE does not depend on the fault
inception angle.
3.1.2. Inductive Mode of TCSC
The phasor diagram for the condition when the TCSC is oper-
ating in inductive mode is depicted in Figure 4.
It is clear from Figure 4 that Is lags the fault current If by
θ s and that Ir leads the fault current by θ r . This condition
reveals that there are changes in the signs of θ s and θ r . How-
ever, the final outcome will be the same as that derived earlier
for an internal fault condition in capacitive mode of operation
of the TCSC.
3.2. External Fault
Consider an external fault behind the sending-end relay bus.
The corresponding equivalent diagram is shown in Figure 5.
For this case, the impedance of section F – y will always be
FIGURE 5. Equivalent superimposed component power system for an external fault.
inductive irrespective of the TCSC mode, as maximum capac-
itive reactance of TCSC can be 30–70 % of the line reactance.
The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in Figure 6.
Derivation for external fault has been obtained as follows.
Fault voltage vf and current if are given by
v f = Vf sin (ωt + α) ,
i f = I f sin (ωt + α − ϕ) .
From the phasor diagram of Figure 6, the equations for ir
and is are as follows:
ir = Ir sin (ωt + α − ϕ + θr ) ,
i s = Is sin (ωt + α − ϕ + θr + π ) ,
i s = −Is sin (ωt + α − ϕ + θr ) = −Is sin (ωt + ψ) ,
(7)
where ψ = α – ϕ + θ r and α is the inception angle.
Applying Kirchhoff ’s law at node S,
vs = −Rsr Is sin (ωt + ψ) − ωL sr Is cos (ωt + ψ) ,
(8)
where Rsr and Lsr are the equivalent resistance and inductance
in front of node S.
The equation of SE remains the same at receiving-end side.
However, the sending-end side equation of SE will come out
to be
 2π /ω
Is2 Rsr π
ET s = (vs i s ) dt = + . (9)
0 ω
So for an external fault, SE at one of the two ends will be
positive, as one relay will detect a reverse fault.
The measured voltage and current are passed through a
low-pass filter to reject high-frequency components. For this,
a Butterworth low-pass filter with cutoff frequency of 192 Hz
[14] is used. After extracting the superimposed components,
the algorithm checks for the occurrence of fault using the
following equation [22]:
i (n) ≥ 0.2I R , (10)
 Gupta and Tripathy: Superimposed Energy-based Fault Detection and Classification Scheme for Series-compensated Line 1099

each other, and a trip signal is generated. In the event of an

external fault at F 2 , relay n detects a forward fault and com-
municates with the other end, while relay m detects a reverse
fault. As one of the relay detects a reverse fault, it is considered
to be an external fault and no trip signal is generated. In this
scheme, the communication channel is used only when a fault
occurs in the power system.
For different fault locations and resistances, SE will be
different. Hence, it would be difficult to choose a threshold for
faulty phase selection. To solve this problem, the following
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee], [Om Hari Gupta] at 10:00 09 June 2016

ECs have been obtained for each phase at each end:

E T ma E T mb E T mc
K ma = , K mb = , K mc = (11)
ET m ET m ET m
E T na E T nb E T nc
K na = , K nb = , K nc = , (12)
ET n ET n ET n
FIGURE 6. Phasor diagram for an external fault.
where E T m = max (|E T ma |, |E T mb |, |E T mc |) and E T n =
max (|E T na |, |E T nb |, |E T nc |).
where i (n) = | |(i n − i n−N )| − |(i n−N − i n−2N )| |, in is the
Now, instead of using SE, these coefficients are used to
line current at the nth sample, N denotes the samples per cycle,
obtain the direction of fault as well as to classify the type of
and IR is the rated line current.
fault (basically these coefficients are representing the per unit
If the fault is detected using Eq. (10), the algorithm will
SE with a maximum absolute value of 1). The forward fault
select the SE with maximum absolute value from both ends. If
is detected if the sign of EC with maximum absolute value
SEs at both ends are found to be negative, it is an internal fault;
(i.e., 1) at a particular end is negative. To classify the type of
else, it is an external fault. With the use of ECs, this algorithm
fault, the magnitudes of these coefficients are compared with
has been applied to all three phases, which provides flexi-
threshold value Kth (which is set to 0.1 for this case). After the
bility of using single-pole tripping in case of a single-phase
inception of a fault at any stage, if the magnitude of coefficient
fault.
of any phase (e.g., |Kma |) is found to be greater than or equal
to threshold Kth , that phase is considered to be a faulty phase.
3.3. Implementation of the Relaying Scheme If more than one phase is found faulty, it is considered to be a
Figure 7 depicts the power system considered to test the capa- multi-phase fault. Single-pole tripping takes place only when
bility of the relaying scheme. The lengths of line A and line B a single-phase fault is detected.
are 10 and 100 km, respectively. The aim is to protect line B The flowchart of the relaying scheme is shown in Figure 8.
against internal faults. Relay m and relay n are the relays lo- The voltages and currents of all three phases are measured
cated at the ends of line B, which are connected to each other at both relay locations. These measured voltages and currents
via a communication channel. In the case of an internal fault are filtered to remove any transient components present in
at F 1 , both relays detect a forward fault and communicate with the measured signals. If fault is not detected using Eq. (10),

