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Article

Tourism and Hospitality Research


2016, Vol. 16(2) 103–115
Bridging community livelihoods and ! The Author(s) 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/1467358415589659

Case study of Kabaka heritage trail thr.sagepub.com

in Uganda

Wilber M Ahebwa
Department of Forestry, Biodiversity and Tourism, Makerere University, Uganda

John P Aporu
Department of Leisure and Hospitality, Makerere University Business School, Uganda

Jockey B Nyakaana
Department of Forestry, Biodiversity and Tourism, Makerere University, Uganda

Abstract
This paper analyses the promotion of culture-based tourism as a tool for cultural conservation and commu-
nity livelihoods improvement in Buganda region, Uganda. A pragmatic approach was adopted to explore the
existing cultural heritage resources in Buganda and their conservation for tourism as a means for community
development. Data were collected using documentary reviews, focus group discussions with key actors in the
tourism subsector, and a questionnaire interview. Results indicate that culture-based tourism is positively
correlated to cultural conservation and community livelihood. The paper highlights the importance of culture-
based tourism and culture conservation on community livelihood in the context of Uganda. The significant
results obtained in this case study also show that cultural conservation was a strong predictor of community
livelihoods. It is concluded that if culture-based tourism is enhanced and promoted, it has the potential to
influence people’s livelihoods through the income generated from tourism activities and employment. This in
turn contributes to the preservation of cultural heritage sites and hence sustainability. There is however need
to investigate the novel and innovative ways of marketing and promoting cultural tourism in Uganda to enable
improvement in people’s livelihood. It is also necessary to devise ways on how to increase community involve-
ment in planning, implementation, and securing benefits of culture-based tourism.

Keywords
Culture-based tourism, cultural conservation, community livelihood, Uganda

Introduction tourism based on cultural as well as natural resources


Community livelihood is the ability of people to earn a is a tested means to enhance livelihoods of such com-
living and it is more than just income. Pena (2008) munities and can also help to conserve these resources
argues that community livelihood is about everything on which it is normally based (Ahebwa and Van der
that makes an impact on people’s lives like education, Duim, 2013). This type of tourism is advanced as
health, and access to food among others. Access to cap- appropriate and a sure way to enable communities
ital assets in form of natural, physical, financial, human, penetrate and benefit from the tourism value chain
and social can enhance the construction of people’s live- (Adiyia et al., 2015).
lihoods (Pena, 2008; Wiek et al., 2010). The studies by
Holland et al. (2003) and Meyer (2004) show that com-
Corresponding author:
munities living around cultural sites in Uganda have for Wilber M Ahebwa, Department of Forestry, Biodiversity and
long been characterized by poor livelihoods in many Tourism, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
aspects, despite their proximity to such sites. Yet, Email: wilbah@caes.mak.ac.ug

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104 Tourism and Hospitality Research 16(2)

Culture-based tourism is one of the oldest and yet Literature overview


relatively new form of niche tourism (Novelli, 2005) in
Community livelihoods
Africa concerned with the consumption of cultural heri-
tage, both tangible and intangible (Kala, 2008; Wanda, Nicol (2000), Krantz (2001), Ashley et al. (2000),
2005; McKercher and du Cros, 2003; United Nations Coate et al. (2006), and Gnyawali (2007), express
World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), 2005) des- that community livelihoods are determined by levels
cribe culture-based tourism as the subset of tourism of capital assets that people have. All these authors
concerned with the lifestyle of the people in various seem to agree that acquisition and possession of capital
geographical areas, the history of those people, their assets (natural, physical, financial, human, and social)
art, architecture, religion(s), and other elements that by members of a community contribute to poverty
help shape their way of life. Like most countries in the reduction among the communities in tourism destin-
world, culture-based tourism in Uganda can form a cru- ations, thereby impacting on livelihoods.
cial part of community development by providing The basic material including social, tangible, and
market for locally made goods and services, catalyzing intangible assets that people use for constructing their
physical infrastructure development as well as enabling livelihoods are conceptualized as different types of
access to direct and indirect jobs. Revenues from tour- ‘‘capital.’’ This stresses their role as a resource base
ism can be ploughed back into community projects ‘‘from which different productive streams are derived
such as education, health, sanitation, construction, and livelihoods are constructed’’ (Krantz, 2001: 8).
conservation, and business start-up among others that These capital assets may include: natural, social,
promote community livelihoods (UNWTO, 2004). human, physical, and financial or economic capitals
Culture-based tourism contribution in terms of global (Ashley et al., 2000; Wiek et al., 2010). Pena (2008)
tourism revenue is estimated at 40% which is significant and Wiek et al. (2010) point out the human asset/cap-
for its benefits to trickle down for community liveli- ital as being a requirement to make use of any of the
hoods (Bandarin and Hosagrahar, 2011). four other types of assets; it entails people’s capacity to
Uganda is endowed with a diversity of cultures based work, good health, skills, and knowledge of the people.
on more than 56 ethnic groups in the country. The The social capital stimulates development of formal and
country has more than 10 Kingdoms and Chiefdoms informal relationships (social resources) hence enabling
with rich historical, cultural heritage sites, and practices people to have easy access to information, influence or
upon which cultural tourism can be developed. power, and claims or obligation of support from others.
Prominent of these Kingdoms are: Buganda, Toro, People’s livelihoods are affected by the opportunities
Busoga, Bunyoro, Bukonzo, and Bamasaba. However, created by the natural capital around them; the air qual-
communities living around most of the culturally rich ity, management of waste, access to land, water, and
sites in these kingdoms are facing several problems forest among others where they derive their livelihoods.
including limited livelihood options, poverty, unemploy- People need physical capital to support their liveli-
ment, poor infrastructure, lack of access to good health hoods, and these may be in the form of infrastructure
and education facilities, and low demand for goods and and producing goods needed to support livelihoods
services. It is against this background that the Kabaka such as affordable transport, secure shelter, adequate
Heritage Project was initiated in Buganda Kingdom in water supply and sanitation, clean affordable energy,
2001 to encourage tourism along the Heritage Trail of communication, and other personal consumption
the kingdom’s Kings (Kabakas). This trail takes a visitor items. Financial capital in the community may be
from where the Kabaka is enthroned, the prison for manifested by the availability of financial resources
wrong elements in the Kingdom, the King’s resting (cash or equivalent) that enables people to adopt dif-
and recreational areas, the homes for what used to be ferent livelihood strategies and achieve their livelihood
the different wives of the Kabaka, the Kingdom’s parlia- objectives (Ashley et al., 2000).
ment, the Kabaka’s Palace, and finally to the Kabakas’
burial grounds. These sites are well spread within the Culture-based tourism and community
Kingdom and are at different levels of tourism develop-
ment. Proponents of this project believed that it would
livelihoods
offer social and economic benefits to local communities Culture-based tourism is the subset of tourism
through tourism development and contribute to conser- concerned with the lifestyle of the people in various
vation of cultural and historical heritage in the Kingdom. geographical areas, the history of those people, their
Taking the Kabaka Heritage Trail as a case study, this art, architecture, religion(s), and other elements that
paper investigates the extent to which culture-based help shape their way of life. Culture-based tourism
tourism and cultural conservation influences commu- may also include tourism in urban areas, particularly
nity livelihoods. in historic or large cities and their cultural facilities

