1

0FUELS and COMBUSTION

Fuel – is composed of chemical elements which, in rapid chemical union with oxygen, produce
combustion. It is any material that liberates heat when it reacts with oxygen.

Combustion (or burning) – is a rapid chemical combination of oxygen with fuel which results in the
evolution of light and the rapid production of heat. It is the union of oxygen with combustible materials.

Classification of Fuels:

Fuels may be divided into three classes:

1) Solid fuels
Natural: coal, wood and wood wastes, bagasse, rice husks, coconut shells and vegetable wastes.
Prepared: charcoal, coke, briquetted coal and paper
2) Liquid fuels
Natural: crude petroleum
Prepared: gasoline, diesel, kerosene, alcohol, Alco gas, bunker fuel oils A, B & C, biofuel
3) Gaseous fuels
Natural: natural gas
Prepared: liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), blast furnace gas, coke-oven gas, water gas, producer
gas, biogas

Bagasse – is refuse sugarcane which is used as fuel in sugar plantation. It is that portion of sugarcane
that remains after the sugar is extracted.

Gross heating value (Raw state): 3600 to 4800 Btu/lb. (8373 to 11164 KJ/kg)

Gross heating value (Dry state): 8300 Btu/lb. (19305 KJ/kg)

Wood and Wood wastes

Wood wastes: saw dust, shavings, slabs, blocks and edgings

Heat value of dry wood: 7300 to 9900 Btu/lb. (16979 to 23026 KJ/kg)

Charcoal – is made from wood by heating or distillation process similar to the one used in carbonizing
coal. In its crudest form, the process consists of covering a heap of wood with earth except for a central
chimney and several openings at the sides of the pile. The limited amount of air admitted when the
wood is ignited burns a portion of the wood leaving a residue of charcoal.

Heating value: 12000 to 14000 Btu/lb. (27911 to 32563 KJ/kg)

Analysis of Solid Fuels (coal):

1. Proximate analysis – determines the composition of coal by mechanical processes. It determines

the mass percentages of fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash.
Proximate Analysis : (Fuel as-received or fuel as-fired basis)
Fixed carbon, FC = %
Volatile matter, VM= %
Moisture, M = %
Ash, A = %

Total = 100%

Moisture – exists in two forms: (1) as inherent and (2) free moisture. The inherent moisture is the
combined moisture held in the pores of the coal. It is never removed from the coal used for power plants
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as removal. The free moisture is the moisture present in the coal which can be removed merely by
exposing the coal to the natural air flow or by drying with the help of air at 50 oC.

Volatile Matter – consists of carbon combined with hydrogen together with other gas forming
constituents that are driven off by heat. The volatile matter in the coal may be combustible gases such as
methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and other hydrocarbon or incombustible gases like CO 2 and N2.

Fixed Carbon – is carbon which is not in combination with any other element. It is not pure carbon since
the carbonized residue contains, in addition to the ash-forming constituents, amount of hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen, and approximately half the original content. The percentage of fixed carbon is
determined by subtracting from 100% the sum of the percentages of moisture, volatile matter, and ash.

Ash – exists in two forms: (1) as fixed ash and (2) as free ash. The fixed ash comes from the original
vegetable matter and it cannot be removed from the coal before burning. The free ash comes with the
coal in the form of coal, shade and pyrites. The free ash can be reduced or removed by mechanical
processing of coal such as washing or screening.

2. Ultimate Analysis – separates coal into its chemical constituents by chemical processes. It
specifies on a mass basis. The relative amounts of C, H 2, N2, S, A, and M.
 Carbon – the percentage of carbon plays the most important role in the selection of coal
for thermal plant. Higher percentage of carbon gives high heat value and reduces the size
of combustion chamber required.
 Hydrogen – it is always assumed that part of hydrogen exist in the coal in combined form
with oxygen known as inherent moisture. This inherent moisture is objectionable as it
carries heat with flue gases without playing any part in combustion. High percentage of
the free hydrogen is always desirable as it increases the heating value of the coal.
 Oxygen – it is always in combined form with hydrogen. Low percentage of oxygen is
always desirable as it reduces the percentage of hydrogen available for free heating.
 Nitrogen – the percentage of nitrogen in coal does not play any importance in the
combustion calculations as it has no heating value. Nitrogen is chemically inert, and like
ash, it decreases the energy per ton of coal.
 Sulfur – the percentage of sulfur present in coal varies from 0.50 to 7%. It adds a little
heating value but furnishes many undesirable characteristics. The high percentage of
sulfur is highly objectionable because sulfur is responsible for clinkering, slagging,
corrosion of air preheaters, economizers, and stacks and air pollution.
Ash as defined under
Moisture proximate analysis

Methods of Reporting Analysis:

Both the proximate and ultimate analysis may be expressed in terms of:

(a) “fuel as-received” or “fuel as-fired”

(b) “fuel as moisture-free” or dry fuel
(c) “fuel as moisture and ash-free” or combustible fuel
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a) “fuel as-received” or “fuel as-fired” basis:

Ultimate analysis:
C= %
H2 = %
O2 = %
N2 = %
S= %
A= %
M= %
Total = 100%

Proximate analysis:
V.M. = %
F.C. = %
M= %
A= %
Total = 100%

b) Conversion from “As-Fired Basis” to Fuel as moisture-free basis: Divide each element in the as-
fired or as-received basis by (1-M) except moisture.
Ultimate analysis:
Dry C = as-fired C / (1-M)
Dry H2 = as-fired H2 / (1-M)
Dry O2 = as-fired O2 / (1-M)
Dry N2 = as-fired N2 / (1-M)
Dry S = as-fired S / (1-M)
Dry A = as-fired A / (1-M)
Total = 100%

Proximate analysis:

Dry VM =

Dry FC =

Dry A =

Total = 100%

c) Conversion from “fuel as-fired” to “fuel as moisture and free basis” : Divide each element by (1-
M-A) except moisture and ash.
Ultimate analysis:

Combustible C =

Combustible H2 =

Combustible O2 =

Combustible N2 =

Combustible S =
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Total = 100%

Proximate analysis:

Combustible VM =

Combustible FC =

Total = 100%

The combustible elements in fuels are as follows:

Free State
Carbon, C

Hydrogen, Hconsisting
Combined State – hydrocarbon 2 of the so-called volatile matter.