FIGURE 7. Single-line diagram of the test power system (line B is protected with the proposed scheme).
 1100 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 44 (2016), No. 10
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee], [Om Hari Gupta] at 10:00 09 June 2016
FIGURE 8. Flow diagram of the proposed relaying scheme.
the algorithm will return to the measurement block and all
calculated SEs and corresponding coefficients (if calculated
earlier) will be cleared. Otherwise, if the fault is detected in
the power system using Eq. (10), SEs of all the phases are
calculated and corresponding ECs are also calculated at both
relay ends using Eqs. (11) and (12). Now, the ECs with unity
(i.e., maximum) magnitudes are selected at both ends to detect
FIGURE 9. Current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of MOV
model used.
the direction of the fault. If these coefficients at both ends are
equal to –1, it is an internal fault; else, it is an external fault.
Further, to classify the fault type, the magnitudes of all three
ECs are compared with the threshold (0.1 for this case). If the
magnitude of EC of any phase (e.g., phase A at relay m) is
found to be more than the threshold, the corresponding phase
is considered faulty, and the fault indicator of that phase (ma)
will be 1; else, the corresponding phase is sound and the fault
indicator (ma) will be 0. Now, if the sum of all indicator values
(ma to nc) is equal to or greater than 3 (i.e., if any of the end
detects more than one faulty phase), it is a multi-phase fault;
else, it is a single-phase fault.
4. RESULTS
The test system used for simulation study is shown in Figure 7.
The lengths of line A and line B are 10 and 100 km, respec-
tively. A fault at point F 1 in line B is an internal fault, and a
fault at point F 2 in line A is an external fault. To test the capa-
bility of the relaying scheme for a TCSC-compensated trans-
mission line, the test system is simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC
(Manitoba HVDC Research Centre, Manitoba, Canada) and
the algorithm is implemented in MATLAB (The MathWorks,
Natick, Massachusetts, USA). The data of the test power sys-
tem used in this simulation study are given in Appendix A
[6]. The MOV model available in the PSCAD/EMTDC library
has been utilized in the simulation [23]. Typically, the MOV
protective levels are in the range of 2.0–2.5 per unit [24]. In
this study, the default ASEA XAP-A characteristics [23] have
been selected, as shown in Figure 9. The per unit MOV pro-
tective level has been chosen as per the maximum limit of
compensation by the TCSC, i.e., 70% [25].
4.1. Relaying Performance for Single-phase Fault
Table 1 shows the results obtained for a single-phase fault
(phase A) at different locations. Kma , Kmb , and Kmc are the
 Gupta and Tripathy: Superimposed Energy-based Fault Detection and Classification Scheme for Series-compensated Line 1101

Distance Kma Kmb Kmc Kna Knb Knc tm (ms) tn (ms) ma mb mc na nb nc

0 –1 –0.006 –0.006 –1 –0.000 –0.000 1 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
20 –1 –0.008 –0.008 –1 0.005 0.005 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
40 –1 –0.002 –0.002 –1 0.002 0.002 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
60 –1 0.003 0.003 –1 –0.000 –0.000 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
80 –1 0.009 0.009 –1 –0.003 –0.003 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
100 –1 0.004 0.004 –1 –0.003 –0.003 3 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
R0 1 –0.026 –0.026 –1 –0.000 –0.000 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
–5 1 –0.029 –0.029 –1 –0.006 –0.006 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
–10 1 –0.031 –0.031 –1 –0.017 –0.017 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee], [Om Hari Gupta] at 10:00 09 June 2016

TABLE 1. Obtained results for phase-A-to-ground (a-g) fault at different locations