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Ahebwa et al. 105

such as museums and theaters. It can also include heritage. In support of this, Ryan and Silvanto
tourism in rural areas showcasing the traditions of (2011) argue that most countries that claim to be pro-
indigenous cultural communities like festivals, rituals, posing cultural sites for inclusion in the world heritage
and their values and lifestyle (Bandarin and sites list for protection and conservation purpose actu-
Hosagrahar, 2011; UNWTO, 2004). ally have culture-based tourism as a principal motive.
Yun et al. (2008) aver that culture-based tourism Many culture-based tourism destinations worldwide
consists of the consumption of culture, both tangible make innovations to conserve cultural heritage by link-
and intangible cultural features of a destination by ing the traditional cultural products, services, and heri-
tourists during their travel experience. Such cultural tage with the creative industries such as media and
experience may involve consumption of cultural enter- entertainment, design, architecture, and fashion, and
tainment, food, drink, hospitality, architecture, and such an approach offers great advantages in attracting
manufactured and hand-crafted products of a destin- visitors (UNWTO, 2005). This arrangement puts con-
ation and also wilderness areas, valued landscapes, servation at the forefront of culture-based tourism since
history buildings, and artifacts as part of the experience. it involves cultural product development. However, it
UNWTO (2004) considers elements of culture, both should, where possible, focus on the existing and dis-
tangible and intangible to be attached to particular tinguishing cultural values of a destination as culture
communities. This implies that the benefits brought needs to be rooted in the community in order to be
in by culture-based tourism can easily trickle down to authentic. ATLAS (2002) affirms that the practical suc-
the respective communities hence improving their live- cess of culture-based tourism depends on the extent of
lihoods. Brida et al. (2011) position culture-based tour- involvement of the host communities in conservation of
ism as an opportunity for the local communities to meet their own culture and that this should also be graced by
people and also as an avenue for development of social visiting tourists respecting the host communities.
services and facilities like roads, health care, and hospi- ATLAS further emphasizes that culture-based tourism
tality among others. Bandarin et al. (2011: 17) hold if uncoordinated can present an immense power to des-
that, manifestation of proper community livelihood troy territorial and local cultural identities.
come in many forms that can also include ‘‘greater Culture-based tourism is also applauded for
access to knowledge, better nutrition and health ser- encouraging the development of cultural museums
vices, more secure lives, security against crime and and centers that enhance the preservation of authentic
physical violence, satisfying leisure hours, political and cultural products in forms of artifacts, exhibits of cul-
cultural freedoms and a sense of participation in com- tural value, and other collections of great ethnographic
munity tourism activities.’’ and archaeological value. According to ATLAS (2002),
The movement of persons to cultural attractions the authentic cultural products that can be preserved
away from their normal place of residence with the at the cultural centers and museum were found to
intention to gather new information and experiences include art and craft products like baskets, earthenware,
to satisfy their cultural needs is a clear representation and wood products; the iron industry products like
of culture-based tourism (UNWTO, 2004). Spenceley pangas, hoes, axes, ankle rings, jingles, spears, bows,
(2010) affirms that, cultural tourists buy local foods and arrows; traditional foods and drinks; and the trad-
and beverages, pay for the traditional arts and itional ceremonial regalia. The cultural centers setup for
performances, buy art and craft products among tourist purposes can also be used to display traditional
others that generate revenues and employment to the songs, music, and dance featured in initiation, wedding,
local communities. In addition, the effort to develop funerals, and other social functions. Nthiga et al. (2011)
culture-based tourism, infrastructure, and associated opine that, economic income generated to the commu-
services can bring about development of roads, accom- nities through tourism can act as an incentive and
modation, health care facilities, water, electricity, and motivation for them to participate in the conservation
security. However, some scholars warn that the bene- processes of the tourism resource bases.
fits accruing from culture-based tourism should not Hamzah and Ismail (2008) advance culture-based
attract erosion of cultural values of the community tourism as an encouragement to practicing culture and
involved, hence need for cultural conservation. traditions since it involves travelers who are motivated
by an interest in experiencing other peoples, places,
Culture-based tourism and cultural and cultures. Spenceley (2010) affirms that culture-
based tourism provides an opportunity for exchange
conservation
and learning between cultures. However studies by
Roders and Oers (2011) suggest that culture-based Brida et al. (2011) revealed that some members of
tourism ensures the continuity of traditions and life- the host communities are sometimes not convinced
styles and contributes to protection of cultural about visitors’ coming to their areas as an incentive

