IEEE Antennas and m o t i o n Soclety Newsletter, August 1987

Clifford Algebra: What Is It?

E. Folke Bolinder
Chalmers Unlversity of Technology
Dlvlrion of Network Theory
.S 412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden

INTRODUCTION - -. .. - -. .
Engineers and physicists use mathematical tools
in solving their problems, As time passes the problems Introducing
Feature
Article
Author
tend to become more and more involved and they require
more and more refined mathematical tools. Clifford
algebra is such a tool.
In September 1985an historical event took place
at the University of Kent at Canterbury, England.
During September 15-27 an international NATO and SERC
workshop was held on the topic "Clifford Algebras and
Their Applications in Mathematical Physics". It was
organized by Professor Roy J.S. Chisholm and Dr Alan
K. Common of the Mathematics Department of the Univer-
sity of Kent at Canterbury.
The participants, about 70 people from 20 coun-
tries constituted a motley crowd of mathematicians,
physicists,andengineers.Somenames:Amongthe
mathematicians were I.. Ahlfors (USA), I.M. Benn (UK),
F.Brackx(Belgium),A.Crumeyrolle(France),R.
Delanghe(Belgium),K.Imaeda(Japan), E. Kaehler
(WestGermany),P.Lounesto(Finland),A.Micali
(France), and I. Porteous (UK). Among the physicists
wereA.O.Barut(USA),G.A.Deschamps(USA), 1. E. Folke Bolinder
Dresden (USA), K.R. Greider (USA), D. Hestenes (USA),
B. Jancewicz (Poland), H. Joos (West Germany), J. E. Folke Bolinder (A'50-M'55-SM'59-F975) was born in
Keller (Mexico), A. Ramakrishnan (India), J.G. Taylor Uppsala, Sweden, on August 11, 1922. He received the
(UK), and R.B. Tucker(DK). Only a few engineers par- Civilingenjer degree in 1946, the degree of Tekno-
ticipated. The Proceedings of the workshop has been logie Licentiat in 1954, and the Teknologie Doktor
published asa book [l], andP. hunesto has writtena degree in 1959, all at the Royal Institute of Tech-
lucid review of the conference [2]. nology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Stock-
holm, Sweden.
It was interesting
to
observe
that
the
mathematicians presented their papers in longhand After a year of military service as a SpeciaI Engineer
writing on the blackboard, the physicists used over-in the Swedish Air Force, he worked from 1946 to 1951
head transparencies, often colored, and one of the on different microwave and pulse technique projects
engineers (guesswho!) had 80 colored slides. for the Swedish defense laboratories, combining the
work with graduate studies at the Royal Institute of
The workshop was a success. The %&ea of mixing Technology. In 1951 he became a Fellow of the Sweden-
together the different categories of people inter- America Foundation under whose auspices he worked
ested in Clifford algebra was a very fruitful one. The 1952 and 1953) in transient synthesis
(during as a
conference will be followed by a second one, this time Assistant at the Research Laboratory
Research of
at Montpellier in France. Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge. During the winter of 1954-1955 he carried
1. GBASSMANR AND HAMILTON out research at the Institute Hacional de la Investi-
The foundation of Clifford algebra was laid ir. gacidn Cientifica, Mexico City. During 1955-1957 he
1844, when two basic building blocks in the form of was a research staff member of the Research Labora-
two non-commutative algebras were presented. Hermann tory of Electronics, M.I.T. He worked as a Physicist
Grassmann (1809-1877), German autodidact, published in theU.S. Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories,
his first Ausdehnungslehre (exterior algebra), a book Bedford, Mass., during 1958-1963, and served as a
of more than 300 pages [3], and William Rowan Hamilton Consultant to theResearchInstituteofNational
(1805-1865), Irish professor, published an outline of Defense, Stockholm, Sweden, in 1963-1964. Since 1964
,his quarternion algebra, invented the year before, in he has been Professor of Network Theory at Chalmers
thePhilosophicalMagazine 141. Hamilton'smore University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.
extensive work, "Lectures on Quarternions", appeared
in 1853 [SI. The second bookon the Ausdehnungslehre Dr Bolinder has since 1973 been Chairman of three
was published by Grassmann in 1862 [6], and Hamilton's European COST-projects (25/1, 204, and 213) on phased
second book on quarternions was published in 1866 arrayantennasandtheirmaritime,satellite, and