ECs obtained at relay m for phases A, B, and C, respectively.
Similarly, Kna , Knb , and Knc are obtained at relay n. Distance R0
denotes the external fault behind relay m and at zero distance.
At relay m, the unit value of ma denotes the involvement of
phase A in the fault, while the zero values of mb and mc denote
no involvement of phases B and C in the fault. Similarly, at
relay n, the unit value of na denotes the involvement of phase
A in the fault, while the zero values of nb and nc denote no
involvement of phases B and C in the fault. The values of tm and
tn denote the time taken to detect and identify the direction of
the fault at relays m and n, respectively. The ECs are captured
at the moment when the fault is detected successfully.
As can be seen in Table 1, during all internal faults (i.e., with
positive distances), the ECs with maximum absolute values are
negative (i.e., –1) at both ends. These negative values indicate
that both relays detect a forward fault, which is ultimately a
condition of an internal fault. On the other hand, for reverse
faults, the ECs with a maximum absolute value are positive at
relay m. As both relays do not detect a forward fault, it is the
condition of an external fault. The ECs of healthy phases at
both relay ends are less than the set threshold value (i.e., 0.1)
and clearly classify the type of fault. It is clear from the results
of Table 1 that the relaying scheme successfully detects the
internal fault and classifies the type of fault.
4.2. Relaying Performance for Multi-phase Fault
The relaying scheme has been tested for two-phase and three-
phase faults at different locations, and the results are presented
in Tables 2 and 3. From the results of Tables 2 and 3, it is clear
that all internal faults have been detected and the fault types
have been classified successfully. In the case of a two-phase
fault, the sound phase has almost zero magnitude of EC (the
results have been truncated to three digits after the decimal
point).
In the case of internal three-phase faults, ECs with unity
magnitudes have negative signs, and for external three-phase
faults, ECs with unity magnitudes at relay m have positive
signs, which indicate reverse faults for relay m. Hence, the
scheme clearly differentiates between the internal and external
faults. Further, the relay successfully detects multi-phase faults
for all cases considered. Table 3 comprises the results obtained
for three-phase faults at different locations.
4.3. Relaying Performance for Different Fault
Resistances
Tables 4, 5, and 6 give the results for phase-A-to-ground faults
with different fault resistances (Rf = 10, 50, and 100 Ω). It
is clear from the results of Tables 4, 5, and 6 that the relying

Distance (km) Kma Kmb Kmc Kna Knb Knc tm (ms) tn (ms) ma mb mc na nb nc
0 –0.999 –1 0.000 –1 –0.999 0.000 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
20 –0.999 –1 0.000 –1 –0.999 0.000 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
40 –0.999 –1 0.000 –1 –0.999 0.000 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
60 –0.999 –1 0.000 –1 –1 0.000 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
80 –0.999 –1 0.000 –1 –1 0.000 2 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
100 –0.999 –1 0.000 –1 –1 0.000 2 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
R0 1 0.999 0.000 –0.998 –1 0.000 2 2 1 1 0 1 1 0
–5 1 0.999 0.000 –0.998 –1 0.000 2 2 1 1 0 1 1 0
–10 1 0.999 0.000 –0.998 –1 0.000 2 2 1 1 0 1 1 0

TABLE 2. Obtained results for two-phase fault at different locations

 1102 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 44 (2016), No. 10

Distance (km) Kma Kmb Kmc Kna Knb Knc tm (ms) tn (ms) ma mb mc na nb nc
0 –0.332 –1 –0.177 –0.449 –1 –0.109 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
20 –0.264 –1 –0.234 –0.453 –1 –0.095 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0
40 –0.330 –1 –0.180 –0.327 –1 –0.183 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
60 –0.313 –1 –0.182 –0.276 –1 –0.223 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
80 –0.197 –1 –0.310 –0.220 –1 –0.280 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
100 –0.142 –1 –0.394 –0.081 –1 –0.504 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
R0 0.339 1 0.173 –0.289 –1 –0.212 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
–5 0.367 1 0.153 –0.309 –1 –0.198 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
–10 0.398 1 0.135 –0.342 –1 –0.176 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee], [Om Hari Gupta] at 10:00 09 June 2016

TABLE 3. Obtained results for three-phase fault at different locations

Distance (km) Kma Kmb Kmc Kna Knb Knc tm (ms) tn (ms) ma mb mc na nb nc
0 –1 –0.006 –0.006 –1 0.000 0.000 1 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
20 –1 –0.008 –0.008 –1 0.006 0.006 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
40 –1 –0.002 –0.002 –1 0.002 0.002 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
60 –1 0.003 0.003 –1 –0.000 –0.000 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
80 –1 0.010 0.010 –1 –0.003 –0.003 3 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
100 –1 0.006 0.006 –1 –0.007 –0.007 3 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
R0 1 –0.026 –0.026 –1 0.000 0.000 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
–5 1 –0.029 –0.029 –1 –0.005 –0.005 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
–10 1 –0.033 –0.033 –1 –0.016 –0.016 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0

