Module 2 – Sensors

Very cool pics for MEMS Accel and cool exercise

(slide 4) Accelerometers and gyroscopes are the sensors of choice for acquiring acceleration
and rotational information in drones, cellphones, automobiles, airplanes, and mobile IoT
devices.
However, both accelerometers and gyroscopes are prone to errors, including noise and drift,
respectively, requiring designers to employ novel approaches to achieve optimal accuracy.
One of these approaches includes sensor fusion. This course will evaluate the accelerometer
and gyroscope independently to see how these noise and drift errors occur. It will then introduce
examples of each type of sensor and show how to use sensor fusion techniques to combine
the results of these two sensors and reduce the impact of these errors.

An accelerometer measures all linear forces that are working on an object with units of
millivolts/g (mV/g). A moving object can exhibit dynamic motion such as acceleration, along
with gravity as a continuous static force. By attaching an accelerometer to an object, its
acceleration and the gravitational pull acting on the object can be measured. However,
accelerometers have a tendency to exhibit position errors over time.

The gyroscope gives the rate of change of angular velocity over time that is working on an
object with units of mV per degree per second (mV/deg/sec). By attaching the gyroscope to an
object, the sensor smoothly measures that object’s angular changes, but gyroscopes exhibit a
steadily growing angular error, which like accelerometers, increases over time.

Many accelerometers and gyroscopes are fabricated using micro-electromechanical systems

(MEMS). The production process for the MEMS sensor combines silicon and mechanical
functions on the same micrometer silicon substrate. The major components in these devices
are the mechanical elements, the sensing mechanism and the application specific integrated
circuit (ASIC).

(slide 5) One of the most common inertial sensors is the accelerometer, a dynamic sensor
capable of a vast range of sensing.

(slide 6) There are two classes of accelerometers in general:

AC-response and DC-response.
In an AC-response accelerometer, as the name implies, the output is ac coupled. An AC
coupled device cannot be used to measure static acceleration such as gravity and constant
centrifugal acceleration, for example. It is only suitable for measuring dynamic events.
A DC-response accelerometer, on the other hand, is dc coupled, and can respond down to zero
Hertz. It therefore can be used to measure static, as well as dynamic acceleration. Measuring
static acceleration is not the only reason a DC-response accelerometer should be selected,
however.
Total description of Accs of dif types https://www.te.com/usa-en/industries/sensor-
solutions/insights/types-of-accelerometers.html

(slide 8) The majority of vibration studies require the knowledge of acceleration, velocity, and
displacement - the important variables that engineers seek in designing or validating a
structure. Generally speaking, the g value provides a good reference, but velocity and
displacement are the variables needed in most design calculations. To derive velocity and
displacement from the acceleration output, the signal from the accelerometer is integrated and
double integrated respectively in the analog or digital domain. Here is where an AC-response
accelerometer may run into trouble. To illustrate the problem, picture when an AC- response
accelerometer is used to measure a long duration half-sine input pulse. The output of this device
can never quite track the peak of the half-sine input because of the intrinsic limitation imposed
by its RC time constant. At the end of the half-sine pulse, the output of the ac coupled
accelerometer will produce an undershoot (offset) for the very same reason. The red trace in
the figure below depicts the output of an AC coupled device following a long duration half-sine
input.
These seemingly small amplitude deviations can result in significant errors during numerical
integration1. A DC-response device has no such problem because it can follow the slow-moving
input accurately. In real day-to-day applications, physical inputs do not resemble half-sine
impulses, but the basic problem remains whenever one needs to track slow motion with an AC
coupled device. Now, let’s look at the various popular accelerometer technologies.

(slide 12) The most common AC-response accelerometers use piezoelectric elements for their
sensing mechanism. Under acceleration, the seismic mass of the accelerometer causes the
piezoelectric element to “displace” a charge, producing an electrical output proportional; to
acceleration. Electrically, the piezoelectric elements look like a source capacitor with a finite
internal resistance, typically in the order of 109 ohms. This forms the RC time constant which
defines the high-pass characteristics of the device. For this reason, piezoelectric accelerometer
cannot be used to measure static events. Piezoelectric elements can be natural or man-
made. They come with varying degrees of transduction efficiency and linearity characteristics.
Two types of piezoelectric accelerometer are available on the market – charge output type and
voltage output type.