Liquid Fuels Sulfur, S

Definition of terms as applied to liquid fuels:
1) Cetane Number – the percentage of cetane in the mixture of cetane (C 16H34) and
alphamethylnapthaline (C11H10) which will give the same ignition quality as the fuel oil
under test. Thus, a fuel with a cetane number 45 has the same ignition quality as a
mixture of 45% of C16H34 and 55% C11H10. The recommended minimum cetane numbers
are 25-35 for low speed, 35-45 for medium speed and 45-50 for high speed engines.
2) Octane number – the octane number of a gasoline is the percentage by volume of iso-
octane in a mixture if isooctane (C 8H18) and normal heptane (C 7H16) which produces the
knock intensity as the given fuel. Thus, a mixture of 70% octane and 30% heptane has
an octane number of 70. It has been established that pure isooctane is practically free
from knock, whereas pure heptane knocks worse than any gasoline. The greater the
octane number the better is the anti-knocking property of the gasoline.
3) Cloud Point – the temperature at which a solution becomes cloudy because wax or
other solid begins to separate or crystallize from it. It is also the temperature at which
the paraffin elements separate from oil.
4) Fire point – the lowest temperature of a liquid fuel oil in an open container at which oil
gives off vapour that burns continuously when ignited.
5) Flash point – the temperature at which the vapor will flash when exposed to flame. It
is of little value except a rough indication of the volatility of oil.
6) Pour point – the minimum temperature at which fuel oil will not flow freely under
specified conditions.
7) Specific gravity – the ratio of the weight of any volume oil at 60 oF (15.6oC) to the
weight of an equal volume of pure water at 60 oF (15.6oC). The American Petroleum
Institute (API) gravity of pure water at 60 oF (15.6oC) is 10o. The range of oAPI for fuel oil
is approximately 40oAPI.

o
API = -131.5

or
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o
API = -131.5

8) Viscosity – the internal resistance of a fluid to flow usually expressed in a viscosity

index Saybolt Seconds Universal (SSU). It is determined by measuring the time in
seconds required for a standard quantity of oil (60cc) to flow through the orifice of the
Saybolt Viscosimeter at a standard temperature. Another viscosity index is Saybolt
Seconds Furol (SSF). Viscosity is an important indicator of how readily the oil will
atomize and how it will affect the injection pump.
9) Volatility – the percentage of fuel by volume that will evaporate at a given
temperature.
10) Heating value of fuels – is defined as the amount of heat energy liberated or released
by the complete combustion of a unit mass or volume of a fuel and when the products
of combustion are cooled to the original temperature of the fuel.
For solid fuels:

Heating value or or

For gaseous fuels:

Heating value or or

Fuels which contain hydrogen have two heating values:

1) Higher Heating Value (HHV)

- is the amount of heat liberated per kilogram or pound of fuel as indicated by a
constant-volume calorimeter (Bomb calorimeter) in which the steam produced is
condensed and the heat of vapour is recovered.
2) Lower Heating Value (LHV)
- is found by deducting from the higher heating value the heat needed to vaporize the
mechanical moisture formed when a fuel burns.
- is the heating value obtained when the water in the products of combustion is in the
vapor state.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) – are mixtures of hydrocarbons (propane and butane) liquefied under
pressure for efficient transportation, storage and use.

Relevant Provisions of REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9367: Biofuel Act of 2006

Rule 1. General Provisions
Section 1. Title, Purpose, and Scope.
1.1 This Department Circular shall be known as the Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of
Republic Act No. 9367, otherwise known as the Biofuels Act of 2006 and referred to as the “Act” in this
IRR.

1.2 It shall cover the production, blending, storage, handling, transportation, distribution, use, and sale
of biofuels, biofuel-blends, and biofuel feedstock in the Philippines.

1.3 Further, it clarifies specific provisions of the Act and the roles and functions of the different
government agencies and their relationship with the National Biofuels Board.
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Section 3. Definition of Terms.