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106 Tourism and Hospitality Research 16(2)

for conservation of traditions or local customs, they conserve resources around them and they will only
instead view it as an interruption to their lifestyles. indeed practice and participate in conservation if
This view by some host communities has forced they stand to gain. It is also eminent that the success
some destinations to consider integrating indigenous of conserving cultural and heritage features of the soci-
perspectives in the promotion of culture-based tourism ety not only involves community members, but it may
as a way of conservation. In response to this, Fauna start right from engaging various stakeholders such as
and Flora International (2011) suggests the need for a government authorities, UNESCO, nongovernmental
win–win approach when dealing with the local organizations, and Advisory bodies. Jokilehto (2011)
communities of this nature. avers UNESCO as being at the top of world cultural
European Association of Historic Towns and heritage conservation. Other advisory bodies such as
Regions (2006) emphasizes the need for authenticity, International Center for the Study of the Preservation
distinctiveness, and the rights and beliefs of local cul- and Restoration of Cultural Property, International
tures to be respected as culture-based tourism is pur- Council on Monuments and Sites, and International
sued in order to ensure sustainability. In that Union for Conservation of Nature play an advisory
perspective, UNESCO (2008) and Irandu (2004) high- role and mobilization of funds for conservation
light that, if tourism activities at the destination are not causes. However, despite being key stakeholders,
handled sustainably, they may attract commodification most local communities in developing countries lack
and basterdization of culture, inappropriate behavior skills, awareness, leadership, power, resources, and are
of tourists, and conflicts with traditional land use. always left out of decision-making processes for cul-
This confirms the position by Irandu (2004) that tour- tural conservation. This is partly the reason why most
ism can bring both negative and positive impacts on culture conservation projects collapse as soon as donor
culture of the host communities. Ryan and Silvanto agencies handover the projects to communities for
(2011) articulate an argument that seems to conclude implementation.
that, though some host communities view culture-based Cultural conservation is increasingly recognized as
tourism as an obstacle on their cultural conservation, key to addressing interconnected economic, social,
preservationists no longer see the explosion of this kind and environmental problems, which have a significant
of tourism as a danger, but rather as a means for finan- contribution to community livelihoods in terms of
cing the preservation and safeguarding of the world’s social welfare and health. Sheridan et al. (2009),
heritage and cultural assets. affix that, conservation initiatives can lead to the estab-
lishment of community projects, including the promo-
Cultural conservation and community tion of services in the areas of health, education, and
recreation, thus contributing to community livelihoods
livelihoods
and well-being. In addition, Roders and Oers (2011)
Conservation is an ethic of resource protection and use applaud conservation arguing that it promotes the
whose primary focus is upon maintenance of existing inclusion of culture in the development paradigm as
resources (Olver et al., 1995). Cultural conservation key to social and economic development of the com-
involves the act of preventing decay, waste, or loss of munity. Indeed, culture and its creative industry and
authenticity of cultural resources both tangible and heritage play a pivotal role of an essential pillar of sus-
intangible (Kamal et al., 2008). De Caro (1991) tainability (the people–sociocultural pillar), others
viewed cultural conservation as a concept that being the planet (environment) and profit (economic)
involves cultural preservation and encouragement. (Roders and Oers, 2011).
Preservation involves planning, documentation, and
maintenance and on the other hand, encouragement Culture-based tourism, cultural
involves publication, public events, and educational
programs. UNWTO (2004) advances six dimensions
conservation, and community livelihoods
of cultural conservation namely degree of mainten- The promotion of culture-based tourism is applauded
ance, authenticity, retention, restoration, awareness, by the UNWTO for promoting better livelihoods
and security of cultural heritage. The degree of main- among communities. UNWTO (2004) considers
tenance of cultural assets is a clear signal of cultural elements of culture, both tangible and intangible
conservation. This can be utilized as a baseline for the to be so much attached to particular communities,
authentication of a cultural heritage. implying that the benefits brought by the culture-
Araoz (2011) asserts that there is growing world based tourism can easily trickle down to the respective
awareness of the need to conserve cultural heritage communities hence improving their livelihoods.
of all cultures in all places. Nthiga et al. (2011) how- However UNWTO (2005) seems to argue that the
ever affirm that the local people are best placed to success in culture-based tourism is bestowed on the