after his death [7]. terrestrial applications.
1s
 Grassman's algebra is a geometric algebra. He where i is the unit pseudoscalar yielding the dual
thought ofscalars,vectors("Strecken",directed part [14]. The directed surface segment is dual to a
lengths), 2-vectors or bivectors (directed plane seg- vector.
ments), 3-vectorsortrivectors(directedvolume
segments),4-vectors(directed4-dimensionalseg- ThefactthatGrassmanninhis1877paper
ments), etc. up to the n-vector (today called pseudo- abandoned his principle to add only quantities with
scalar). He studied very thoroughly all kinds of thesamedimensionswascalled"drastic"("etwas
vector products, especially the inner product of two Gewaltsames") by Study [13]. The exterior algebra and
vctors a and b, a-b (our scalar product), and the the quarternion algebra complement each other.
outer product aAb (both in
-
modem notation) [E]. With
the directed property of the bivector we get aAb
-bAa, so that aAa = 0 (no metric). In three dimensions
2. CLIFFORD AND LIPSCHITZ
Another road to generalization was followed by
we get the English professor William Kingdon Clifford (1845-
1879). In 1876 he introduced and in 1878 he published
a = alel + a2e2 + a3e3 ; b = b e + b e + b3e3 (1) an n-dimensional geometric algebra which is built on
1 1 2 2
the Ausdehnungslehre and the quarternion algebra. This
aAb = (a2b3 - a3b2)eZ3 + (a3bl - a b )e algebraisassociativebutnon-commutative.Itis
13 31+
called Clifford algebra [15],[16]. In the introduction
(alb2 - a2bl)e12 (2) of the 1878 paper Clifford writes: ..."Until recently
where e e - -
eij , eij -e.
J i eii ii - e e - 0 (3)
I was unaquainted with the Ausdehnungslehre, and knew
only so much of it as is contained in the author's
geometrical papers in Crelle's Journal and in Hankel's
Hamilton's goal was to invent an algebra which Lectures on Complex Numbers.I may, perhaps, therefore
would do for rotations in a Euclidean space of threebe permitted to express my profound admirationof that
dimensions what complex numbers do for rotations in extraordinarywork,andmyconvictionthatits
two dimensions. He found a non-commutative algebra inprinciples will exercise a vast influence upon the
four dimensions, the quarternion algebra. If the basis future of mathematical science...".
elements of the vector space are denoted 1, i, j, and
k, the quartemion product is defined by the formulas Two years later, in 1880, Rudolf Lipschitz, a
- -
i2 = j2 k2 - - - -
-1 ; ij k -ji ; ki j -ik (4)
German mathematician, reinvented the Clifford algebra
in studying rotations in n dimensions by generalizing
-
The formula ij k shows that thequartemion algebra
bites itself in its tail,
the complex numbers and the quarternions [17]. A book
appeared in 1886 I181 in which Lipschitz acknowledges
so t o say. Ue don't get out. Clifford's prior discovery. Furthermore, Lipschitz'
On the contrary, in the n-dimensional Grassmann (ex- ghost appearedin a correspondence in 1959 [19], where
terior) algebra vector products produce new elements be states: ",.It is now a matterof great satisfaction
which are outside the vector space. We shall return to metoto hear that his name (-Clifford) has been given
this important fact later on. to them(-theveryremarkablealgebraicsystems
discovered by my friend Professor Clifford), as a
Grassmann and Hamilton knew about each other. .....
fitting tribute to h i s memory among the living
Hamilton studied the first Ausdehnungslehre from 1853 With this strong backing all attempts today to call
on. Although he knew German he read it with some Clifford dif- algebra "geometric algebra", etc. should be
ficulties becauseof the philosophical way in which it discouraged.
was written[ 9 ] , and he gave ample credit to Grassmann
Tn the preface of his 1853 "Lectures" [5, ~611. 3.CLIFFORDALGEBRA
Clifford algebra is an associate and non-commuta-
Grassmann apparently never saw any of Hamilton's tive algebra over the real or the complex field. It
publications. He knew early about the quarternions, can be built on the simple postulate that the square
but he could not see any connection with his own of a vector is equal to its quadratic form:
theory. Later on, in1866-67,Hermann Hankel wrote to
him and informed him more in detail about the quarter-2
nions, but Grassmann still did not pay any attention. x
Hankel's book on hypercomplex numbers, which treats
- X*X (8) - x
n
X x.e
i-1
l i (9)