3.1 As used in the Biofuels Act of 2006 and this Implementing Rules and Regulations
(IRR), the following terms shall be defined as follows:

a) Act - shall refer to the Biofuels Act of 2006;

b) AFTA - shall refer to the ASEAN Free Trade Agreement initiated by the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations;

c) Alternative Fuel Vehicles/Engines - shall refer to vehicles/engines that use alternatively fuels
such as biodiesel, bioethanol, natural gas, electricity, hydrogen, and automotive LPG, instead of
gasoline and diesel

d) Bioethanol - shall refer to ethanol (C2H5OH) produced from feedstock and other biomass;

e) Biodiesel - shall refer to Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) or mono-alkyl esters derived from
vegetable oils or animal fats and other biomass-derived oils that shall be technically proven and
approved by the DOE for use in diesel engines with quality specifications in accordance with
Philippine National standards (PNS);

f) Bioethanol Fuel - shall refer to hydrous or anhydrous bioethanol suitable denatured for use as
motor fuel, with quality specifications in accordance with the PNS;

g) Biofuel - shall refer to bioethanol and biodiesel and other fuels made from biomass and
primarily used for motive, thermal and power generation with quality specifications in
accordance with the PNS;

h) Biofuel blends - shall refer to gasoline or diesel that has been blended with biofuels such as, but
not limited to, bioethanol and biodiesel;

i) Biomass - shall refer to any organic matter, particularly cellulosic or lingocellulosic matter, which
is available on a renewable or recurring basis, including basis, including trees, crops and
associated residues, plant fiber, poultry litter and other animal wastes, industrial wastes, and the
biodegradable component of solid waste;
j) DA - shall refer to the Department of Agriculture created under ExecutiveOrder No. 116, as
amended;
k) DENR - shall refer to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources created under
Executive Order No. 192, as amended;
l) Diesel - shall refer to refined petroleum distillate, which may contain small amounts of
hydrocarbon or nonhydrocarbon additives to improve ignition quality or other characteristics,
suitable for compression ignition engine and other suitable types of engines with quality
specifications in compliance with the PNS;
m) Gasoline - shall refer to volatile mixture of liquid hydrocarbon, generally containing small
amounts of additives, suitable for use as a fuel in spark-ignition internal combustion engine with
quality specifications in compliance with the PNS;
n) Locally-sourced biofuels - shall refer to biofuels derived from feedstocks grown/planted,
harvested and processed in the Philippines;
o) Motor Fuel - shall refer to all volatile and inflammable liquids and gas produced, blended or
compounded for the purpose of, or which are suitable or practicable for, operating motor
vehicles;
p) MTBE - shall refer to Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether;
q) PNS - shall refer to the Philippine National Standards consistent with Section 26 of R.A. No. 8749
otherwise known as the “Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999”;
Rule 2. Operation of the Mandate
Section 4. Phasing Out of the Use of Harmful Gasoline Additives and/or Oxygenates
4.1 Pursuant to Section 4 of the Act, the DOE shall gradually phase out the use of harmful gasoline
additives and/or oxygenates such as, but not limited to MTBE, according to duly accepted international
standards.
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4.2 The DOE, in consultation with the concerned government agencies and stakeholders, shall issue the
appropriate department circular for the purpose within six (6) months from the effectivity of the Act.

Section 5. Mandatory Use of Biofuels.

Pursuant to Section 5 of the Act, all liquid fuels for motors and engines sold in the Philippines shall
contain locally-sourced biofuels components as follows:

5.1 Bioethanol
a) Within two (2) years from the effectivity of the Act, at least five percent (5%) bioethanol shall
comprise the annual total volume of gasoline fuel actually sold and distributed by each and
every oil company in the country, subject to the requirement that all bioethanol fuel by volume:
Provided, That the bioethanol blend conforms to the PNS.
b) Within four (4) years from the effectivity of the Act, the NBB created under Section 8 of the Act
is empowered to determine the feasibility and thereafter recommend to the DOE to mandate a
minimum of ten percent (10%) blend of bioethanol by volume into all gasoline fuel distributed
and sold by each and every oil company in the country: Provided, That the same conforms to the
PNS.
5.2 Biodiesel
a.) Within three (3) months from the effectivity of the Act, a minimum of one percent (1%) biodiesel
by volume shall be blended into all diesel fuels sold in the country: Provided, that the biodiesel
blend conforms to the PNS.
b.) Within two (2) years from the effectivity of the Act, the NBB is empowered to determine the
feasibility and thereafter recommend to DOE to mandate a minimum of two percent (2%) blend
of diodiesel by volume which may be increased after taking into account considerations
including, but not limited to, domestic supply and availability of locally-sourced biodiesel
component.

Coco Methyl Ester (CME) or coco-biodiesel – derived from coconut oil

B1 – blend of coco-biodiesel

– Diesel with 1% CME

– decreased the level of blackness of smoke emitted by vehicles

Opacity – is the measurement of the blackness of smoke emitted by vehicles

B2 – diesel with 2% CME

B100 – pure coco-biodiesel

Note: 10 coconuts would be necessary to make a liter of B100

E10 – gasoline with 10% ethanol

Hydrocarbon Fuels – are fuel that consists primarily of carbon and hydrogen and are denoted by the
general formula CnHm.

Examples:

1) methane, CH4
2) ethane, C2H6
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3) propane, C3H8
4) butane, C4H10
5) octane, C8H18
6) dodecane, C12H26
7) cetane, C16H34
8) heptane, C7H16
9) acetylene, C2H2
10) benzene, C6H6
11) decane, C10H22
12) ethanol, C2H5OH
13) methanol, CH3OH

Combustion
Table 1: atomic and molecular weights of the elements usually met in combustion problems

ATOMIC MOLECULAR
ELEMENT SYMBOL WEIGHT WEIGHT
Carbon C 12 12
Hydrogen H2 1 2
Sulfur S 32 32
Oxygen O2 16 32
Nitrogen N2 14 28

Example 1: Determine the MW of (a) octane, (b) methane, (c) propane and (d) butane.