TABLE 4. Results obtained for a-g faults with Rf = 10 Ω

Distance (km) Kma Kmb Kmc Kna Knb Knc tm (ms) tn (ms) ma mb mc na nb nc
0 –1 –0.012 –0.012 –1 0.003 0.003 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
20 –1 –0.008 –0.009 –1 0.006 0.006 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
40 –1 –0.003 –0.003 –1 0.002 0.002 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
60 –1 0.002 0.002 –1 –0.000 –0.000 3 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
80 –1 0.011 0.011 –1 –0.004 –0.004 3 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
100 –1 0.011 0.011 –1 –0.007 –0.007 4 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
R0 1 –0.029 –0.029 –1 0.005 0.005 3 3 1 0 0 1 0 0
–5 1 –0.033 –0.033 –1 0.003 0.003 3 3 1 0 0 1 0 0
–10 1 –0.038 –0.038 –1 0.002 0.002 3 3 1 0 0 1 0 0

TABLE 5. Results obtained for a-g faults with Rf = 50 Ω

Distance (km) Kma Kmb Kmc Kna Knb Knc tm (ms) tn (ms) ma mb mc na nb nc
0 –1 –0.012 –0.012 –1 0.005 0.005 2 3 1 0 0 1 0 0
20 –1 –0.009 –0.009 –1 0.007 0.007 2 3 1 0 0 1 0 0
40 –1 –0.003 –0.003 –1 0.002 0.002 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
60 –1 0.002 0.002 –1 –0.001 –0.001 3 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
80 –1 0.011 0.011 –1 –0.004 –0.004 4 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
100 –1 0.011 0.013 –1 –0.007 –0.007 13 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
R0 1 –0.030 –0.030 –1 0.007 0.007 3 3 1 0 0 1 0 0
–5 1 –0.034 –0.033 –1 0.007 0.007 4 4 1 0 0 1 0 0
–10 1 –0.043 –0.042 –1 –0.001 0.000 13 13 1 0 0 1 0 0

TABLE 6. Results obtained for a-g faults with Rf = 100 Ω

 Gupta and Tripathy: Superimposed Energy-based Fault Detection and Classification Scheme for Series-compensated Line 1103
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FIGURE 11. Phase A MOV current for a forward a-g fault at

40 km.

the fault and its direction. Hence, the relaying scheme is unaf-
fected by the presence of sub-synchronous components (which
is clear from Figure 10), and the relay successfully detects the
internal fault. Following formula can be used to determine the
sub-synchronous frequency [27]:
1
fr =  , (13)
2π L f C T C SC
where LF is the equivalent inductance up to the fault point, and
CTCSC is the equivalent TCSC capacitance. Table 7 presents
FIGURE 10. Voltage, current, superimposed voltage, and su- the approximate values of sub-synchronous frequencies with
perimposed current waveforms of phase A (filtered and at the fault distance variations observed at relay m. It can be seen
secondary sides of CT and VT) and ECs at relay m for a forward in the results included in Tables 1–6 that the relaying scheme
a-g fault at 40 km.
successfully detects the fault direction for all fault locations
given in Table 7.
scheme successfully detects the internal faults up to 100-Ω
fault resistance. Also, the type of fault has been successfully 4.5. Effect of Inductive Mode of TCSC
classified, which helps in single-pole tripping. The fault indi- It has been shown in the derivation that the relaying scheme
cators ma and na are 1 in all cases, and all other indicators are is independent of the mode of operation of the TCSC as it
zero. This clearly indicates successful classification of an a-g depends on the real components of the power system. The
fault. results of Table 8 clearly indicate that the relaying scheme is
unaffected by the TCSC mode and successfully detects the
4.4. Effect of the Sub-synchronous Resonance internal faults. Further, it is able to classify the type of fault.
The presence of a TCSC in the transmission line (when work- The unit values of fault indicators ma and na indicate the
ing in capacitive mode) introduces the sub-synchronous fre- involvement of phase A in the fault while all other indicators
quency [26] during fault disturbances, as seen in Figure 10. are zero. The detection time is also less than 5 ms for this case.
The corresponding MOV current of phase A is depicted in Fig-
ure 11. Superimposed quantities are obtained by subtracting
one cycle past value from its present value; i.e., superimposed Distance from Sub-synchronous
quantities should exist for one cycle after the inception of S.N. relay m (km) frequency (Hz)
fault. However, in Figure 10, superimposed quantities (voltage 1 20 40
and current) exist for more than one cycle due to the pres- 2 40 35
ence of sub-synchronous frequency (which is nearly 35 Hz 3 60 32
for this case). The SE due to these sub-synchronous compo- 4 80 30
nents is negligible in comparison to that of the fundamental 5 100 27
component. Sub-synchronous frequency causes negative SE
for forward faults and vice versa, as its existence depends on TABLE 7. Sub-synchronous frequencies with distance variations
 1104 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 44 (2016), No. 10