(slide 13) The majority of the piezoelectric sensors are based on lead zirconate titanate
ceramics (PZT) which offer very wide temperature range, broad dynamic range, and wide
bandwidth (usable to >10kHz). When housed in a hermetic, welded metal case, a charge mode
accelerometer can be considered one of the most durable sensors because of its ability to
tolerate hostile environmental conditions. Due to its high impedance characteristics, a charge
mode device must be used with a low-noise shielded cable, preferably in a coaxial
configuration. Low noise refers to low triboelectric noise 2, a motion induced spurious output
from the cable itself. These noise- treated cables are commonly available from the sensor
manufacturers. A charge amplifier is generally used to interface with charge mode
accelerometers to avoid problems associated with parallel cable capacitance. With a modern
charge amplifier, the broad dynamic range (>120 dB) of the charge mode sensors can be easily
realized. Due to the wide operating temperature range of piezoelectric ceramics, some charge
mode devices can be used from -200°C to +640°C and beyond. They are especially suitable
for use in vibration measurements at temperature extremes, such as in turbine engine
monitoring.

(slide 14) The other type of piezoelectric accelerometer provides voltage output instead of
charge. This is accomplished by incorporating the charge amplifier inside the housing of the
accelerometer. Voltage mode devices feature 3-wire (Signal, Ground, Power) mode or 2- wire
(Power/Signal, Ground) mode. The 2- wire mode is also known as Integral Electronics
PiezoElectric (IEPE). IEPE is most popular due to its convenient coaxial (two-wire)
configuration in which the ac signal is superimposed on the dc power line. A blocking capacitor
is needed to remove the dc bias from the sensor signal output. Many modern signal analyzers
provide the IEPE/ICP3 input option which allows a direct interface to IEPE accelerometers. If
the IEPE power option is not available, a signal conditioner/power supply with constant current
power is required to interface with this type of device. The 3-wire mode device requires a
separate dc power supply line for proper operation.
Unlike a charge mode device that only contains ceramic sensing element(s), voltage mode
device includes a microelectronic circuit which limits the operating temperature of the device to
the maximum operating temperature of the electronics, usually tops at +125°C. Some designs
push the limit to +175°C, but they come with compromises elsewhere in the performance
envelope.
A word on usable dynamic range - Due to the exceptionally wide dynamic range in piezoelectric
ceramic elements, charge mode accelerometers are most flexible in terms of scalability
because the system full scale range can be adjusted from the remote charge amplifier at the
user’s command. Voltage mode devices, on the other hand, have their full scale range pre-
determined by the internal amplifier at the factory and cannot be altered.
Piezoelectric accelerometers are available in very small footprint. They are therefore suited for
dynamic measurements in lightweight structures.

(slide 17) Capacitive type (based on the capacitance changes in the seismic mass under
acceleration) is the most common technology used for accelerometer today. They are made
popular by large commcerical applications such as air-bag and mobile devices. They employ
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) fabrication technology which brings economy of
scale to high volume applications, hence lower manufacturing cost. But this class of low-price
capacitive accelerometers typically suffers from poor signal to noise ratio and limited dynamic
range. One inherent characteristic with all capacitive devices is its internal clock. The clock
frequency (~500kHz) is an integral part of the current detection circuit, which is invariably
present in the output signal due to internal leakage. The high frequency noise may well be
outside of the acceleration measurement range of interest, but it is always there with the signal.
Due to its built-in amplifier/IC, its 3-wire (or 4- wire for differential output) electrical interface is
straight forward, requiring only a stable DC voltage source for power.
Bandwidth of capacitive accelerometer is mostly limited to a few hundred Hertz’s (some designs
offer up to 1500Hz) partly due to its physical geometry and its heavy gas damping. Capacitive
sensor structure also favors the lower range of acceleration measurement. Maximum range is
typically limited to less than 200g’s. Other than these restrictions, modern capacitive
accelerometers, especially the instrument grade devices, offer good linearity and high output
stability.
Capacitive type accelerometers are most suitable for on-board monitoring applications where
cost may be the driving factor. They are suited for measuring low frequency motion where the
g level is also low, such as vibration measurements in civil engineering.