Solution:

(a) MW of Octane, C8H18 = 8(12) + 18(1)

= 96 + 18 = 114

(b) MW of Methane, CH4 = 12 + 4 = 16

(c) MW of Propane, C3H8 = 3 (12) + 8 = 44

(d) MW of Butane, C4H10 = 4(12) + 10 = 58

Composition of Atmospheric Air:

 Volumetric/Mole Basis:

O2 – 21%
N2 – 79%
Total – 100%
Thus, in 100 moles of air, there are approximately 21 moles of O 2 and 79% moles of N2.

 = 3.76 or 3.76
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 Each mole of O2 entering the combustion chamber is accompanied by 3.76 moles of

N2.

 Mass/Gravimetric Basis
O2 – 23.1%
N2 – 76.9%
Total = 100%
1 kg of dry air contains 0.231 kg O2 and 0.769 kg N2

= 3.32

 Each kg O2 entering the combustion chamber is accompanied by 3.32 kg of N2.

Air – the oxidizer most often used in a combustion process
Reasons:
1) Air is free
2) Air is readily available
The combustion process may be simply expressed as follows:
Reactants Products of combustion

Fuel + Air Products of combustion + Heat liberated

C theoretical dry gas

H2 dry air CO2, CO2, O2, SO2, N2
O2 + O2 + water vapour(H2O)
N2 N2 +
S + solid refuse ash
M excess dry air +
combustible (unburned
+ carbon)

moisture
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Reactants – are components which exist before the reaction (combustion process).

Examples: Fuel and Air

Products – are components which exist after the reaction (combustion process).

Examples: Gaseous products such as CO2, CO, O2 (excess gas), SO2, N2 and H2O.

Theoretical Air, mta

 Also called stoichiometric air

 The minimum amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a unit mass of fuel.
 The exact or calculated amount of air required for the complete combustion of fuel.

Theoretical Combustion

 The ideal combustion process during which a fuel is burned completely with theoretical
air.

Complete Combustion

 A combustion is complete if all the carbon in the fuel burns to CO 2, all the hydrogen
burns to H2O and all the sulfur (if any) burns to SO 2.

Incomplete Combustion

 A combustion is complete if the combustion products contains any unburned fuel or

components such as CO, H, C and H2

Actual Air, maa

 The actual amount of air supplied for the complete combustion of fuel.
 Usually greater than the theoretical amount to increase the chance of having complete
combustion.

Excess Air

 The amount of air supplied in excess of the theoretical amount.

To insure complete combustion of all parts of the fuel present, in whatever form, the following
conditions must be fulfilled:
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1. The amount of air should be such that it is sufficient to burn the fuel completely. Complete
combustion means complete oxidation of all the combustible materials in the fuel. A deficiency
of air causes incomplete combustion of fuel which results in considerable unburned fuel being
discharged from the furnace whereas too much supply of air dilutes the gases and cools the
furnace.
2. The air and fuel should be thoroughly mixed so that each combustible particle comes in intimate
contact with the oxygen contained in the air.
3. The fuel should remain in the furnace for sufficient time until it gets burned completely
4. The temperature in the furnace should be high enough to ignite the incoming air-fuel mixture.

Conversation of Mass Principle: “The total mass of each element is conserved during a chemical
reaction. That is, the total mass of each element on the right-hand side of the reaction equation
(PRODUCTS) must be equal to the total mass of that element on the left hand side (REACTANTS) even
though the elements exists in different chemical compounds in the reaction and products.

Derivation of the equation for determining the theoretical amount of air in .

Given: Solid Fuel (Coal)

Ultimate Analysis; (As-fired or As-received)

C = __ %
H2 = __ %
O2 = __ %
N2 = __ %
S = __ %
A = __ %
M = __ %
TOTAL = 100%

Required; Theoretical air, mta, in .

Combustible Elements: C, H2 and S

Incombustible Elements: O2, N2, A and M

Combustion of Carbon (C):

Reactants > Products

Fuel + Oxidizer -> Products
C + O2 -> CO2

on mole basis:
1 mole C + 1 mole O2 -> 1 mole CO2

Note: The number of moles is not conserved during the reaction.

On mass basis:

12kg C + 32kg O2 -> 44kg CO2

1kg C + 8/3 kg O2 -> 11/3 kg CO2
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This means that 1 kg of carbon requires 8/3 kg of oxygen for its complete combustion to produce 11/3 kg
of carbon dioxide. And, if the atmospheric air contains 23.1% oxygen by mass, the theoretical amount of
air required to burn 1kg of carbon completely is

x = 11.5

Combustion of Hydrogen (H2):

H2 + ½ O2 > H2O

On mole basis:
1mole H2 + ½ mole O2 > 1 mole H2O

One mass basis:

2kg H2 + 16kg O2 -> 18kg H2O
1kg H2 + 8kg O2 -> 9kg H2O

This means that 1kg of hydrogen requires 8kg of oxygen for its complete combustion to produce 9 kg of
water vapour. And, if the atmospheric air contains 23.1% oxygen by mass, the amount of air requires to
burn 1kg of hydrogen completely is

x = 34.5

Note: On a mass basis, the mass of mixture (or reactants) must equal the mass of products, but on a
mole basis, the number of moles of reactants and products are not necessarily equal.