Distance (km) Kma Kmb Kmc Kna Knb Knc tm (ms) tn (ms) ma mb mc na nb nc
0 –1 –0.006 –0.006 –1 –0.000 –0.000 1 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
20 –1 –0.007 –0.007 –1 0.006 0.006 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
40 –1 –0.003 –0.003 –1 0.004 0.004 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
60 –1 0.004 0.004 –1 –0.000 –0.000 3 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
80 –1 0.006 0.006 –1 –0.002 –0.002 3 2 1 0 0 1 0 0
100 –1 0.002 0.002 –1 –0.002 –0.002 4 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
R0 1 –0.022 –0.022 –1 –0.000 –0.000 2 3 1 0 0 1 0 0
–5 1 –0.024 –0.024 –1 –0.005 –0.005 2 3 1 0 0 1 0 0
–10 1 –0.037 –0.037 –1 –0.015 –0.015 2 3 1 0 0 1 0 0
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TABLE 8. Obtained results for a-g fault at different locations for inductive mode

4.6. Effect of Change in TCSC Location
To test the performance of the relaying scheme against TCSC
location variations, the TCSC has been placed in the middle
of line B of Figure 7. For a forward a-g fault 80 km from relay
m, Figure 12 depicts different plots of results obtained at relay
m. As the EC with maximum magnitude at relay m is –1, it is
clear that the relaying scheme is unaffected from the change
in TCSC location and successfully detects the direction of the
FIGURE 12. Voltage, current, superimposed voltage, and su-
perimposed current waveforms of phase A (filtered and at the
secondary sides of CT and VT) and ECs at relay m for a forward
a-g fault at 80 km.
fault. Further, a phase A fault is detected as the ECs of phases
B and C are less than the threshold value (i.e., 0.1).
4.7. Effect of Load Change
If a load change of less than 20% occurs, the relay will not cal-
culate SE and no detection of direction takes place. Moreover,
to test the robustness of the scheme against load changes, 50%
load has been reduced at end n. As this load variation is more
than the threshold value of Eq. (10), i.e., more than 20% of
the rated line current, the relay will consider it as a fault in the
power system and will start calculating the ECs to find the di-
rection of suspected fault. Relay n should detect a reverse fault
because the load change has occurred behind relay n. As per
the criterion, if one of the relays detects a reverse fault, it will
be considered as an external disturbance. For 50% load reduc-
tion at relay n, Figure 13 shows three-phase voltages, currents,
their superimposed values, and ECs at end n. The maximum
value out of all three ECs is +1, which indicates the detection
of a reverse disturbance at relay n. Therefore, as one of the
relays detects a reverse fault, the load reduction is identified
as an external disturbance. The relay will return with a similar
conclusion if, instead of removing the load, a large block of
load is applied suddenly. Figure 14 shows the results taken for
a 50% increase in the rated load. The maximum value out of
all three ECs is +1 at relay n, which again indicates a reverse
disturbance, and thus, this change of 50% load is treated as an
outside disturbance.
For different levels of load variations, Table 9 presents the
decision taken by the scheme in response to load variations at
end n; i.e., a disturbance due to load change occurs in the for-
ward direction of relay m and in the reverse direction of relay
n. It is clear from Table 9 that for a load variation of ±10%, no
EC is calculated, as this change is in the range of ±20%. For
load variations above ±20%, the EC with maximum magni-
tude at end m [ECm (max)] is –1 (i.e., forward disturbance), and
the EC with maximum magnitude at end n [ECn (max)] is +1
 Gupta and Tripathy: Superimposed Energy-based Fault Detection and Classification Scheme for Series-compensated Line 1105
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FIGURE 13. Voltage, current, superimposed voltage, and su- FIGURE 14. Voltage, current, superimposed voltage, and su-
perimposed current waveforms at end n (filtered and at the perimposed current waveforms at end n (filtered and at the
secondary sides of CT and VT) and ECs at relay n for 50% secondary sides of CT and VT) and ECs at relay n for sudden
load reduction. application of 50% of rated load.