(slide 18) Piezoresistive is the other commonly used sensing technology for DC-response
accelerometers. Instead of sensing the capacitance changes in the seismic mass (as in a
capacitive device), a piezoresistive accelerometer produces resistance changes in the strain
gages that are part of the accelerometer’s seismic system. Most engineers are familiar with
strain gage and know how to interface with its output. The output of most piezoresistive designs
is generally sensitive to temperature variation. It is therefore necessary to apply temperature
compensation to its output internally or externally. Modern piezoresistive accelerometers
incorporate ASIC for all forms of on board signal conditioning, as well as in- situ temperature
compensation.
Bandwidth of piezoresistive accelerometers can reach upwards of 7,000 Hz. Many of the
piezoresistive designs are either gas damped (MEMS types) or fluid damped (bonded strain
gage type). Damping characteristics can be an important factor in choosing an accelerometer.
In applications where the mechanical input may contain very high frequency input (or excite
high frequency response), a damped accelerometer can prevent sensor ringing (resonance)
and preserve or improve dynamic range. Because the piezoresistive sensor output is differential
and purely resistive, signal to noise performance is generally outstanding; its dynamic range is
limited only by the quality of the DC bridge amplifier. For very high g shock measurements,
some piezoresistive designs can handle acceleration levels well above 10,000g’s.
Due to its broader bandwidth capability, piezoresistive type accelerometers are most suitable
for impulse/impact measurements where frequency range and g level are typically high. Being
a DC-response device, one can accurately derive from its acceleration output the desired
velocity and displacement information without integration error. Piezoresistive accelerometers
are commonly used in automotive safety testing, weapons testing, and higher shock range
measurements beyond the usable range of VC accelerometers.

(slide 20) A common MEMS sensing technique is to use on-chip variable capacitors. In motion,
the green fixed plates remain static while the orange mass flexes along the acceleration axis.
With this movement, the capacitance values C1 and C2 change with the changing distance
between the fixed plate and mass.
Quantitively, the change of the C1 and C2 values depends on the distance between the
capacitor plates, d
The key variable in Equation 1 is d. This change in distance stays constant with constant
acceleration and gravitational pull. When the sensor is still, or reaches a state of constant
velocity, the structure relaxes. However, the gravitational pull still exists.

(slide 21) As a single unit, the value of these capacitors can be in the sub-picofarad (pF) range.
Placing multiple plates in parallel increases the values to a usable range.

(slide 22) The sensing mechanism for all three accelerometers is again capacitive.
…Subsequently, the accelerometer will not respond to angular velocity.
The LIS2DW12TR is a MEMS 3D accelerometer with a digital output and four different
operating modes: high resolution, normal, low power and power down.
Acc Summary
Each accelerometer sensing technology has its advantages and compromises. Before making
a selection, it’s important to understand the basic differences of the various types and the test
requirements.

Good brief overview of Accels and its interesting types -

https://sensorwiki.org/sensors/accelerometer

First and foremost, choose only DC-response accelerometers to measure static or very low
frequency (<1Hz) acceleration, or if velocity and displacement information are to be extracted
from the acceleration data. Both DC and AC-response accelerometers are capable of
measuring dynamic events. When dealing only with dynamic measurement, the choice between
a DC or AC response device is really a matter of preference. Some users don’t like to deal with
the zero offset of a DC- response sensor and prefer the ac coupled, single-ended output of the
piezoelectric types. Others don’t mind dealing with the zero offset and four wires (or 3-wire if in
single-ended mode) and like the shunt calibration and built- in functional test (2g turnover)
capabilities of DC-response accelerometers. In summary:
Charge mode piezoelectric design is the most durable accelerometer type due to its simple
construction and robust material properties.
For high temperature (>150°C) dynamic measurement applications, charge mode piezoelectric
is an obvious choice; or in most cases, the only choice. With charge mode device, a low-noise
coaxial cable should be used due to its high impedance output, and a remote charge amplifier
(or an inline charge converter) to condition its charge output.
Voltage mode piezoelectric is the most popular type of accelerometer for dynamic
measurements. It offers small size, broad bandwidth and a built-in charge converter which
allows direct interface with many modern signal analyzers and data acquisition systems (those
that offer integrated IEPE/ICP power source). Voltage mode piezoelectric is typically limited to
<125°C applications, but it is no longer necessary to use a low-noise coaxial cable due to its
low impedance output.
Capacitive design features critically damped to overdamped response which lends itself to low
frequency measurements. The low cost, SMD class of devices is suited for high volume
automotive and consumer applications where ultimate accuracy is not a priority. The more
expensive instrumentation grade silicon MEMS capacitive accelerometers have good bias
stability and very low noise. Capacitive accelerometers have low impedance output and ±2V to
±5V full scale output. Most designs require a regulated dc voltage for power.
Piezoresistive accelerometers are versatile in terms of their frequency and dynamic range
capabilities. Being a DC-response device, it can handle static acceleration and produce
accurate velocity and displacement data. Its broad bandwidth also covers most dynamic
measurement needs. Piezoresistive designs offer various degree of damping (from ζ =0.1 to
0.8) response which makes it suitable for use in a variety of test conditions, including shock
testing. Plain piezoresistive accelerometers (without electronics) are small and lightweight, with
a ±100 to ±200mV full scale output. The amplified models (with built-in ASIC) feature low output
impedance (<100Ω) and ±2V to ±5V full scale output.