Combustion of Sulfur (S):

S + O2 > SO2

On mole basis:
1mole S + 1mole O2 > 1 mole SO2

One mass basis:

32 kg S + 32 kg O2 > 64 kg SO2
1kg S + 8 kg O2 > 2 kg SO2

This means that 1kg of sulfur requires 1kg for its complete combustion to produce 2kg of sulfur dioxide.
And, if the atmospheric air contains 23.1% oxygen by mass, the theoretical amount of air required to
burn 1kg of sulfur completely is

x = 4.32

Free hydrogen – is based on the assumption that all of the oxygen of fuel is combined with the hydrogen
content in proper proportion and is given the equation

Free Hydrogen = H2 – ,
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Where H2 and O2 are taken from the ultimate analysis of the fuel

Fuel + Air > Products

C O2
H2 N2
Inherent
O2 + M H2O
moisture N2
S
A
M

Let x = fractional part of hydrogen that is combined with oxygen forming inherent moisture (H 2O)

1kg H2 + 8kg O2 -> 9kg H2O

x= =

Therefore, the theoretical amount of air needed for the complete combustion of fuel is given the
equation:

mta = 11.5C + 34.5 (H2 – ) + 4.324S,

where C, H2, O2 and S are taken from the ultimate analysis of fuel

Checking of units:

mta = 11.5C + 34.5 (H2 – ) + 4.324S,

=( +( +(

Examples:

1. An ultimate analysis of bituminous coal as received shows the following:

C H2 O2 N2 S A M Total
78.28 4.98 4.78 1.37 1.20 6.23 3.16 100%

Calculate the theoretical amount of air needed for the complete combustion o a unit mass of fuel.

Solution:
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mta = 11.5C + 34.5 (H2 – ) + 4.324S,

mta = 11.5(0.7828) + 34.5 (0.0498 – ) + 4.324(0.012),

= 10.566

Let e = percentage of excess air

e= =

maa = (1 + a) mta

2. Coal has the following ultimate analysis in the as-fired or as-received basis:

C H2 O2 N2 S A M Total
71.7 5.21 8.39 1.3 3.40 6.50 3.50 100%

Determine the actual air for 20% excess air.

Solution:

mta = 11.5C + 34.5 (H2 – ) + 4.32 S,

mta = 11.5(0.717) + 34.5 (0.0521 – ) + 4.32 (0.0340),

= 9.828

maa = (1 + a) mta

= (1 + 0.20)(9.828) = 11.794

3. Ethane (C2H6) is burned with just twice the theoretical amount of air. How much air is used to
oxidize 6 kg of fuel?

Solution: (1st solution)

Let mta = theoretical air

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maa = actual air

maa = 2mta

MW of C2H6 = 2(12) + 6 = 30

C= x 100 = 80%

H2 = x 100 = 20%

Total = 100%

mta = 11.5C + 34.5 (H2 – ) + 4.324S,

= 11.5C + 34.5H2

= 11.5(0.80) + 34.5(0.20) = 16.1

maa = 2(16.1) = 32.2

Therefore, the total amount of air needed for the complete combustion of 6kg of C 2H6

=( )(6kg C2H6) = 193.2 kg air

Second Solution

Basis: 1 kmole C2H6

Fuel + Air -> Products

C2H6 + a (O2 + 3.76N2) -> xCO2 + yH2O + zN2

Material Balance:

C Balance H2 Balance O2 Balance

2=x 3=y a = x + ½y
x=2 y=3 = 2 + 3/2
a = 3.5

N2 Balance: a (3.76) =z

z = (3.50)(3.76) = 13.16

C2H6 + 2(O2 + 3.76N2) -> 2CO2 + 3H2O + 13.16N2

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Air-fuel ratio, A/F (mol basis) =

A/F (mol basis) = = = 16.66

MW of air ≈ 29 kg/kmole

MW of C2H6 = 30 kg/kmole

A/F (mass basis) = mta = 16.66 (29/30) = 16.1

4. In a combustion chamber, ethane (C2H6) is burned at a rate of 6kg/hr with air which enters the
combustion chamber at a rate of 132 kg/hr. Determine the percentage of excess air used during
this process.

Solution

e= x 100%

Solving for maa:

maa = = = 22kg/hr

Solving for mta:

mta = 11.50C + 34.5(H2 – ) + 4.32S

MW of C2H6 = 2(12) + 6 = 30 kg/kmole

%C = x100 = 80%

%H2 = x 100 = 20%

Total = 100%

mta = 11.50(0.80) + 34.5(0.20 – ) + 4.32(0) = 16.1 kgair/kgfuel

Therefore, e = x 100 = 36.65%

5. Octane (C8H18) is burned with 50% excess air. Determine (a) the balanced reaction equation, (b)
the dew-point temperature of the products.
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Solution:

(a) Basis: 1 kmole C8H18

Fuel + air -> Products

C8H18 + (1+e)a (O2 + 3.76N2) -> xCO2 + yH2O + eaO2 + zN2

Material balance

C balance H2 balance
8=x 9=y
x=8 y=9

O2 balance:

1.50a = x + ½ y + 0.50a

a = 8 + ½ (9) = 12.50

N2 balance

1.50a (3.76) = z

z = 1.50(12.50)(3.76) = 70.50

C8H18 + 1.50(12.50)(O2 + 3.76N2) -> 8CO2 + 9H2O + 6.25O2 + 70.5N2

C8H18 + 18.75O2 + 70.50N2 -> 8CO2 + 9H2O + 6.25O2 + 70.5N2

(b) Dew-point temperature of products, tdp

- is the temperature at which the water vapor in the products begin to condense
- is equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to the partial pressureexerted by
water vapor.

Note: The recommended flue gas temperature should be higher than the dew-point temperature to
prevent condensation of water vapor. If the flue gas temperature is lower than the dew-point
temperature then there will condensation of water vapor. The condensate will react with sulfur dioxide
to produce sulfuric acid which is highly corrosive to metal, thereby, corroding the internal of chimney or
stack.