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Ahebwa et al. 107

level of cultural conservation among the communities; their land and live productive and healthy lives without
therefore, culture-based tourism activities in the com- the thought of migration for survival.
munity encourages the continuation of cultural conser- The above theoretical debates on relationship
vation since community members will be trying to between community livelihoods, culture-based tour-
attract more culture curious tourists. ism, and culture conservation can be summed up
Culture-based tourism can offer opportunities for and illustrated in Figure 1.
continuation, rejuvenation, or enhancement of trad- Contributing to these theoretical discussions and
itions and a way of life (UNEP, 2011). ATLAS taking Kabaka Heritage Trails Project as a case study,
(2002) affirms that the practical success of culture- this paper expounds how in practice culture-based tour-
based tourism encourages the involvement of the host ism plays out as tool for cultural conservation and com-
communities in conservation of their own culture both munity development in Uganda. The paper highlights
tangible and intangible. Related, Spenceley (2010) in the relationship between culture-based tourism and com-
her study concluded that culture-based tourism encour- munity livelihoods; examines the relationship between
ages the rehabilitation of cultural sites (e.g., museums, culture-based tourism and cultural conservation and the
gardens, and monuments), raises awareness of the relationship between cultural conservation and community
importance of conserving cultural sites and values, the livelihoods; and finally examines the mediating effect of
traditional cuisine and other cultural practices with the cultural conservation on the relationship between culture-
aim of attracting culture curious tourists, thereby open- based tourism and community livelihoods.
ing opportunities for improving community livelihoods.
Justifying the role of culture-based tourism in com-
munity development, IFRE Volunteers Abroad (2013)
Methodology
describe the Masai of Kenya as being the most unique The study adopted a cross-sectional, correlational
ethnic group in Africa, which has suffered from poverty, survey design with a combination of both quantitative
droughts, disease, and constant migration. However, and qualitative aspects. The survey methodology
their authentic culture and traditions attract tourists helped in measuring the variables and examining the
to Kenya, providing a small market for their goods relationships (Fowler, 1993). The study population
and services. If these developments can bring educa- consisted of 3035 households living around the differ-
tion, community building, infrastructure, and specific ent cultural sites on the Kabaka Heritage Trail. The
skills, cultural groups like the Masai can proudly live on cultural sites constituting this trail include Nagalabi

COMMUNITY LIVELIHOODS

Cultural Degrada!on

Diversified community
livelihoods

CULTURAL RESOURCES

Cultural conserva!on Sustainable Development


• Sustainable rural livelihoods
• Sustainable Cultural Resource U!liza!on
• Sustainable Cultural Tourism Development

Figure 1. Summation of theoretical debates on relationship between community livelihoods, culture-based tourism and
cultural conservation.
Source: Developed from literature review.

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108 Tourism and Hospitality Research 16(2)

Buddo Coronation Site in Nagalabi Village (180 house- Table 1. Cronbach’s alpha values for the study variables.
holds), Katereke Prison ditch in Katereke Village (130
Number Cronbach’s
households); Wamala King’s Tombs in Wamala Village
Variable of items alpha
(600 households); Nnamasole Kanyange Tombs in
Kagoma B Village (with 1200 households); Ssezibwa Culture-based tourism 20 .886
Falls in Madudu Village (25 households), Nnamasole Cultural conservation 30 .900
Baagalayaze Tombs; and Cultural Center in Sekati zone Community livelihood 38 .754
in Mpererwe (with 900 households). Since the study
Source: Field survey (2012).
was conducted between October 2011 and August
2012, Kasubi tomb which is one of the trail sites was
ignored as it had gotten burnt on 16th March 2010. ensued, data were recorded based on interaction
The study considered households that had three or within the group rather than just an individual’s
more members each and had lived in the respective view. This helped in exploring attitudes and percep-
villages for at least one year. This was verified through tions, feelings, and ideas about the variables in the
the respective Local Council one records for the year study. Secondary data about the Cultural sites from
2012. Units of inquiry were household heads, the cul- UCOTA reports and other relevant literature were
tural sites caretakers, and the Uganda Community used to support the empirical findings of the study.
Tourism Association (UCOTA) officials. Household Culture-based tourism was measured using tangible
heads were selected as units of enquiry because they and intangible cultural heritage experience (see also,
manage the income earned and expenses incurred by Yun et al., 2008). Cultural conservation was measured
the household (UBOS, 2010). using level of maintenance, authenticity, restoration,
Using Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) Sample Size awareness, and security (see also, UNWTO, 2004).
Estimation Table, a sample size of 341 households Community livelihoods were measured using liveli-
was selected from the population of 3035. The specific hood assets based on model for livelihoods analysis
number of households considered as a sample size per (Pena, 2008).
cultural site was obtained by proportional allocation. The research instrument was tested for validity using
The household was used as the unit of analysis because the factor loading for individual items and they were all
households are suitable units for determining commu- found to be greater than .6. The questionnaire was
nity livelihoods (see also, Yun et al., 2008; UNWTO, validated through expert interviews and a panel of prac-
2004; Pena, 2008). Site caretakers and UCOTA offi- titioners. The reliability of the test instrument was
cials were included in this study because they are undertaken to establish its internal consistency as advo-
responsible for spearheading cultural site activities and cated by Anastasi (1982) and Nunnally (1978). The
decision making. Purposive sampling was used to select computed Cronbach alpha coefficients were all above
cultural sites caretakers, while simple random sampling 0.7 as presented in Table 1. Content validity was
was used to obtain the sample of 341 households from ensured using expert opinion of three professionals in
the population of 3035 from the respective sites used in tourism who are reputed to have some expertise/
the study. The final sample was obtained by using lot- competency in sustainable tourism-related studies as
tery method where one household name was picked recommended by Professional Testing (2006).
without replacement until the required sample size for
the respective cultural site was obtained. This ensured
that all households had equal chance of being picked. Presentation and discussion of results
This further reduced bias during sample selection.
Sample characteristics
Primary data were collected from the respondents
(cultural sites’ stakeholders) using a self-administered From the sample size of 337 respondents used in
structured questionnaire and focus groups discussions. this study, 55.5% were male. A total of 73.8% of the
Respondents were guided through the questionnaires respondents were in the age range between 18 and
to ensure high level of accuracy in the data collection 35 years. Of the 337 respondents, 32.0% had lived in
process. This process enabled achievement of a 99.7% their villages for between 1 and 5 years, while 21.1%
response rate. The questions were related to culture- had lived in their villages for between 5 and 10 years,
based tourism, cultural conservation, and community 13.6% for between 10 and 15 years and 33.2% for over
livelihoods around cultural sites in Buganda. Focus 15 years. Majority of the households (61.7%) earned
group discussions involved 6–10 people brought income of between $36 and $179 followed those in the
together from each village where the cultural site is bracket of between $179 and $357 (18.4%) and those
located. The researchers introduced the topic and who earned a monthly income of less than $36 and
the variables under study. Through discussions that above $357 were 13.1% and 6.8%, respectively.