(slide 26) Analog vs. digital: The most important specification of an accelerometer for a given
application is its type of output. Analog accelerometers output a constant variable voltage
depending on the amount of acceleration applied. Older digital accelerometers output a variable
frequency square wave, a method known as pulse-width modulation. A pulse width modulated
accelerometer takes readings at a fixed rate, typically 1000 Hz (though this may be user-
configurable based on the IC selected). The value of the acceleration is proportional to the
pulse width (or duty cycle) of the PWM signal. Newer digital accelerometers are more likely to
output their value using multi-wire digital protocols such as I2C or SPI.
For use with ADCs commonly used for music interaction systems, analog accelerometers are
usually preferred.

Number of axes: Accelerometers are available that measure in one, two, or three dimensions.
The most familiar type of accelerometer measures across two axes. However, three-axis
accelerometers are increasingly common and inexpensive.

(slide 27) Output range: To measure the acceleration of gravity for use as a tilt sensor, an
output range of ±1.5 g is sufficient. For use as an impact sensor, one of the most common
musical applications, ±5 g or more is desired.
Sensitivity: An indicator of the amount of change in output signal for a given change in
acceleration. A sensitive accelerometer will be more precise and probably more accurate.
Dynamic range: The range between the smallest acceleration detectable by the accelerometer
to the largest before distorting or clipping the output signal.

(slide 28) Bandwidth: The bandwidth of a sensor is usually measured in Hertz and indicates
the limit of the near-unity frequency response of the sensor, or how often a reliable reading can
be taken. Humans cannot create body motion much beyond the range of 10-12 Hz. For this
reason, a bandwidth of 40-60 Hz is adequate for tilt or human motion sensing. For vibration
measurement or accurate reading of impact forces, bandwidth should be in the range of
hundreds of Hertz. It should also be noted that for some older microcontrollers, the bandwidth
of an accelerometer may extend beyond the Nyquist frequency of the A/D converters on the
MCU, so for higher bandwidth sensing, the digital signal may be aliased. This can be remedied
with simple passive low-pass filtering prior to sampling, or by simply choosing a better
microcontroller. It is worth noting that the bandwidth may change by the way the accelerometer
is mounted. A stiffer mounting (ex: using studs) will help to keep a higher usable frequency
range and the opposite (ex: using a magnet) will reduce it.
Amplitude stability: This is not a specification in itself, but a description of several. Amplitude
stability describes a sensor's change in sensitivity depending on its application, for instance
over varying temperature or time (see below).
Mass: The mass of the accelerometer should be significantly smaller than the mass of the
system to be monitored so that it does not change the characteristic of the object being tested.

(slide 30) It is further assumed that:

• The accelerometer has no linear acceleration . This assumption is needed to solve Equation
1 for the rotation matrix R and, in consequence, any linear acceleration from handshake or
other sources will introduce errors into the orientation estimate.
• The initial orientation of the smartphone is lying flat with the earth's gravitational field aligned
with the smartphone z-axis:
With these additional assumptions, the smartphone accelerometer output Gp (measured in the
native accelerometer units of g) is:

(slide 31) The orientation of the smartphone can be defined by its roll, pitch and yaw rotations
from an initial position. The roll, pitch and yaw rotation matrices, which transform a vector (such
as the earth's gravitational field vector g) under a rotation of the coordinate system of Figure 3
by angles φ in roll, θ in pitch and ψ in yaw about the x, y and z axes respectively, are:

(slide 32) There are six possible orderings of these three rotation matrices and, in principle, all
are equally valid. The rotation matrices do not, however, commute meaning that the composite
rotation matrix R depends on the order in which the roll, pitch and yaw rotations are applied.
It is instructive to compute the values of the six possible composite rotation matrices R and to
determine their effect on the earth's gravitational field of 1g initially aligned downwards along
the z-axis. You can find such derivations in the following article “NXP”.