PH2O = Pflue gas

where PH2O = partial pressure exerted by water vapor

ᶯH2O = no. of moles of H2O in the products

ᶯproducts = no. of moles of the products (flue gas)

Pflue gas = total pressure of the products

= atmospheric pressure

= Patm
 18

PH2O = (101.325 kpa) = 9.72KPa

tdp = tsat @ PH2O = tsat @ 9.72KPa (steam tables) = 45.26 °C

Note: ᶯH2O = 9 ---Please refer to the balance reaction equation in (a)

PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION

A. Solid Fuel (Coal)

a) Theoretical Combustion

CO2, H2O,
Fuel C, H2, O2, N2, S, A, M
Combustion SO2, N2 Gaseous Products

Chamber Ar, ash in refuse

Air O2, N2, M Solid Refuse
Cr, combustible
in refuse

b) Complete Combustion
CO2, H2O, SO2,
N2, excess O2
Fuel C, H2, O2, N2, S, A, M
Combustion Gaseous Products

Chamber Ar, ash in refuse

Air O2, N2, M Solid Refuse
Cr, combustible
in refuse

Airc) Incomplete Combustion

CO2, CO, H2O,
SO2, N2, Excess
Fuel C, H2, O2, N2, S, A, M O2
Combustion Gaseous Products

Chamber Ar, ash in refuse

O2, N2, M Solid Refuse
Cr, combustible
in refuse

B. Liquid Fuels
CO2, H2O, (a)
Fuel SO2, N2 (c)

C, H2, O2, N2, S CO2, H2O,

Combustion
(b)
SO2, N2,O2
Chamber
Air O2, N2, M
CO2, CO, H2O,
SO2, N2, O2

Legend:
 19

(a) Theoretical Combustion

(b) Complete Combustion
(c) Incomplete Combustion

Note: Nitrogen and moisture are inert gases. Therefore, N 2 and M will not undergo chemical reaction
during the combustion process.

C. Gaseous Fuel
CO2, H2O, N2 (a)

Fuel C, H2, O2, N2 CO2, H2O,

Combustion
(b)
N2, O2
Chamber
Air O2, N2, M
CO2, CO, H2O,
(c)
N2, O2

Legend:

(a) Theoretical Combustion

(b) Complete Combustion
(c) Incomplete Combustion

Products of Combustion: Gaseous Fuel

Products Theoretical Combustion Complete Combustion Incomplete Combustion

mCO2, C C yC

ᵩ ᵩ
mCO, (1-y)C

ᵩ 0.231mta 0.231emta + 1.33(1-y)C

mO2,

0.769mta + N2 0.769maa + N2
MN2,

9H2 + Wairmta ᵩ ᵩ
MH2O,

ᵩ
MSO2,

Where: C, H2, N2, O2 are taken from the ultimate analysis of fuel

mta = actual air, kgair/kgfuel

e = excess air

Wair = humidity ratio of air

 20

y = proportional part of carbon burned to CO 2

(1-y) = proportional part of unburned carbon forming CO

DERIVATION OF FORMULAS

(1) mCO2

12kgC + 32kgO2 -> kg CO2

1kgC + kg O2 -> kg CO2

Proportions =

therefore, mCO2 = ×

mCO2 = C,

(2) mN2 = N2 (air) + N2 (fuel)

= 0.769 mta + N2 (fuel) Theoretical Combustion

= 0.769 maa + N2 (fuel) Complete and Incomplete Combustion

(3) mH2O = 9H2 + Wair mta

1 kg H2 + 8 kg O2 9 kg H2O

Proportion:

mH2O =

= 9H2 + Wair mta , Theoretical Combustion

 21

mH2O = 9H2 + Wair maa , Complete and Incomplete Combustion

(4) mO2

Excess air = maa - mta

= (1+e) mta - mta

= e mta , kgexcess air/kgfuel

mO2 = (e mta , kgexcess air/kgfuel) (0.231 kgexcess O2 /kgexcess air)

= 0.231 e mta Complete Combustion

(5) For Theoretical and Complete Combustion : y = 100% or y = 1

mCO2 =

For Incomplete Combustion

y CO2
C
(1-y) CO

.:. mCO2 =

C + 1/2O2 CO

12 kg C + 16 kg O2 28 kg CO

Proportion:

mCO2 =

=
 22

Proportion:

mO2 = 0.231 e mta +

Products of Combustion : Liquid Fuel

Product Theoretical Combustion Complete Combustion Incomplete Combustion

mCO2

mCO Ø Ø

mO2 Ø 0.231 e mta 0.231 e mta +

mN2 0.769 mta + N2 (fuel) 0.769 maa + N2 0.769 maa + N2

mH2O 9H2 + Wair mta 9H2 + Wair maa 9H2 + Wair maa
mSO2 2S 2S 2S

1 kg S + 1 kg O2 2 kg SO2

Proportion:

mSO2 =

mSO2 =

Products of Combustion: Solid Fuel

Product Theoretical Combustion Complete Combustion Incomplete Combustion

mCO2

mCO Ø Ø

mO2 Ø 0.231 e mta 0.231 e mta +

 23

mN2 0.769 mta + N2 (fuel) 0.769 maa + N2 (fuel)

mH2O 9H2 + Wair mta + M (fuel) 9H2 + Wair maa + M(fuel)
mSO2 2S 2S 2S

Where: C’ = C -

Ar = ash in refuse

Cr = combustible (carbon) in refuse

A = ash from fuel analysis (ultimate)