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Ahebwa et al. 109

The relationship between culture-based site is these days lonely without presence of tourists
and also tour guides who used to be here have left
tourism and cultural conservation
since there was no business, hence for one to be
As can be noted in Table 2, there is positive correlation attended to, they need to call me loudly when I am
between culture-based tourism and cultural conserva- busy with my house work and yet noise is against the
tion (r ¼ .609, p < .01). This implies that culture-based protocols at this cultural site. This drum is not sup-
tourism around communities is associated with high posed to be touched by youth, you can become impo-
levels of cultural conservation. For instance, the fre- tent and when we play it the sound goes ‘‘Kuzala
quency with which visitors go to the villages and enjoy Kuzibu X2, Yakwata Kitooke, Yakwata Mutuba,
traditional music, dance, and drama is associated with Yakwata Muvule’’ a kiganda expression.
the local communities holding on to their traditions.
The local communities are involved in the above prac- The quotation above empirically reveals positive and
tices and maintain their cultural identities. significant relationship between culture-based tourism
As demonstrated in this case, the initiation of the and cultural conservation. In focus group discussions
project created community awareness of the values of held at all sites, there was general consensus on the
their cultural heritage, which instilled a sense of pride contribution of culture-based tourism to cultural con-
as one participant observed: servation. It was expressed that the tangible heritage
elements are the major attractions at the sites followed
We had a cultural dance and drama group that used to by the intangible heritage attractions such as stories
represent us in the cultural performance competition about Buganda culture that the tourists are inquisitive
organized by UCOTA, and our Kanyange Cultural about. Traditional items are found at the sites like:
Site group always emerged the best, that’s why they spears, coffee beans, pots, drums, bark cloth, and
gave us this trophy in 2001 during the heritage trails other tools and the guides at the site who narrate stor-
festival (see Figure 2). This made us proud of our ies about Buganda are natives of Buganda and from
culture and we want to keep it. On a sad note, the the royal lineage of Buganda Kingdom, which there-
fore gives better level of cultural authenticity which is
Table 2. Correlation analysis. one of the strong indicators of cultural conservation
(see also UNWTO, 2004).
Variables (1) (2) (3) The focus group meetings further revealed that all
Culture-based tourism (1) 1 sites had cultural dancers who were natives of Buganda
Cultural conservation (2) .609** 1 Kingdom and could dress in traditional costumes and
perform traditional Buganda songs for the tourists who
Community livelihood (3) .349** .408** 1
visited the sites and all visitors are welcomed to the site
**Correlation significant at p < .01 (two-tailed). in a traditional way where one removes shoes before

Figure 2. Cultural Gala Meritorious Award for Kanyange Cultural Site Group.
Source: Field Visit Photos by The Researchers (2012).