(i.e., reverse disturbance). As relay n detects a reverse distur- up the threshold. Usually, in the practical power system, source
bance, the decision made by the scheme is an external dis- impedance is not always constant, which makes this scheme
turbance. Therefore, the scheme is unaffected from the load vulnerable to the source impedance variations. Moreover, the
variations, even if the load change exceeds the limit described schemes of [28, 30] used the communication channel all the
in Eq. (10), i.e., 20% of rated value. time.
Another high-speed directional-based scheme was pro-
4.8. Comparison with Existing Schemes posed in [14] that is applicable to the TCSC-compensated
Fault component integrated impedance (FCII) based schemes line and is of high speed. However, the scheme depends on
were proposed in [28, 29]. For an internal fault, FCII is very the fault inception angle; the duration of establishment of the
small, and for an external fault, FCII is large. The scheme criterion can be as small as 2.2 milliseconds. The proposed
clearly identifies the faults inside the protective zone even if the
fault resistances are very high. However, its dependability on
the source impedance makes it vulnerable to the large changes Load change (% of rated) ECm (max) ECn (max) Decision
in the system. On the other hand, the scheme presented in this
+10 — — —
article is independent of the source impedance variations and +30 –1 +1 External
only requires knowledge of the rated line current. +40 –1 +1 External
A fault component integrated power (FCIP) based pilot +50 –1 +1 External
relaying scheme was proposed in [30]. The FCIP is the sum –10 – – —
of real components of apparent powers at local and remote –30 –1 +1 External
ends. If the FCIP is negative, it is an internal fault; else, it –40 –1 +1 External
–50 –1 +1 External
is an external fault. The proposal describes a useful scheme
for transmission line protection. The scheme proposed in [30]
required information about source parameters before setting TABLE 9. Decision made by the scheme for load variations
 1106 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 44 (2016), No. 10
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FIGURE 15. Comparison with scheme of [6] for a fault in line
B 90 km from relay m.
scheme, on the contrary, is independent of the inception angle,
which is clear from Eqs. (5) and (6).
In [6], a directional relaying scheme was proposed for a
TCSC-compensated line that used three positive-sequence-
based classifiers and a voting technique to distinguish between
forward and reverse faults. First, the classifier uses the an-
gle between the positive-sequence components of current and
voltage (φ 1 ). Second, the classifier uses the angle between
the positive-sequence superimposed voltage and current (φ 2 ).
Third, the classifier is based on the angle between the positive-
sequence components of fault current and pre-fault current
(φ 3 ). In the case of forward or reverse fault, at least two
classifiers will estimate the correct direction, and using the
voting technique method, a final decision is made. To com-
pare the scheme presented in this study with the scheme of
[6], a numerical result is obtained for a phase-A-to-C fault
90 km from relay n in line B; the comparative result is pre-
sented in Figure 15. The pre-fault φ 1 is 0.0604 radian (3.46◦ ),
whereas pre-fault φ 2 and φ 3 are zero. A decision should be
made only if any two out of three classifiers (φ 1 , φ 2 , and
φ 3 ) cross a certain threshold value. There should be certain
threshold settings for classifiers to detect the changes in the
classifier values as there can be small fluctuations during the
pre-fault condition due to load variations, etc. Assuming a
threshold of 0.0604 radian (equal to pre-fault φ 1 ), the scheme
of [6] detects the direction of fault at time t2 (1.007 sec), and
if the threshold changes, the detection time may further in-
crease (considering that the assumed threshold, 3.46◦ , is very
small and makes the scheme vulnerable to the small changes
in the system). On the other hand, the scheme presented in
this article detects the fault direction at time t1 (1.002 sec),
i.e., as soon as the relay satisfies the condition of Eq. (10).
In all cases considered for the performance investigation of
the proposed relaying scheme, the detection time is nearly 5
milliseconds. Hence, the proposed relaying scheme is faster
than that of [6]. Furthermore, the scheme of [6] is not able to
classify the type of fault as it is based on positive-sequence
components.
Overall, the comparison reveals that the scheme presented
in this study is fast, independent of the source impedance
variations, and independent of other external changes in the
system, whereas (1) the schemes of [28, 30] depend on source
impedance, (2) the scheme of [14] depends on the fault incep-
tion angle, and (3) the scheme of [6] does not classify the type
of fault.
4.9. Effect of Change in Compensation Level
In Sections 4.1–4.4 and 4.6–4.8, 48% TCSC capacitive com-
pensation is used, and in Section 4.5, 32% TCSC inductive
compensation is used. The results have been obtained using
these two modes of operation, which clearly show the effec-