C = carbon from ultimate analysis

C’ = actual amount of carbon burned

= applicable for solid fuel only

Example 6. A coal has the following ultimate analysis in the as-fired or as-received basis:

C = 57.61 O2 = 5.80A = 16.50

H2 = 5.73 N2 = 1.07 M = 10.00 S = 3.29

The plant using this coal has a coal pulverizer-drier system so that only dry coal is supplied to
the boiler. Other data are as follows:

e = 40% ; y = 87% ; Ar = 90%

Predict the Orsat analysis (dry volumetric analysis) of the flue gas and determine its density at
280oC and 140 kPa.
Flue Gas
As-Fired Basis CO2
CO
O2
C H2 O2 N2 S A M C H2 O2 N2 S A
N2
Pulverizer H2O
Drier SO2
Boiler

Dry Air Ar = 90%

O2 N2 Cr = 10%

Refuse

Utltimate Analysis : As-Received Basis

C = 57.61%

H2 = 5.73%

O2 = 5.80%
 24

N2 = 1.07%

S = 3.29%

A = 16.50%

M = 10.00%

Total = 100%

Conversion from As=Received Basis to Dry Fuel Basis

Ultimate Analysis : “Moisture Free” or Dry Fuel Basis

C=

H2 =

O2 =

N2 =

S=

A=

Total = 100%

mta = 11.50C +34.5 (H2 - + 4.32 S

= 11.50 (0.6401) + 34.5 (0.0637 - + 4.32 (0.0366)

= 9.44 kgair/kgfuel

maa = (1+e) mta

 25

= (1+0.40) (9.44)

= 13.216 kgair/kgfuel

C’ = C - = 0.6401 -

= 0.6197 kg C/kgfuel

Product of Incomplete Combustion:

mCO2 =

mCO =

mO2 = 0.231 e mta +

= 0.231 (0.40) (9.44) +

= 0.98

mN2 = 0.769 maa + N2 (fuel)

= 0.769 (13.216) + 0.0119

= 10.175 kgN2/kgfuel
Ø for dry air
mH2O = 9H2 + Wair maa

= 9(0.0637) = 0.5733 kg H2O/kgfuel

mSO2 = 2S = 2(0.0366)

= 0.0732 kgSO2/kgfuel

Let mfg = mass of wet flue gas

= mCO2 + mCO + mO2 + mN2 + mH2O + mSO2

= 1.98 + 0.188 + 0.98 + 10.175 + 0.5733 + 0.0732

= 13.9695 kgflue gas/kgfuel

mfg = mass of dry flue gas

 26

= mCO2 + mCO + mO2 + mN2 + mSO2

= 1.98 + 0.188 + 0.98 + 10.175 + 0.0732

= 13.3962 kgdry gas/kgfuel

(a) Orsat Analysis : Dry Gas Volumetric Analysis

ƞdg = ƞCO2 + ƞCO + ƞO2 + ƞN2 + ƞSO2

= 0.045 + 0.0067 + 0.0306 + 0.3634 + 0.00114

= 0.44688

CO2 = (0.045/0.44688) (100) = 10.07%

CO = (0.0067/0.44688) (100) = 1.50%

O2 = (0.0306/0.44688) (100) = 6.85%

N2 = (0.3634/0.44688) (100) = 81.32%

SO2 = (0.00114/0.44688) (100) = 0.26%

Total = 100%

(b) Let ƞfg = no. of kmoles of wet flue gas

= ƞdg + ƞH2O = ƞdg +

= 0.44688 +

= 0.47873 kmole/kgfuel

MW of wet flue gas = =

= 29.18 kg/kmole

R = gas constant of flue gas,

R = = = 0.2849
 27

Where: R = Universal Gas Constant

= 8.3143

PV = mRT

P = p RT

pfg =
pfg = 0.8886 kg/m3

Example 7. A steam generator burns fuel oil that has the following chemical analysis by
mass in percentage:

C = 85.3 S = 0.50

H2 = 14.1 N2 = 0.10

Combustion takes place in 125% theoretical air. The flue gas leaves the air-
preheater at 170 kPa. What is the partial pressure of the stack gas to avoid
condensation in kPa? Take molecular weight of the flue gas as 28.80

Solution: Flue gas

C H2 N2 S CO2
H2O
Fuel SO2
Dry air Steam
O 2 N2 N2
Generator O2 (excess)

mta = 11.50C +34.5 (H2 - + 4.32 S

= 11.50 (0.853) + 34.5 (0.141- 0)+ 4.32 (0.0050)

= 14.6956 kgair/kgfuel

maa = (1+e) mta

= (1.25) (14.6956)

= 18.37 kgair/kgfuel

Products

Products of Complete Combustion:

 28

mCO2 =

mO2 = 0.231 e mta = 0.231 (0.25) (14.6956)

= 0.849

mN2 = 0.769 maa + N2 (fuel)

= 0.769 (18.37) + 0.0010

= 14.1275 kg N2/kgfuel
Ø
mH2O = 9H2 + Wair maa

= 9(0.141) = 1.269kg H2O/kgfuel

mSO2 = 2S = 2(0.0050)

= 0.010 kg SO2/kgfuel

ƞdg = ƞCO2 + ƞO2 + ƞN2 + ƞH2O + ƞSO2

= 0.6728

PH2O = = = 17.81 kPa

Example 8. A coal- fired steam boiler uses 3000 kg of coal per hour. Air required for combustion
is 15.50 kg/kg of coal at a barometric pressure of 98.20 kPa. The flue gas has a
temperature of 285oC and an average molecular weight of 30. Assuming an ash loss
of 11 percent and an allowable gas velocity of 7.5 m/s, find the diameter of the
chimney.