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110 Tourism and Hospitality Research 16(2)

entering a holy place, they are sat down, and given a associations including those that were established in
welcome coffee beans. In emphasizing this, one site each of the six sites on the Kabaka’s trail in 1999 to
overseer argued; provide a win–win outcome for all players. The
All people who perform cultural dances to our vis- UCOTA mission confirms this effort; ‘‘To spearhead
itors are native Baganda. They dress in traditional cos- sustainable community based tourism in collaboration
tumes which we put on when performing to our king with stakeholders, aiming at increasing community
and at traditional ceremonies. We want our visitors to benefits, promoting quality standards, ownership and
experience are true culture in its form. . ... in Buganda, conservation of natural and cultural resources for
entering respected places like palace etc.. One would better livelihoods’’ (UCOTA, 2012). However, it was
go bare footed. . . we still maintain this and our visitors noted that the governance problems associated with
are advised so as well. . . Kabaka Foundation and the financial constraints of
In such a quotation, it is evident that the local UCOTA have jointly hampered and constrained the
people are so passionate about conserving their cul- functioning of these institutions in ensuring sustain-
tural norms and practices while selling it out to tourists able culture-based tourism development in Buganda.
to make a living through tourism. In fact, though the local communities recognized the
Despite this seeming bright situation, like many com- benefits brought by the Kabaka’s Trail Project, all
munity-based tourism initiatives in developing coun- these seemed to have been vanishing. The departure
tries, the Kabaka heritage Trail is not free from of founders like ACT to the United Kingdom did not
challenges, some of which have threatened the existence leave the initial bright situation the same.
of these sites. Apart from Ssezibwa Falls and Katereke
Prison Ditch, it was noted that a high level of insecurity The relationship between culture-based
has marred the physical heritage assets at the cultural
sites. This has seen heritage assets like Buganda House
tourism and community livelihoods
called ‘‘Bwanika’’ at Nagalabi burnt down on 8th Table 2 further reveals a positive correlation between
August 2012 part of Bulange on October 2012 and culture-based tourism and community livelihood
Kasubi Tombs (a popular site that was already declared (r ¼ .349, p < .01). This indicates that the level of cul-
a world heritage site) burnt down on 16th march 2010. ture-based tourism corresponds directly with the level
The causes of these fires have never been established, of community livelihood. The relationship here for
but informally attributed to poor fire risk management. instance implies that the more culture-based tourism
The fire did not only burn the heritage structures but is practiced in the community, the more it is likely to
many cultural heritage features got destroyed like the open up avenues for improving their livelihoods, cul-
cultural drums, literature, traditional tools, bark cloth, tural tourists spend money on entrance fees, purchase
baskets, and a lot of history including the so-called forest of handmade products from communities, and enter-
at the back of the tomb where the Kabakas (Kings) dis- tainment activities provided at the sites. One UCOTA
appear when they die for Kasubi. official for instance argued:
It is also still a big challenge for communities to run
and compete in business with private tourism service We used to directly get involved in the running of the
and product providers. The communities have limited cultural sites on the Kabaka’s Trail together with ACT
business skills, this study revealed that though the local and the Kabaka’s Foundation. We later formed com-
communities embraced the benefits brought by the munity associations at the sites of about 215 members
Kabaka’s Trail Project, most of these seemed to have and 63 percent of them were women. A legal agree-
vanished by the end of year 2002 when some of the ment was made stipulating that the associations were
founders like Action for Conservation through required to give 30 per cent of the net entrance fee
Tourism (ACT) returned to the United Kingdom. collected at each site to the Buganda Kingdom admin-
These actors had provided business support to com- istration for maintenance of other sites. The remaining
munities and they left without a clear succession pro- 70 per cent and all other income from their activities
gram to keep the project running. (e.g. guiding, handicraft sales, cultural entertainment)
Some community members viewed culture-based accrues to the association and its members. This
tourism as a disruption to people’s cultural set up. agreement provided new incentives for the local com-
In this Buganda case, benefits were not flowing to all munity to work together with each other and the trad-
members of the community. This triggered some form itional cultural institution.
of hatred that led to burning of some establishments
along the trail. Key of the reasons why UCOTA and Results from all focus group discussions indicated that,
the Kabaka’s Foundation were established was to between the year 2000 and 2004, the six sites were very
manage these cultural sites through the community active and many community members were in position