Four of these rotation sequences can be immediately rejected as being unsuitable for
determining the smartphone orientation. The accelerometer output has three
components but, since the vector magnitude must always equal 1g in the absence of
linear acceleration, has just two degrees of freedom!
The accelerometer vector lies on the surface of a sphere with radius 1g. It is not therefore
possible to solve for three unique values of the roll, pitch and yaw angles. The four rotation
sequences in Equations 12 to 23 result in the accelerometer output being a function of all three
rotation angles and cannot therefore be solved.

In contrast, the two rotation sequences in Equations 6 to 11 depend only on the roll φ and pitch
θ angles and can be solved. The lack of any dependence on the yaw rotation angle ψ is easy
to understand physically since the first rotation is in yaw ψ around the smartphone z-axis which
is initially aligned with the gravitational field and pointing downwards. All accelerometers are
completely insensitive to rotations about the gravitational field vector (because in fact
they are gravitometers!) and cannot be used to determine such a rotation.

The unknown yaw angle ψ represents the smartphone rotation from north but its determination
requires the addition of a magnetometer sensor to create an eCompass.

(slide 35) The next complication to be addressed is that the expressions for the roll and pitch
angles in Equations 25 and 26 and Equations 28 and 29 have an infinite number of solutions
at multiples of 360°. Restricting the range of the roll and pitch angles to lie in the range -180°
to 180° helps somewhat but the next paragraph shows that this still leads to two unique
solutions for the roll and pitch angles.
Evaluating Equation 8 for pitch angle and roll angle and applying standard
trigonometric identities shows that the accelerometer measurement is the same as that
resulting from rotations and .

Similarly, evaluating Equation 11 for pitch angle and roll angle also shows that the
accelerometer measurement is identical to that resulting from rotations and .

The solution is to restrict either the roll or the pitch angle (but not both) to lie between -90° and
+90°. The convention used in the aerospace sequence is that the roll angle can range between
-180° to +180° but the pitch angle is restricted to -90° to +90°. The convention used by
Android™ smartphones and by Microsoft for its Windows 8 sensor platform is the reverse with
the roll angle restricted between -90° and 90° but the pitch angle able to range between -180°
and 180°.

(slide 36) The range of xyz is -90° to 90° so there is a unique solution for xyz in Equation 34.
In Equation 33, however, xyz can vary between -180° and 180° giving two possible solutions
of -5.29° and 174.71°. Comparison with Equation 24 shows that the required solution which
gives positive Gpy and negative Gpz is 174.71°.

(slide 37)
(slide 38)
 Gyros

(slide 25-26) A gyroscope is a device used primarily for navigation and measurement of angular
velocity. Gyroscopes are available that can measure rotational velocity in 1, 2, or 3 directions.
3-axis gyroscopes are often implemented with a 3-axis accelerometer to provide a full 6 degree-
of-freedom (DoF) motion tracking system.
Gyroscopes have evolved from mechanical-inertial spinning devices consisting of rotors, axles,
and gimbals to various incarnations of electronic and optical devices. Each exploits some
physical property of the system allowing it to detect rotational velocity about some axis.

(slide 27-28) The classic gyroscope exploits the law of conservation of angular momentum
which, simply stated, says that the total angular momentum of a system is constant in both
magnitude and direction if the resultant external torque acting upon the system is zero 4). These
gyroscopes typically consist of a spinning disk or mass on an axle, which is mounted on a series
of gimbals. Each gimbal offers the spinning disk an additional degree of rotational freedom. The
gimbals allow the rotor to spin without applying any net external torque on the gyroscope. Thus
as long as the gyroscope is spinning, it will maintain a constant orientation. When external
torques or rotations about a given axis are present in these devices, orientation can be
maintained and measurement of angular velocity can be measured due to the phenomenon of
precession.
Precession occurs when an object spinning about some axis (the spin axis) has an external
torque applied in a direction perpendicular to the spin axis (the input axis). In a rotational system
when net external torques are present, the angular momentum vector (which is along the spin
axis) will move in the direction of the applied torque vector. As a result of the torque, the spin
axis rotates about an axis that is perpendicular to both the input axis and spin axis (called the
output axis).
This rotation about the output axis is then sensed and fed back to the input axis where a motor
or similar device applies torque in the opposite direction, cancelling the precession of the
gyroscope and maintaining its orientation. This cancellation can also be accomplished with two
gyroscopes oriented at right angles to one another.
To measure rotation rate, counteracting torque is pulsed at regular time intervals. Each pulse
represents a fixed angular rotation δθ, and the pulse count in a fixed time interval t will be
proportional to the net angle change θ over that time period – thus, the applied counteracting
torque is proportional to the rotation rate to be measured 3).
Today rotary gyroscopes are mainly used in stabilization applications. The presence of moving
parts (gimbals, rotors) means that these gyroscopes can wear out or jam. A number of bearing
types have been developed to minimize the wear and chance for jamming in these gyroscopes
5) 6). Another consequence of moving parts is that it limits how small these gyroscopes can be.