tiveness of the relaying scheme. To further investigate the ef-
fectiveness of the relaying scheme against change in compen-
sation level, the TCSC is now operated in capacitive boost
mode with a 70% compensation level. In case of 70% com-
pensation, the rated secondary current IR changes to 5.04 A
(peak). So the threshold setting of current in Eq. (10) will
be 1.008 A. The scheme was found to work correctly, and
for a forward ab inter-phase fault at 60 km, different wave-
forms of phase A and ECs at relay m are presented in Fig-
ure 16. It can be seen in the figure that after fault inception,
EC magnitudes of phases A and B at relay m are more than the
threshold value, and the EC with maximum magnitude is –1.
Therefore, a multi-phase forward fault is detected by relay m.
Similarly, at relay n, a multi-phase forward fault is detected,
and it is considered to be a multi-phase internal fault. As both
the line current and compensation level have increased, the
MOV will conduct most often and draws more current during
the fault, in turn changing the effective TCSC impedance as
shown in Figure 17. This is the reason behind small oscil-
lations (or small sub-synchronous frequency) in the current
waveform.
In Section 4.10, 30% TCSC capacitive compensation is
provided in the middle of line B (Figure 18). Overall, four
compensation levels have been used: 30% capacitive, 32% in-
ductive, 48% capacitive, and 70% capacitive. The performance
of the proposed relaying scheme has been found to be accurate
in all cases.
 Gupta and Tripathy: Superimposed Energy-based Fault Detection and Classification Scheme for Series-compensated Line
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FIGURE 16. Voltage, current, superimposed voltage, and su-
perimposed current waveforms of phase A (filtered and at the
secondary sides of CT and VT) and ECs at relay m for a forward
fault at 60 km.
4.10. Relaying Performance for Long Transmission Line
A transmission network with two line sections of 250 km (line
B, to be protected) and 50 km (line A) has been simulated to test
the effectiveness of the relaying scheme on a long transmission
line. The per unit transmission line parameters remain the same
as previous. The load angle has been increased from 30◦ to 45◦ .
With the compensation level of 30%, the TCSC is connected
in the middle of line B, as shown in Figure 18. The rated
secondary current IR is 3.42 A (peak), so the threshold setting
of current in Eq. (10) will be 0.684 A. Figures 19 and 20
FIGURE 17. TCSC dynamic impedance in response to a dis-
turbance at time 0.5 sec.
1107
depict different waveforms and ECs obtained for a phase A
fault at F 1 (forward 150 km from relay m) and at F 2 (reverse
25 km from relay m). It is clear from both figures that for a
forward fault, the EC at relay m with maximum absolute value
is –1, and for a reverse fault, the EC at relay m with maximum
absolute value is +1. However, at relay n, both were detected
as a forward fault. Hence, for an internal fault at F 1 , both
relays detect a forward fault and generate a trip signal. Though
the sub-synchronous frequency exists, which can be seen in
Figure 19, the change in line length does not affect the relaying
scheme and successfully detects the internal faults.
4.11. Communication Delay and Speed of the Relaying
A relay must detect the fault within the specified time (i.e.,
three cycles) [31]. The relaying scheme has been tested us-
ing the synchronized samples of both ends obtained from
PSCAD/EMTDC simulations. However, the speed of the re-
laying also depends on the carrier that is used to carry the
data from the remote end to the local end. High-speed com-
munication channels are employed in newly built transmission
lines [32]. With the availability of optical fibers of low re-
fractive index (approximately 1.52) [33], the signal takes less
than 0.6 ms to reach the distance of 100 km [34]. Further, the
encoding and decoding delays are also present (approximately
4 ms). Therefore, less than 10 ms are required for communi-
cation even if the transmission line is 300 km long. From the
obtained results, it is clear that both relays take nearly 5 ms to
detect the fault direction when synchronized data are used. If
the communication delay is also included, the relay would still
be able to detect internal fault within 20 ms (one cycle for a
50-Hz power system).
5. DISCUSSION
Generally, the real components of the power system are ig-
nored while deriving the criterion of protection; however, in
this work, both the real and the reactive components have been
considered while establishing the criterion. The advantage of
the relaying scheme is that it uses the communication channel
only when there is a fault in the power system. Further, the
criterion establishes immediately after the inception of fault
and provides both the fault detection and classification in less
than 10 ms. Including channel delay, encoding delay, and de-
coding delay, the fault is detected within one cycle of power
frequency. The relaying scheme is not only fast, but it is also
unaffected from the transients because the low-pass filter has
been used to filter out the high-frequency transients. Moreover,
the criterion is adaptive to system changes and only needs to