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Ahebwa et al. 111

to sell handcrafts; they formed community associations bought traditional food stuffs from the households
in each of the sites; there were music, dance, and drama like fruits and ‘‘Matooke.’’ All these activities brought
performances; they created friendship with foreigners various households together; they made friends both
who invited some community members abroad; sold within and among the visitors who came to the sites.
food stuffs like ‘‘Matooke’’ to the tourists and some One respondent at Katereke Prison Ditch Cultural
community members were trained in handcrafts Site revealed that:
making and tour guiding skills.
Although a positive relationship between culture- When visitor come here, they buy local products, local
based tourism and livelihoods is clearly noted, low busi- people dance for them and they get paid. After per-
ness affects these culture-based tourism enterprises. For formances, they relax under the trees in this site; they
example on the Kabake Heritage Trail, most of the asso- have developed very good social networks. Some tour-
ciated benefits were declining due to low visitor arrivals. ists eat local foods and pay locals. . .
A low visitor arrival was attributed to limited marketing,
limited information about products and services offered This shows the entrenching impact of culture-based
at these sites, and in adequate online visibility. The tourism in creating spin-off efforts for communities
robust marketing program for the project ended when engaged and enabling them to acquire extra incomes.
donors pulled out and handed the project to community
associations. As Holland et al. (2003) and ATLAS
(2002) argue, the collapse of culture-based tourism Test for mediating effect of cultural
enterprises of this nature is largely associated with poor conservation on the relationship between
or no promotion of such cultural assets for tourism. culture-based tourism and community
On a negative note, it emerged that cultural
elements that are at the forefront of culture-based
livelihoods
tourism tend to be more commercialized. The focus The theoretical framework of the study depicted
groups in all sites contended that some elements of cultural conservation as mediating variable of the asso-
their culture like dress code, language, and social prac- ciation of culture-based tourism and community live-
tices generally had been negatively affected by the lihoods. Therefore, a test for mediation was conducted
coming of tourists to the communities around the to confirm this mediating effect.
cultural sites. This finding nonetheless does not under- Baron and Kenny’s (1986) four-step approach for
score the consideration of culture-based tourism in testing mediation was adopted in which several regres-
enhancing opportunities to conserve culture as well sion analyses were conducted and significance of the
as access social, human, natural, physical, and finan- coefficients was examined at each step as seen in
cial capital for construction of community livelihoods. Table 3. Step 1 involved conducting a simple regression
with culture-based tourism (X) predicting community
The relationship between cultural livelihoods (Y), and culture-based tourism was found to
have a significant positive relationship with community
conservation and community livelihoods livelihoods, b ¼ .349, p < .01. Step 2 involved conduct-
Cultural conservation was also found to be positively ing a regression of cultural conservation (M) on cul-
correlated with community livelihood (r ¼ .408, ture-based tourism (X), where culture-based tourism
p < .01), an indication that the level of cultural conser- again was found to have a significant positive relation-
vation, similar to culture-based tourism is also dir- ship with cultural conservation, b ¼ .609, p < .01.
ectly related to the level of community livelihood. Step 3 involved conducting a regression of community
When cultural assets were conserved, income was gen- livelihoods (Y) on cultural conservation (M), where cul-
erated both directly and indirectly. Community mem- tural conservation was found to have a significant posi-
bers got jobs ranging from guides to providers of tive relationship with community livelihoods, b ¼ 310,
cultural products and services. Some members p < .01. Step 4 involved conducting a multiple regres-
opened up restaurants, handcrafts shops, started cul- sion with culture-based tourism (X) and cultural con-
tural dance groups, provided tour guiding and inter- servation (M) predicting community livelihoods (Y)
pretation services among others. A situation that and both X and M were found to have a significant
brought about spin-off income from various commu- positive relationship with community livelihoods (Y);
nity engagements on the trail. however, it was noted that introducing cultural conser-
In all focus group discussions, it emerged that the vation (M) in step 4 led to a reduction in the standar-
community members were involved in the provision of dized regression coefficients Beta from Beta ¼ .349 to
traditional music, dance and drama, art and crafts Beta ¼ .161. This implies that cultural conservation
items, tour guiding services, and also some tourists (M) had a partial mediation effect on the association

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112 Tourism and Hospitality Research 16(2)

Table 3. Test for mediating effect of cultural conservation on the relationship between culture-based
tourism and community livelihood.

Regression coefficients

Regression Unstandardized B Standardized Beta SE t Significance

b(YX) .187 .349 .027 6.826 .000


b(MX) .425 .609 .030 19.180 .000
b(YM) .238 .310 .048 4.972 .000
b(YX.M) .086 .161 .033 2.579 .010
Sobel test 4.679 0.022 .000
Note: Y, community livelihoods; X, culture-based tourism; M, cultural conservation.
Indirect effect ¼ .101, direct effect ¼ .086, total effect ¼ .187.

Cultural
conservation
(M)

III (β= .310***)

II (β=.609***)

Culture based Community


I (β=.349***
tourism Livelihood
(Χ) (Y)
IV (β=.161**

Figure 3. The mediating effect of cultural conservation on the relationship between culture-based tourism and com-
munity livelihood.
Note: All p < .01 (two-tailed).
Source: Primary Data.

between culture-based tourism (X) and community tourism and appreciation of cultural conservation sig-
livelihoods (Y) (Figure 3). According to Baron and nificantly improves the level of community livelihoods
Kenny (1986), partial mediation happens when the around cultural sites which is supported by Roders and
path from X (causal variable) to Y (outcome variable) Oers (2011); Bandarin et al. (2011); and Sheridan
is reduced in absolute size, but is still different from zero et al. (2009). These authors in agreement mentioned
when the mediating variable (M) is introduced. culture-based tourism and cultural heritage conserva-
tion as a boost to local and national economy, creation
of jobs; attract culture curious tourists and investment,
Discussion provide leisure, recreation, and educational facilities
The findings in this case study therefore suggest and other industries can also benefit from its indirect
that when culture-based tourism activities increase in spin-offs thereby making it part of social–cultural
a community, cultural conservation is likely to be process suitable for improvement of livelihoods.
enabled as community members try to tap tourism Therefore, this case study results contend that when
opportunities. The revealed positive and significant culture-based tourism is promoted, the conservation
relationship between culture-based tourism and com- of cultural assets (both tangible and intangible)
munity livelihoods and between cultural conservation around the involved communities will be enhanced
and community livelihoods means that culture-based as cultural elements act as tourist attractions that