Thus rotary gyroscopes are mostly used today in harsh military and naval environments which
are subject to shock and intense vibration, and where physical size is not critical. These units
are therefore not readily commercially available.
(slide 29) Optical gyroscopes were developed soon after the discovery of laser technology.
The appeal of this type of gyroscope is that they contain no moving parts, and hence are not
susceptible to mechanical wear or drifting. Optical gyroscopes differ from other types in that
they do not rely on conservation of angular momentum in order to operate. Instead, their
functionality depends only on the constancy of the speed of light.
Optical gyroscopes operate under the principle of the Sagnac effect. It easiest to understand
this principle in the general case of a circle. A light source is positioned on a circle, emitting two
beams of light in either direction. If the source stays stationary, then both beams of light require
an equal amount of time to traverse the circle and arrive back at the source. However, if the
source is rotating along the circle, then it takes more time for the beam in front of the source to
complete its path. This principle can in fact be generalized to any loop, regardless of shape. In
particular, we can measure the effect using a ring interferometry setup. Here, a laser beam is
first split by a half silvered mirror. Then the two beams traverse identical paths but opposite
directions around a loop consisting of either flat mirrors and air-filled straight tubes or a long
fibre-optic cable. These two beams then recombine at a detector. When the system is rotating,
one of the beams must travel a greater distance than the opposite traveling beam to make it to
the detector. This difference in path length (or Doppler shift) is detected as a phase shift by
interferometry. This phase shift is proportional to the angular velocity of the system 5).
Often optical gyroscope units consist of 3 mutually orthogonal gyroscopes for rotation sensing
about all three orthogonal rotation axes. They are also typically implemented with 3-axis
accelerometers thus providing full motion sensing in 6 DoF.
Like rotor gyroscopes, optical gyroscopes are limited in how physically small they can get, due
to the extensive amount of fibre-optic cable needed and presence of optical equipment. Thus
these gyroscopes are often used in naval and aviation applications, and where physical size is
not an issue. Therefore optical gyroscopes are typically not readily available commercially 8).

(slide 30-32) Vibrating structure gyroscopes are MEMS (Micro-machined Electro-Mechanical

Systems) devices that are easily available commercially, affordable, and very small in size.
Fundamental to an understanding of the operation of an vibrating structure gyroscope is an
understanding of the Coriolis force. In a rotating system, every point rotates with the same
rotational velocity. As one approaches the axis of rotation of the system, the rotational velocity
remains the same, but the speed in the direction perpendicular to the axis of rotation decreases.
Thus, in order to travel in a straight line towards or away from the axis of rotation while on a
rotating system, lateral speed must be either increased or decreased in order to maintain the
same relative angular position (longitude) on the body. The act of slowing down or speeding up
is acceleration, and the Coriolis force is this acceleration times the mass of the object whose
longitude is to be maintained. The Coriolis force is proportional to both the angular velocity of
the rotating object and the velocity of the object moving towards or away from the axis of
rotation.
Vibrating structure gyroscopes contain a micro-machined mass which is connected to an outer
housing by a set of springs. This outer housing is connected to the fixed circuit board by a
second set of orthogonal springs.
The mass is continuously driven sinusoidally along the first set of springs. Any rotation of the
system will induce Coriolis acceleration in the mass, pushing it in the direction of the second
set of springs. As the mass is driven away from the axis of rotation, the mass will be pushed
perpendicularly in one direction, and as it is driven back toward the axis of rotation, it will be
pushed in the opposite direction, due to the Coriolis force acting on the mass.
The Coriolis force is detected by capacitive sense fingers that are along the mass housing and
the rigid structure. As the mass is pushed by the Coriolis force, a differential capacitance will
be detected as the sensing fingers are brought closer together. When the mass is pushed in
the opposite direction, different sets of sense fingers are brought closer together; thus, the
sensor can detect both the magnitude and direction of the angular velocity of the system.