both Grassmann's and Hamilton's theories, appeared in where X-X is the scalar product. In the simplest cases
1867 [lo]. Only when a Swede, G. Dillner, published used a in physics and engineering, the Euclidean 3-space
paper on quarternion theory in 1876 without referringand the Lorentz 4-space,we can put
to Grassmann's publications at all [Ill, Grassmann
wrote a paper [12] in which he wanted to show that the n
quarternion algebra is a special caseof the Ausdeh-
nungslehre. According to Eduard Study, who reviewed
the paper [13], the attempt was not quite successful.
As a matter of fact he even called it "a piece of
jugglery". However, Grassmann's 1877 paper contains Thus, for Euclidean 3-space:
some great ideas. In order to includequartemionsthe
f1 i-k
in hisown theory he introduced the product
-
eiek + ekei = 26ik (13)
ab = Xa-b + paAb (5)

where X and p are constants. In three dimensions he

X*X - x2
1+x2 2+x3 2
(14)
puts and for Lorentz 4-space:
ab = -a.b + plaAb (6)

where the vertical bar means "the dual of" (Ergan-

eo = 1 , : e - -1 , i = 1, 2, and 3
zung). In the three-dimensional Gibbs-Heaviside vector
algebra we use today, the vector product axb can be
eiek - -ekei , ifk
expressed in Grassmann's A b , and vice versa, by the
formulas
X*X- 2 2 2
x - x1 - x2 - x3
.
2

-
axb -i(aAb) , A b- i(axb)
(7) We can write, according to (E), Eq
19
 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Soclety Newsletter, August 1987

(x + y()x* + y) - (x + Y)2 (18)

dimensional (non-Euclidean) spaces by means
linearfractionaltransformation,alsocalledthe
of the

so that MBbius transformation [24]. This work was used byH.

Maass in 1949 [25] in a study on automorphic func-
2x-y - xy + yx (19) tions. Recently the use of MBbius transformations in
several dimensions has had a revival. Professor Lars
Thus, we can put V. Ahlfors at Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.,
has made a thorough study of M6bius transformations
1 1 and Clifford numbers [26-281. Of special interest a is
xy = ,(XY + yx) + p(xY - yx) (20)
work on fixed points of MLibius transformations inn
i.e. xy - x*y
(21)+ Xhy dimensions [ 291 .

where Xhy is the outer product [20][14]. Two vectors A thorough survey paper on hypercomplex numbers
are orthogonal if x*y 0. Then x y -
-yx, so that x -
including rotations and M6bius transformations was
and y anticommute. A simple bivector, spanned by the published by E. Study and E. Cartan already in 1908
vectors x and y, simplifies with an orthogonal basis [301.
to f
Let us assume that we have a Clifford algebra A
F = AY= X (xiyk - (22)
which is an associative algebra over the real number2
generated by elements i ili. tp
i subject to I.,
i<k
therelationsi -1 andiill- , ?+q. Everya
See Eq (2). We obtain an algebra C generated by the belonging to An E a n be writtgnq
..
basis elements e , e2,. , e of thg vector space Vn.
n
The algebra con8ains all p?oducts of the basis ele-
ments and all linear combinations of such products.a -It a + X x a i i ...i
is called a Clifford algebra C, with the metric g . O p-1 1e1<y2<. . P-<n v1'2...up u1 u2 vp .<v
The elements of C are called Cllfford numbers. See%.
Riesz [20] and D.%estenes [14].
The Clifford algebra is built
up geometrically by The Clifford algebra An has three important involu-
means of scalars (S), vectors (V), bivectors (B), tions corresponding to the complex conjugation of
trivectors (T), etc. up to the n-vector, the pseudo- ordinary complex numbers. They 1are ) main involution,
scalar (P). The number of basis elements is given by a+a', when each ik is -\,
replaced by so that
the horizontal lines thein Pascal triangle. See
Fig 1. The total number of basis elements 2is
". a' a + n X (-1)k X aul... iul. - I