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Ahebwa et al. 113

pull tourists who are interested in learning and ex-


Conclusion
periencing other peoples’ culture. In addition, when
tourist visit cultural sites, they may need transport This study investigated the relationship between
facilities and infrastructure like roads, they may need culture-based tourism, community livelihoods, and cul-
accommodation, food and beverages, art and crafts tural heritage conservation. The results indicate a posi-
items, entertainment, and other social services and tive relation and therefore, there is a need to encourage
when these are provided in the community, they bene- culture-based tourism for conservation and develop-
fit community members to access livelihood assets ment. This was done by testing the mediating effect
(physical, financial, natural, social, and human). of cultural conservation on the relationship between
Culture-based tourism unlike other forms of tourism culture-based tourism and community livelihood
hence has the potential to reshape the traditional ‘‘tour- around cultural sites in Uganda. In this case, the results
ist bubble’’ (closed circular tour packages), which tends have shown the specific drivers of community liveli-
to be organized by powerful tour operators who play a hoods in their causal chain relationships. Accordingly,
mediating role in tourism development in the develop- the findings indicate that cultural conservation mediates
ing world (Adiyia et al., 2015). Such mediated itiner- (partial mediation) the relationship between culture-
aries guide a tourist from the airport to big hotels, to based tourism and community livelihoods. Culture-
national parks, and big attractions, back to the airport based tourism and cultural conservation are true drivers
in their four-wheel drive vehicles. Limited linkage of community livelihoods around cultural sites.
opportunities are created for local people to benefit Most tourists who visit cultural sites such as those in
from tourism like cultural tourism does. As Adiyia Buganda prefer traditional costumes, foods and bever-
et al. (2015) argue, culture-based tourism is community ages; art and crafts, they enjoy locally prepared brew;
based, the communities are in full control of the busi- they attended traditional ceremonies and festivals;
ness. If well promoted and integrated in the traditional music, dance, and drama and others are particularly
itineraries of tour operators, the bubble is enlarged to interested in the history about the people at the destin-
enable community supply linkages. ation. Such activities increase on the opportunities for
However, despite the appealing nature of culture- the pursuit of livelihood assets, directly and indirectly.
based tourism, this case study reveals a number of When a tourist visits a community, they may need vari-
daunting challenges constraining its spin-off effects in ous services ranging from food, accommodation, enter-
the local economy. These challenges seem to be inher- tainment, souvenirs, and guiding services that can be
ent in other forms of community-based tourism initia- provided by the communities in one way or the other
tives in the developing world (see Ahebwa and Van der and these arrangements can boost a stronger relation-
Dium, 2013). They include limited skills possessed by ship with the visitors and fellow community members.
local people to run tourism business, governance issues, Despite inherent challenges such as limited skills,
limited capital to enable starting of appealing busi- governance issues, limited capital, conflicts, and
nesses, conflicts within the community, limited expos- limited business exposure, it can be concluded that
ure to tourism business and tourists’ expectations. well-managed culture-based tourism activities graced
Because of these, even where donors start these enter- with conservation efforts can build opportunities for
prises, majority collapse as soon as donor funds and diversifying livelihood options for communities. The
technical assistance runs out. Accordingly, ATLAS trend of supporting community-based tourism in the
(2002) argues that local communities at the destination developing world seems to be picking momentum.
need a well thought out institutional framework to There is a need to support the emergence of commu-
enhance their skills, awareness, leadership, power, nity entrepreneurs through training and capacity devel-
resources, and participation and further encourage con- opment not just associations around cultural sites. This
tinuous inclusion of all local community members in will serve the social development objectives of culture-
the decision-making processes. For the case study based tourism projects and also to sustain their continu-
dealt with here, UCOTA was formed for that purpose. ity and operation of business. As Ryan and Silvanto
However, it has also suffered a number of problems (2011) pronounce, proposing cultural sites for inclusion
including lack of sustainable funding sources and lim- in the world heritage sites list promotes their protection
ited technical expertise to support community tourism and conservation through culture-based tourism as they
initiatives. Alternatively, private–community partner- get known internationally and locally to tourism prod-
ship models with private sector are advanced as they uct developers and sellers. Alternatively a trial of private
are seen to circumvent these challenges (Ahebwa community partnerships would help, though must be
et al., 2012). In these arrangements, communities bene- taken in formulation of rules of the game and the gen-
fit from wider business networks and expertise as well as eral institutional set up as it has been found to breed
financial assets of the private sector. conflicts (see Ahebwa et al., 2012).

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114 Tourism and Hospitality Research 16(2)

Further research can be conducted to assess the De Caro F (1991) Cultural conservation: Reconfiguring the cultural
extent to which inclusion of cultural sites on world mission. Journal of Maerican Folklore 104(411): 85–91.
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novel and innovative ways of marketing and promoting Fauna and Flora International (2011) Integrating Culture and
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cultural tourism. Community perception, stakeholder
International website: http://www.fauna-flora.org/wp-content/
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Declaration of Conflicting Interests Gnyawali TP (2007) Sustainable Livelihoods. Understanding the
Changes in Livelihoods Assets with Locals: A Case study from
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with Kanchenjunga Conservation Area Project, Nepal. Available at:
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this DEFRA Web site: http://darwin.defra.gov.uk/documents/14013/
article. 1407/14-013%20AR2%20Ann3%20Sustainable%20
Livelihoods%20Nepal.pdf (accessed 4 March 2011).
Funding Hamzah H and Ismail H (2008) A design of Nature-Culture Based
Tourism Corridor; A Pilot Project at Kelantan Darul Naim.
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, Available at: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Institutional
authorship, and/or publication of this article. Repository website: http://eprints.utm.my/5846/1/78004.pdf
(accessed 2 November 2011).
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http://msvu.academia.edu/WandaGeorge/Papers/435737/Comm
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