update the threshold value of Eq. (10) in case there is any
change in the line parameters or load.
 1108 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 44 (2016), No. 10
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FIGURE 18. Mid-point TCSC-compensated transmission line (line B) protected with proposed scheme.
FIGURE 19. Voltage, current, superimposed voltage, and su-
perimposed current waveforms of phase A (filtered and at the
secondary sides of CT and VT) and ECs at relay m for a forward
fault at 150 km.
6. CONCLUSION
An internal fault detection and fault classification relaying
scheme has been proposed in this study. ECs have been used
to obtain the direction of fault, and if both relays detect a for-
ward fault, then it is considered to be an internal fault. If any
phase possesses a magnitude of EC less than 0.1, then that par-
ticular phase is considered sound. Single-pole tripping can be
used if there is a single-phase fault; if it is a multi-phase fault,
all three phases have to be tripped. The performance of the re-
FIGURE 20. Voltage, current, superimposed voltage, and su-
perimposed current waveforms of phase A (filtered and at the
secondary sides of CT and VT) and ECs at relay m for a reverse
fault at 25 km.
laying scheme has been analyzed using PSCAD/EMTDC sim-
ulations, and it was found that the scheme successfully detects
the internal faults and also correctly classifies the type of fault.
Furthermore, the scheme was found to be accurate and robust
against sub-synchronous resonance, voltage/current reversals,
and variations in TCSC mode, TCSC location, compensation
level, line length, fault resistance, and fault location. More-
over, the scheme is fast enough to detect the internal fault well
 Gupta and Tripathy: Superimposed Energy-based Fault Detection and Classification Scheme for Series-compensated Line
within one cycle, including delays in communication, encod-
ing, and decoding.
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[32] Xu, Z. Y., Du, Z. Q., Ran, L., Wu, Y. K., Yang, Q. X., and He, J.
L., “A current differential relay for a 1000-kv uhv transmission
line,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 1392–1399,
July 2007.
[33] Hecht, E., Optics. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley, Chap. 5, 2002.
[34] Gupta, O. H., and Tripathy, M., “An innovative pilot relaying
scheme for shunt-compensated line,” IEEE Trans. Power Del.,
Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 1439–1448, June 2015.
[35] Ram, B., and Vishwakarma, D. N., Power System Protection and
Switchgear, Vol. 1.,: New Delhi, India: McGraw-Hill Education
(India) Pvt. Limited, 2011.
APPENDIX A: DATA FOR TEST POWER SYSTEM
Transmission line and source: 50 Hz, R1 = 0.018 /km,
L1 = 1.178 mH/km, R0 = 0.360 /km, L0 = 3.885 mH/km,
C 1 = 14.020 nF/km, C 0 = 9.220 nF/km; two identical
sources are of 400 kV, Rs1 = 1.430 , Ls1 = 51.590 mH,
Rs0 = 3.070 , and Ls0 = 91.490 mH; length of line A =
10 km, length of line B = 100 km.
TCSC: main capacitor = 179 μF, TCR inductance = 9 mH,
phase-locked loop (PLL) proportional gain = 30, and PLL
integral gain = 300; the TCSC is working at β = 159.3◦ for
capacitive mode and β = 132◦ for inductive mode; ZTCSC =
17.8  in capacitive mode and 11.98 Ω in inductive mode;
current reversal takes place for forward faults at a distance
up to 1.2 km and voltage reversal up to 70 km.
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Rated primary current is 2.78 kA (peak) and rated primary
voltage is 319.56 kV (peak per phase); rated secondary
current IR is 4.377 A (peak), so the threshold setting of the
current in Eq. (10) will be 0.8754 A; rated secondary voltage
at the relay bus is 100.9 V; current transformer (CT) ratio is
3000 A/5A; voltage transformer (VT) ratio is 3000, and VT
is used because the transient performance of capacitor VT is
inferior [35].
BIOGRAPHIES
Om Hari Gupta received his M.Tech. in electrical engi-
neering with specialization in power electronics and ap-
plication specific integrated circuit (ASIC) design from
MN National Institute of Technology, Allahabad, India,
in 2011. Currently, he is pursuing his Ph.D. in elec-
trical engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee, India. He has more than 3 years of teaching expe-
rience. His research interests include power system compen-
sation and protection, control of drives, and soft computing
applications.
Manoj Tripathy received his B.E. in electrical engineering
from Nagpur University, Nagpur, India, in 1999; his M.Tech. in
instrumentation and control from Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, India, in 2002; and his Ph.D. in electrical engineering
from the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, In-
dia, in 2008. He is currently working as an assistant professor
in the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute
of Technology Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India. He is a reviewer
for various international journals in the area of power systems
and speech processing. His fields of interest are wavelets, neu-
ral networks, optimization techniques, content-based image
retrieval, digital instrumentation, digital protective relays, and
digital speech processing.