O P-1
n 1 x 2) reversion, a+a*, when the order of ik theproducts
1 1 2
2 1 2 1 4 is reverses o , that
3 1 3 3 1 8 n & k u
4
5
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
16
32 a* a + X (-1)
2 -
X aul... iul-.- (26)
O P-1
(example: i1i2i3 -ili3i2 i3ili2 -
-i i i) , and
3 2 1
- -
n 1 n
3) combination of1) and 2), a a'* a*' , so that - -
Fig 1. The Pascal triangle.
If we study the connection between the real
three-dimensional Clifford algebra associated with the
Euclidean metric and the real quaternion algebra we See References24-29.
find that the latter is the even subalgebra of the
former spanned by the basis elements indicated by the We can identify Rn with the subspace spannel by
circles in Fig. 1. This is proved by using the corre-
1, il, ig;l...,in-l. Since Vahlen [24] it is customary
spondence to re er
1-1 ; i++e2el ; j*e3e2 ,. k+ele3 (23) x - x
'n-lXn-1
0
i ilxl i i2x2
(28)
+ ... +

See Ref. 20. Thus therean is isomorphism between this as a "vectorn,an element o f A or R"
even subalgebra and the quarternion algebra. A quar- n-1
temion is composed ofa scalar and a bivector, S+B; Lipschitz represented rotations in Rn in the
not of a scalar and a vector, S+V.If this had been following way[ 17,181:
realized in the 1880's, the fight between the quarter-
nionists and the vectorists would probably not have
takenplace.Luckilyenoughforengineering,the
Gibbs-Heaviside vector algebra was the victor. See where a is a Clifford number of a specialkind, an
Gibbs [21] and Heaviside [22]. However, the quarter- element in the Clifford grouph consisting of the
nion algebra is very much alive in physics. See productsbelow. of non-zero vectors in R .
4. ROTATIONS AND MOBIUS TRANSFORMATIONS n
A MBbius transformation in R can be written
IN n-DIMENSIONAL SPACES
R. Lipschitz seems to have been the first to use
Clifford numbers in expressing rotations in an n-
dimensional Euclidean space [17-191. The work was wheredone a, b, c , and d are Clifford numbers, again re-
in 1880-1886. In 1897 K. Th. Vahlen proved some of stricted to the Clifford group.
Lipschitz' theorems [23].
5. SPINORALGEBRA
In 1902 Vahlen studied transformations in n- In its simplest form the spinor consists two
of
20
complex numbers. The theory of spinors is the theory useofCliffordalgebrainelectromagneticwave
of a linear representationof a Clifford algebra whichtheory. Later on M. Riesz [20], D. Hestenes [14], and
includesthelinearrepresentationofarotation P. Lounesto [35] studied Maxwell's equations by means
goup. It seems to have originated with E. Cartan in of Clifford algebra.
1913 [30]. The word "spinor" was later introduced when
it was found that the algebra was useful in quantum The Grassmann exterior algebra, which has no
mechanics. Cartan published two volumes on spinors in metric, was used byE. Cartan whenhe constructed his
1938 [31], and R. Brauer and H. Weyl wrote a funda- calculus with exterior differential forms and moving
mental paper on n-dimensional spinors in 1935 [32]. frames A [49]. Cartan wanted t o have coordinate-free
basic paper on spinors was published by P.K. Rasevskii formulas. E. Kaehler used the algebra of differential
[33] in 1957. D. Hestenes identified spinors with forms in a basic paper on Maxwell's equations [50].
elements of the even subalgebra aof Clifford algebra Two interesting publications on the use of differen-
[34], and P. Lounesto [35] presented a clear exposi- tial forms in electromagnetic wave theory were pre-
tion of spinor-valued regular functions in hypercom- sented by G . A . Deschamps [51,52]. A critique of the
plex analysis. Finally, H. Hellsten developed ordinary calculus of differential forms is presented by D.
two-component spinor algebra from a geometrical model gestenes andG. Sobczyk ina recent book [53] in which
of spinor space [36]. theauthorsconcludethattheCliffordalgebra
zxhibits a greater range and flexibility.
6. APPLICATIONS OF CLIFFORD ALGEBRA
Cliffordalgebrahasfoundapplicationsin B. ElectricalEngineering
physics and electrical engineering. The physics appli- Clifford algebra was introduced in electrical
cations can be split roughly into applications me-in engineering by the author in 1959 [54]. Since then
chanics, quantum mechanics, and electromagnetic wave this tool has been applied, also by the author, to
theory. many different network problems. See, for example,
References 55 and 56.
A. Physics
a. Mechanics In 1959, a theory of noisy two-port networks was
In the preface to this 1844 Ausdehnungslehre published by the author [57]. It was shown how the
Grassmann mentions that when he worked on a on theory
M6bius transformation in the complex impedance plane
flood and tide he was led to Lagrange's "Mechanique could be lifted to the upper halfspace which consti-
analytique". He found that calculations with hisex- tutes a Poincar6 model of a three-dimensional non-
terior algebra simplified the calculations to a tenthEuclidean hyperbolic geometry. The lifting procedure
of the work by using conventional analysis [3, p VII]. was performed by generalizing an elementary graphical
transformation called the isometric circle method into
Hamilton also applied quarternions to mechanical a threedimensional isometric sphere method [58]. The
problems from 1845 on with good results. coordinate for the third dimension is a noise power
ratio, and the HWius transformation generalizes in
In 1986 D Hestenes published an interesting book three dimensions to the famous Poincar6 transforma-
on the use of Clifford algebra in classical mechanics tions [59]. R. Fueter showed already in 1926-1927 that
[37].AftertwointroductorychaptersonClifford the Poincare transformations could be expressed by
algebra he treats in detail mechanics of a single three-dimensional reduced quarternions [60,61]. Thus,
particle, two-particle systems, operators and trans- transformations in the theory of noisy networks can b
formations, many-particle systems, rigid body mecha- expressed by means of Clifford algebra. Also, in the
nics, and celectial mechanics. A good book to start samewaypartiallypolarizedelectromagneticalor
with. optical waves can be transformed by means of Clifford
algebra.
b. Ouantum mechanics
Clifford algebra is a necessary tool in quantum CONCLUSIONS
7.
mechanics. The Pauli algebra, with electron spin, and Clifford algebra is a powerful mathematical tool.
the Dirac algebra, with electron spin and relativity, Great efforts are being made today to develop it. Th
are special cases of Clifford algebra. J A Schouten is shown clearly by the amount of new publications,
was an early user of Clifford algebra [38], and the both books and papers, which appear on the subject.
relativisticDiracequationfortheelectronwas
studied, among others, by A . Proca [391, G. Juvet One of the main advantages with CliPford algebra
[40], G. J w e t and A. Schidlof 1411, and M . Riesz is that it is so rich that it can replace the use of
[42,43,20].Rieszwasthefirsttoobservethat several other tools, thus making it possible to avoid
spinors and their adjoints are related to the lefttheandinconsistencies which easily appear when different
right ideals of the Clifford algebra. Among the fol- tools are mixed in the same study.
lowers of Riesz' were S . Teitler [44] and D. Hestenes
[&SI. A n interesting example of this is K.R. Greider's
unifying Clifford algebra formalism for relativistic
c. Electromametic wave theorv fields in which he shows how the conservation laws
We need eight equations to express Maxwell's beobtaineduniquelyandunambigiouslyfromthe
equations in component form, four in vector form, twoequations of motion [62].
in tensor or exterior differential forms, and one in
Hamilton's complex
quarternion
form[46,471or Inan AmericantextbookbyD.Hesteneson
Clifford algebra form. With Clifford algebra we get classical mechanics at the intermediate level, already
the following simple expression for Maxwell's equa- mentioned above [37], Clifford algebra is introduced
tions : as a mathematical language for physics. The same
author has announced the arrival of another textbook
U F = s in which Clifford algebra will be used as a unified
tool in studying electromagnetics, relativity, and
where is the four-dimensional differential ope- quantum theory. Many physicists and engineers are
rator. F is the general field bivector, and s is the awaiting this book with great expectations.
€our-current.
Clifford algebra is a geometric algebra. Geo-
Inspired by A. Proca [39]G . Juvet, A . Schidlof, netric images are converted into algebraic expres-
end A. Mercier [40-421 made a thorough study on the sions. Tie solutions of involved problems can be
21
 IEEE Antennas and Propagcltlon h i e t y Newsletter, August 1987

facilitated by the use of computer programs. Such [17] R. Lipschitz, "Principles d'un calcul algkbrique
programs already exist. The pioneer in this field is qui contient comme especes particulieres le cal-
P. Lounesto in Finland [63]. cul des quantites imaginaires et des quarter-
nions," CR Acad. Sc. Paris, u, 619-621, 660-
664, 1880, also:BulldesSciencesMath.,2
series, 9, 115-120, 1887.
REFERENCES
J.S.R.
Chisholm
and
A.K.
Common,
Clifford [18] R. Lipschitz, "Untersuchungen ueber die Summen
Algebras and Their Applications in Mathematical von Quadraten," flax Cohen & Sohn, Bonn, 1886.
Physics,D.ReidelPublishingCompany,Dor- Summary in : Bull des Sciences Mathematiques,
drecht, the Netherlands, 1986. l o , 163-183, 1886.

P. Lounesto, "Report -
on Conference NATO and [19] Correspondance from an ultramundane correspon-
SERC Workshop on Clifford Algebras and Their dent,
Annals of Mathematics, 69, 247-251,
Applications in Mathematical Physics," Univers- 1959.
ity of Kent, Canterbury, England, September 15-
27, 1985,Foundations of Physics, 1 6 , No. 9, 967- [20] M Riesz, Clifford Numbers and Spinors, Lecture
971, 1986. Series No. 38, The Institute for Fluid Dynamics
and Appl. Math., Univ. of Maryland, Maryland,
H. Grassmann, Die lineale Ausdehnungslehre: ein 1958.
neuerZweigderMathematik,Wigand,Leipzig,
1844, 2nd edition, 1878. [21] J.W. Gibbs, "On multiple algebra," Proc. Amelf.
Assoc., 3 5 , 37-66, 1886; "On the r61e of quar-
W.R. Hamilton, Letter to Graves on quarternions; ternions in the algebra of vectors," Nature, e,
or on a new system of imaginaries in algebra, 511-513,1891;"Quarternions
and
the"Aus-
Phil Mag, 5 , 489-495, 1844. The Math Papers dehnungslehre","Nature, a,
79-82, 1891,;
of Sir William Rowan Hamilton vol. 111, 106- "Quarternionsandthealgebraofvectors, "
110, Cambridge Univ Press, 1967. See also "The Nature, 47, 463-464,1893; "Quarternionsand
Quarternion Centenary Celebration," Proc. Roy. vectoranalysis,"Nature. 48, 364-367,1893.
Acad., L, 69-123, 1943. Also: The Sc. Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, vol.
11, Dover 1961.
W.R. Hamilton, Lectures on Quarternions, Hodges
and Smith, Dublin, 1853. [22] 0. Heaviside, "Vector analysis," Electromagnetic
Theory, vol 111, = Appendix K, 135-143, 1912;
H. Grassmann, Die Ausdehnungslehre; vollstaendig "Vectors versus quarternions," Nature, 533, 1893=
und in strenger Form bearbeitet, Enslin, Berlin,
1862.
AppendixKpp.
-
507-510; "Quarternioninnova-
tions," Nature, 246, 1894 Appendix K, 510- 513.

W.R. Hamilton, Elements of guarternions, Longmans [23] K. Th. Vahlen, "Ueber hoehere komplexe Zahlen,"
& Co, London, 1866. Schriften der phys-ekon Gesellschaft zu Koenigs-
x,
berg in Preussen, 72-78, 1897.
H.Grassmann,"Surlesdifferentsgenresde
multiplication," CrelleJ, 49, 123-141,1854. [ 241 K. Th. Vahlen, "Ueber Bewegungen und complexe
Zahlen," Math.Ann. 5 5 , 585-593, 1902.
Hermann Grassmanns Gesammelte Mathematische und
PhysikalischeWerke (F. Engel), vol.111:2, [25] H. Maas, "Automorphe Funktionen von mehreren Ver-
Leipzig 1911, ("W.R. Hamilton ueber Grassmann", aenderlichen und Dirichletsche Reihen," Abh. aus
204-208). dem Math. Seminar der Univ. Hamburg", 1 6 , 72-100,
1949.
[lo] H. Hankel, Vorlesungenueberdiecomplexen
Zahlen, Voss, Leipzig, 1867. [26] L.V. Ahlfors, M6bius transformations in several
dimensions,
Ordway
professorship
lectures,
[ll] G. Dillner, "Versuch einer neuen Entwicklung der School of Mathematics, Univ. of Minnesota, 1981.
Hamilton'schenMethode,genannt"Calculusof
Quarternions"," Math Ann, jJ., 168-193, 1876. [27] L.V. Ahlfors, "Old and new in HBbius groups,"
Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn., Series A , Math. 9, 93-105,
[12] H. Grassmann, "Der Ort der Hamilton'schen Quar- 1984.
ternionenin der Ausdechnungslehre," Math. Ann,
-
12, 375-386, 1877, [28]L.V.
Ahlfors,
"M6biustransformations
and
Cliffordnumbers,"Diff.geom.
andcomplex
[13] E. Study, "Der Ort der Hamilton'schen Quarter- analysis (Chavel and Farkas, eds) New York,65-
nionen in der Ausdehnungslehre" (von H. Grass- 73, 1985.
man), Hermann Grassmanns Ges. Math. u. Phys.
Werke, vol. II:l, (F. Engel), Teubner, Leipzig, [29] L.V. Ahlfors, 'On the fixed points of Mijbius
1904. transformations in Rn," Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn.,
Series A, Math. lo, 15-27, 1985.
[14] D. Hestenes, Space-The Algebra,Gordonand
Breach, New York, N.Y., 1966. [30] E. Study, E. Cartan, "Nombres Complexes," L'Ency-
clopedie des Sciences Math., vol I, 329-468,1908
[15] W.K. Clifford, "On the classification of geo- (Clifford algebra 463-466).
metric algebras," (1876) Math. papers by William
Kingdon Clifford, McMillan and Co, London, 397- [31] E. Cartan, Lecons sur la Theorie des Spineurs,
401, 1882. vols. 1 and 2, ActualitesScientifiques et
Industrielles Nos. 643 and 701, Hermann et Cie,
[16]W.K.Clifford,"ApplicationsofGrassmann's Paris, 1938.
extensive algebra," Am. J. of Math., 1, 350-
358, 1878, Also: Math. Papers, 266-276, London [32] R, Brauer and H. Weyl, "Spinors n in dimensions,"
1882. Am. J. of Math.,5 7 , 425-429,1935.
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 IEEE Antennas and Prapagcltlon Society Newsletter, August 1987

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