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In any organism, there must be a system that adaptively maintains equilibrium within the
body to assure for normal functioning. Even in single-celled organisms the creature's own
DNA assumes this regulatory task. For example, if bacteria that live in the stomachs of
mammals come into contact with molecules of lactose, they will begin creating enzymes
that break down lactose, but when there is no lactose those enzymes are not created. 



Ov v
In the human body, the brain has a very important role as a regulatory organ. Not only
does it keep the body in good condition by controlling the basic bodily functions such as
heart rate and breathing, but our feelings of hunger, thirst, pain and sleepiness are all a
part of the brain's regulatory function. Its regulatory function is a lot like that of an air
traffic controller, because the brain receives so many messages from different body
systems, and controls each system according to a master plan. This is why the brain is the
major organ of the central nervous system, because it is central not in structure but in the
function of the human body.

The path of brain regulation originates in a stimulus-an empty stomach, for example-which
sends information to the brain that something is out of order. In the example of hunger,
leptin is an important signal molecule that is recognized by the brain. The amount of leptin
in the blood is directly related to the amount of energy stored in fat cells, because fat cells
produce leptin. Thus, when the brain senses a lack of leptin in the blood, an increase in
appetite results. The part of the brain that regulates appetite is currently thought to be the
hypothalamus, which regulates other systems of the body as well.

Once a signal gets to the hypothalamus, it must decide what to do with it. Generally, the
brain can do two things in order to keep homeostasis (equilibrium) in the body. First, it can
stimulate the autonomic nervous system, which is a part of the peripheral nervous system
and regulates many of the body's automatic functions such as heart rate, blood circulation,
and digestion. Otherwise, the upper brain can be stimulated, creating any number of
motivating feelings that we know as hunger, thirst, pain, and the like.



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A major player in the regulation of the body is the autonomic nervous system. The
autonomic nervous system is actually a part of the peripheral nervous system, which
consists of all the nerves in the body except for the brain and spinal cord. The nerves that
are considered autonomous are those that are not under conscious control of the brain,
such as the nerves that control the heart, intestines, and stomach.

The autonomic nervous system primarily consists of two opposing regulatory forces: the
sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. There are technically three parts of
the autonomic nervous system, but we are leaving out what is called enteric division in this
discussion. It is a minor division of the ANS and functions mainly to control the gastric
muscles.

The sympathetic nervous system is associated with the body's "fight or flight" state of
readiness, with higher heart rate and blood pressure and decreased digestion. The nerves of
the sympathetic division use norepinephrine as their neurotransmitter to the organs. The
parasympathetic nervous system activates the body's "rest and digest" mode, which
includes lower heart rate and increased digestion, by releasing acetylcholine. Under normal
circumstances these two systems are constantly working to maintain normal and efficient
bodily function, but the brain can influence the autonomic nervous system a great deal. For
example, if you see a giant bear while walking in the woods, you will naturally be
frightened. The sight of the bear travels through the cerebral cortex, which uses the
hippocampus to remember that show you saw on bear attacks last week, which then
triggers the feeling of fear in your amygdala. The amygdala, in giving you that sinking
feeling of fear, also activates the sympathetic division. Your heart rate goes up, eyes dilate,
and you are ready to run or fight. Thanks to that autonomic nervous system, this
physiological change occurs with astounding speed and with dramatic effectiveness.


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Note that much of the body regulation in the brain originates in the lower brain; this is
because even the most basic brains need these important regulatory systems, in order to
ensure the host body's success. As the larger and more complex brain structures evolved
afterwards, culminating in the cerebral cortex of the human, those embedded pathways still
exist, even though we can overpower them to an extent. This struggle, between the
reasoning of the higher brain and the base desires of the lower, is where we find a person's
willpower. For example, when a man on a diet is tempted to eat a hefty piece of chocolate
cake, the hunger originating in his lower brain is at odds with his desire to lose weight,
which comes from the abstract thought originating in the higher brain. Fasting is a common
example of the higher brain "taking over" and ignoring the messages of hunger coming from
the lower brain.