Solution: Chimney
ṁfg

Steam Boiler
 29

ṁfuel

ṁair

ṁrefuse = ṁash

min = mout

ṁfuel + ṁair = ṁash + ṁfg

1+ = +

1 + 15.50 = 0.11 +

= 16.50 – 0.11 = 16.39

ṁflue gas = (16.39) (3000) = 49,170 kg/hr

Rflue gas = = = 0.2771

PV = ṁRT

Pfg Vfg = ṁfg Rfg Tfg

Pfg = p fg Rfg Tfg

p fg = =

= 0.6351 kg/m3

ṁflue gas = (AѴs p)flue gas

49,170 =

D = 1.91 m

Example 9. A fuel oil is burned with 50% excess air. What is the volume flow rate in m 3/min of
wet products at a pressure of 102 kPa and a temperature of 350 oC when the fuel is
burned at the rate of 45 kg/min? Assume that the combustion requirements of the
fuel oil are similar to those of C12H26.
 30

Solution: Basis: 1kmole C12H26

Fuel + Air Products

C12H26 + (1+0.50) a(O2+3.76N2) xCO2 + yH2O + e a O2 + zN2

Fuel Dry air Products

Material Balance:

C Balance: H2 Balance: O2 Balance: N2 Balance:

12 = x 13 = y 1.50a = x + + 0.50a 1.50a (3.76) = z

a = x+ z = 1.50 (18.50) (3.76)

= 12 + (13) z = 104.34

a = 18.50

C12H26 + 1.50 (18.50)(O2 + 3.76N2) 12CO2 + 13H2O + 9.25O2 + 104.34N2

Fuel Air Products

C12H26 + 27.75 O2 + 104.34 N2 12CO2 + 13H2O + 9.25O2 + 104.34N2

A/F (kmol basis) = =

= 132.09

MW of C12H26 = 12(12) + 26 = 170 kg/kmol

MW of air = 29 kg/kmol

A/F (mass basis) = maa = 132.09

= 22,533 kgair/kgfuel

MW of wet products = 12(44) + 13(18) + 9.25(32) + 104.34(28)

= 28.71 kg/kmole
 31

Rfg = = = 0.2896

PV = mRT

P = RT PѴ = RT

Ѵ = =

= 1.769 m3/kgflue gas

ṁair = (22.533) (45) = 1013.985 kgair/min

min = mout

ṁfuel + ṁair = ṁflue gas

ṁflue gas = 45 + 1013.985

= 1058.985 kg/min

Vflue gas = (ṁflue gas) (Ѵ flue gas)

= (1058.985) (1.769)

= 1873.34 m3/min

Heating Value of Solid Fuels

The heating value of solid fuels may be determined by the following methods:

1. By the use of oxygen bomb calorimeter (most accurate values);

2. By computation based on the ultimate analysis of solid fuels.

Dulong’s Formula is the generally accepted formula for calculating the heating value of coal. It is
based on the assumption that all the oxygen in the fuel, and enough hydrogen to unite with it, are inert
in the form of water (H2O) and that the remainder of the hydrogen and all of the carbon and sulphur are
available for oxidation.

Dulong’s Formula as stated in the fuel bulletins of U.S. Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines
is used for calculating the heating value of coal. It is stated as follows:

HHV = 14,544 C + 62,028

 32

LHV = HHV – 1050 W, Btu/lb

Where: HHV = higher heating value, Btu/lb fuel

LHV = lower heating value, Btu/lb fuel

1050 = latent heat of water vapour, Btu/lb vapor

W = 9H, lbwater vapor/lbfuel

H = mass of hydrogen, lb/lbfuel

The heating value of coal may also be expressed in SI units based on Dulong’s formula:

HHV = 33,830 C + 144,270

LHV = HHV – 2442 W, KJ/kg

Where: W = 9H, kgwater vapor/kgfuel

H = mass of hydrogen, kg/kg fuel

2442 = latent heat of water vapor, KJ/kg

Example 10. An ultimate analysis of bituminous coal as-received shows the following:

C H2 O2 N2 S A M Total
78.28 4.98 4.78 1.37 1.20 6.23 3.16 100%
Calculate the higher heating value (HHV) of bituminous coal using Dulong’s empirical
equation.

HHV = 33,830 C + 144,270

= 33,830 (0.7828) + 144,270

= 33,917.80 KJ/kg coal

Heating Value of Liquid Fuels

The heating value of liquid fuels may be determined by the following methods:

1. Using the oxygen bomb calorimeter. The true heating value of liquid fuels can be found by
direct calorimeter measurements.
2. Using an empirical formula based on specific gravity of the fuel which gives approximate values
only.
 33

ASME Formula:

Bureau of Standards Formula for all Petroleum Products:

Example 11. A certain fuel oil gives a hydrometer reading of 20°API at a temperature15.6°C. Determine
the HHV of this fuel oil in kJ/kg using:

a. ASME Formula
b. Bureau of Standards Formula
c. Calculate the HHV of this fuel oil at 15.6°C on kJ/L
d. Compute the LHV of this fuel oil in kJ/kg
e. Determine the HHV of this fuel oil at 60°C in kJ/L

Solution:

a. ASME Formula:

b. Bureau of Standards Formula:

 34

c.

ASME Formula:

Bureau of Standards Formula:

d.
where:
 35

e.

ASME Formula:

Bureau of Standards Formula: