Practical Manual on

OF CROP PLANTS

A.K. Chhabra
DEPARTMENT OF PLANT BREEDING, CCSHAU, HISAR 125 004
 A Practical Manual
on

FLORAL BIOLOGY
of Crop Plants

A.K. Chhabra

2006

Department of Plant Breeding

CCS, Haryana Agricultural University
HISAR 125 004
© 2006

Author reserves the rights that no part of the manual can be reproduced
for any purpose without his permission. The improvements in the
contents of manual would be done by author himself in general interest of
larger readership as and when possible.
 FOREWORD

Agricultural scientists have the responsibility to increase food

production and therefore, food security using genetic and
management options. Plant Breeders have engaged themselves in
genetic manipulations through conventional plant breeding
techniques since ages. They need to be well conversant with the
various steps in the act and science of Plant Breeding. He has to
perform several operations, right from the choosing of parents for
hybridization to the ultimate development of a new variety and its seed production.
Plant breeding products include varieties, hybrids and improved populations.
Since beginning (when Babylonians and Assyrians practiced pollination in
date palm as early as 700 BC), the fascinating subject of floral biology has attracted
attention of botanists all over the globe to discover and understand flower structure,
modes of reproduction and mechanisms governing cross- and self-pollination. This
exciting subject of research has been in the domain of taxonomists/botanists.
However, it is a plant breeder who can make the best use of knowledge generated by
them to develop high yielding varieties of crops with value added traits, and thus
contribute to the food security. Plant breeders need to have sound knowledge of
floral biology (flower structure, anthesis etc.) modes and mechanisms of
reproduction in crop plants so as to manage directed gene flow within and between
species and related wild and weedy forms.
This Practical Manual on Floral Biology of Crop Plants has been prepared to
provide the reader with detailed flower structure of important field crops (Wheat,
Rice, Barley, Pearlmillet, Maize, Cotton, Brassica, Castor, Sesamum, Linseed,
Lentil, Field Peas, Mung Bean, Sorghum, sugarcane etc.) and some of the potential
underutilized crop plants like Jojoba and Guayule. The exquisiteness of this manual
is that it contains high quality detailed digital pictures of flower parts of different
crop plants to facilitate the reader to understand plant’s reproductive structure and
biology.
Dr. A.K. Chhabra, Professor of Plant Breeding, the author of this Manual,
has done an admirable job by compiling this information which will not only be
useful to the undergraduate and postgraduate students but also to the researchers. I
congratulate the author for preparing this comprehensive Manual.

Hisar D.C. Gupta

October 12, 2006 Dean, College of Agriculture
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125 004

i
 PREFACE

Understanding of Floral Biology (flower structure and anthesis including pollen viability
and stigma receptivity) is of utmost importance for the success of any breeding programme
to develop elite genotypes and ultimately the varieties for commercial cultivation by the
farmers for food security and to improve their economy. The present manual, “Practical
Manual on Floral Biology of Crop Plants” is an attempt in this direction to teach
undergraduate and postgraduate students the details of flower structure and their
reproductive biology and procedures of emasculation and pollination to integrate perfection
and precision in gene transfer through conventional plant breeding procedures involving
artificial hybridization. Moreover, the contents of the manual also go with the course
curricula of UG courses (PB 201 and PB 202) and PG course PB 501. This Practical Plant
Breeding Manual will also be quite useful in imparting relevant practical instructions to
those who wish to embark on practical plant breeding as their profession.

Author of this manual has attempted to provide a systematic reading into the generalized
flower structure, its types, preparation of floral diagrams and formula, and detailed floral
morphology of 26 crops namely Wheat, Maize, Rice, Barley, Isabgol, Greengram, Pigeon
pea, Chickpea, Field peas, Castor, Brassica spp., Sesamum (til), sunflower, Sugarcane,
Oats, Pearl millet, Cotton, Sorghum, Groundnut, Linseed, Lentil, Cowpea, Berseem and
Ocimum (tulsi) and underutilized plants like Jojoba and Guayule. The manual is illustrative
and quite informative. It includes more than 375 excellent digital pictures and hand drawn
sketches explaining minutes of flower structure and also a Glossary Section explaining the
technical terms used in the text.

The author wishes to thank Dr. D.C.Gupta, Dean, College of Agriculture and Dr. R.S.
Waldia, Professor and Head, Department of Plant Breeding, for their constant
encouragement, guidance and inspiration in the preparation of this Manual. Critical
suggestions, moral boosting and ever encouraging attitude of Dr. R. K. Behl, Professor,
Plant Breeding enabled me to prepare and improve the quality of this Manual. The author is
also thankful to Dr. Somveer for his dedicated involvement all the times for capturing the
photographs for this manual and to Dr. Yogesh Jindal, Incharge, Computer Centre (COA)
for providing necessary facilities and Mr. Sanjay Sehgal for his timely help whenever
required during the course of preparation of this manual. The financial assistance received
from CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar in the form of ICAR Development
Assistance Funds for publication of this Manual is gratefully acknowledged.

Hope this will be useful to the students and researchers alike pursuing the sacred mission of
crop improvement.

Hisar
October 12, 2006
A.K. CHHABRA

ii
 Contents

Sr. No. Title Page No.

1 Foreword i
2 Preface ii
3 An introduction to flower structure 1-29
4 Performa for Description of A Flower 30-41
Floral Biology of crop plants: 42-239
5 1. Wheat (Titicum aestivum L.) 42-48
6 2. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) 49-54
7 3. Oats (Avena sativa L.) 55-61
8 4. Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum R.Br.) 62-74
9 5. Maize (Zea mays L.) 75-80
10 6. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) 81-88
11 7. Sugarcane (Sacchrum officinarum L.) 89-04
12 8. Cotton (Gossypium spp.) 95-107
13 9. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) 108-115
14 10. Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) 116-123
15 11. Fieldpeas (Pisum sativum) 124-130
16 12. Groundnut (Arachis hypogeae L.) 131-141
17 13. Rapeseed and Mustard (Brassica spp.) 142-154
18 14. Sunflower (Helianthus annus L.) 155-163
19 15. Linseed (Linum usitissimum) 164-171
20 16. Lentil (Lens culinaris) 172-176
21 17. Berseem (clover) (Trifolium alexandrium L.) 177-182
22 18. Green gram (mung bean) (Vigna radiata) 183-187
23 19. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) 188-192
24 20. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata /sinense L. Walp.) 193-198
25 21. Isabgol (Plantago ovata) 199-204
26 22. Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) 205-210
27 23. Guayule (Parthenium argentatum) 211-214
28 24. Ocimum (Tulsi) (Ocimum basilicum L.) 215-223
29 25. Castor (Ricinus communis L.) 224-230
30 26. Sesamum (Til) (Sesamum indicum) 231-239
31 Annexure I-Glossary 240-248
32 Annexure II- General features of flowers of in- and out-breeders 249
and old and new family names
33 Annexure III- Crops and Their Time of Anthesis 250
34 References and Suggested Reading 251-256
 INTRODUCTION TO
FLOWER STRUCTURE

INFLORESCENCE

1. Racemose: Inflorescence with monopodoal branching i.e., the inflorescence

axis continues to grow and gives off lateral and axillary flowers.

(i) Raceme: Racemose inflorescence having a common axis and stalked flowers
arranged in acropetal succession, e.g., Brassica.
(ii) Panicle: Axis of raceme is branched.
(iii) Spike: Inflorescence is similar to raceme but the flowers are sessile: e.g.,
Achyranthes aspera.
(iv) Spikelet: Very small spike of a compound spike forming a unit; e.g., grasses.
(v) Catkin (or Ament) : A pendulous spike or spike-like inflorescence consisting
of small unisexual flowers ; e.g., Morus alba.
(vi) Spadix : A spike with thick and fleshy axis covered by a large spathe ; e.g.,
Maize.
(vii) Corymb : It is a modified raceme with relatively a short main axis, in which the
lower flowers have much elongated pedicels so that the flowers come to the
same level ; e.g., Candytuft.
(viii) Umbel : It is a modified raceme, in which the flowers have stalks (pedicels) of
nearly equal length and they seem to arise from the same point at the apex of
peduncle, e.g., onion.
(ix) Compound umbel : An umbel with branched axis, each unit umbel is called
umbellule ; e.g., Coriander.
(x) Capitulum (Head) : A dense concave, convex, spherical or flat-topped
inflorescence of numerous sessile flowers clustered on a common disc or
receptacle. A capitulum is usually subtended by an involucre of bracts ; e.g.,
Compositae (Asteraceae) family, e.g., sunflower.

1
 RACEME PANICLE SPIKE SPIKELET CATKIN

SPADIX CORYMB UMBEL CAPITULUM

KINDS OF RACEMOSE INFLORESCENCE

After Pradewep

1. Some common prefixes used in the description of plants :

Number in Latin in Greek
One Uni-e.g., unipinnate mon- e.g., monadelphous
Two bi-e.g., bipinnate di- e.g., dimerous
Three tri-e.g., triangularis tri- e.g., trimerous
Four quadri-e.g., quadrangularis tetra- e.g., tetramerous
Five quinque-e.g., quinquefolius penta- e.g., pentamerous
Six sex-e.g., sexangularis hex- e.g., hexagonal
Seven Septem-e.g., Septemlobus hepta- e.g., heptagonal
Eight octo-e.g., octoflorus octo- e.g., octoflorus
Nine noveme-e.g., novemneris ennea- e.g., ennealobus
Ten decum-e.g., secemlobus deca- e.g., decapetalus
Single haplo- e.g.,
haplostemonous

2
Double diplo- e.g., diplostemonous
Many multi-e.g., multilocular poly- e.g., polystemonous
Outside ecto- e.g., ectophytic
Inside endo- e.g., endophytic
Within intra-e.g., intrapetiolar
Between inter-e.g., interpetiolar
2. Cymose :. An inflorescence with sympodial branching, i.e., the main axis
terminates into a flower and lateral branches arise below it which also terminate into
flowers. The central flower opens first. Various types of cymose inflorescences are:
(i) Uniparous (monochasial) : The main axis ending in a flower producing only
one lateral branch at a time, each terminating into a flower.
Scorpoid : A uniparous cymose inflorescence where the successive lateral
branches develop alternatively on both sides forming a zigzag; e.g., Heliotropium.

Helicoid : A uniparous cymose inflorescence whose successive lateral branches

develop towards one side of axis forming a unilateral spiral coil ; e.g., Hamelia
patens.
(ii) Biparous (dichasial) : The main axis ending in a flower producing a pair of
lateral branches which too, terminate into a flower ; e.g., Ixora, Saponaria.

3
(iii) Multiparous (polychasial) : The main axis ending in a flower producing more
than two lateral branches which too, terminate into a flower ; e.g., Calotropis.
(iv) Glomerule : A very dense single cyme with central flower blooming first.
3. Special types:
(i) Cyathium : A small, cup-shaped, special type of inflorescence found in
Euphorbia with single female (pistillate) flower in the centre and several male
(staminate) flowers around it.
(ii) Verticillaster : A false whorl, composed of a pair of opposed cymes arising in
axils of opposite leaves, as in labiatae (Lamiaceae).
(iii) Hypanthodium : A cup-like, fleshy receptacle bearing flowers on the inner
wall of the cavity as in Ficus.
(iv) Solitary terminal : Flower borne singly at the apex : e.g., Poppy.
(v) Solitary axillary : Flower borne singly in the axil of a leaf ; e.g., Cotton,
Cucurbita.
FLOWER
The following terms are used in connection with the description of flower :
Pedicel : Stalk of an individual flower.
Pedicellate : A flower having a pedicel (stalk), e.g., one of the florets of
wheat.
Sessile : A flower without a pedicel (stalk). e.g., one of the florets of
wheat
Staminate : An unisexual flower with stamens. e.g., pearlmillet, maize.
Pistillate : An unisexual flower with carpels. e.g., maize.
1. Presence of floral whorls :
(i) Complete. A flower having all the four whorls, i.e., calyx, corolla, androecium
and gynoecium, e.g., Cotton, Brassica.
(ii) Incomplete. A flower lacking one or more whorls, e.g., Wheat.
(iii) Hermaphrodite (bisexual or perfect). A flower with both (stamens) and
female (gynoecium) organs, e.g., Cotton, wheat, rice etc..
(iv) Unisexual (Imperfect). A flower having only one reproductive whorl (male or
female). The unisexual flowers may be – (i) Staminate. Male flower with only
androecium, e.g., maize, pearlmillet or (ii) Pistillate. Female flower with only
gynoecium. e.g.,maize.
(v) Neuter. A sterile flower without androecium and gynoecium, e.g., ray florets of
Sunflower.
2. Polygamous, Monoecious and Dioecious Plants (distribution of flower types):
(i) Polygamous. Plants having more than two types of flowers (i.e., bisexual,
staminate and pistillate), e.g., Mango, Cashewnut, etc.
Polygamomonoecious: staminate, pistillate and perfect flowers are on the
same plant.

4
 Flower Structure
What is a flower?
A flower is a functional unit concerned with reproduction.
A flower can be pictured as a very short stem (the receptacle)
which holds the components of the flower in sequence at the very
tip of this stem, so they appear in the centre of the flower, c/a
female organs (the gynoecium). Next to them are the male organs
(the androecium) and next to them are the petals (corolla) and
sepals (calyx).

Flower Structure
Stigma- The receptive part of
the female reproductive organ
on which pollen germinates.
Style-the elongated part of a Carpel-One of Gynoecium-(=pistil)-
carpel bearing the stigma, the flower’s collective term for all the
usually at the tip. female female reproductive organs
Ovary-the hollow basal region reproductive of a flower comprising one or
of a carpel, consisting one or organs more free or fused carpels
more ovules. comprising a
stigma, a style
Ovules- the structures in the chamber of an ovary containing and an ovary.
the egg cell, within the embryosac.The ovules develop into
the seeds after fertilization.

Stamen-the
male Androecium-collective term
Anthers- usually bilobed, contains reproductive for all the male reproductive
the pollen. organ of a organs of a flower comprising
Filament-the stalk bearing the flower one or more free or fused
anther consisting of stamens
an anther and
a filament

Corolla-
Petal- a non-reproductive collective term
accessory organ of a flower. This is for all the
sterile and usually brightly colored, petals of a
attracts insect pollinators. flower
Perianth-the floral envelop
usually divisible into an outer
whorl (calyx) of sepals and
Calyx- inner whorl of petals (corolla).
Sepal- a floral leaf or individual collective term
segment of the calyx of a flower, for all the
generally green, that forms the sepals of a
outer protective layer of a flower flower
bud.

Receptacle- flat, concave or convex part of the stem from which all parts of a flower
arise.

A complete flower is one with all parts (calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium) present. A flower lacking
one or more of these parts is said to be incomplete. A perfect flower is one with both androecium and
gynoecium present. If either are lacking, the flower is said to be imperfect.

5
The term polygamomonoecious is used to describe a species population containing
plants that are polygamous and plants that are monoecious. Coconut palms provide a
good example of a
polygamomonoecious species.
Polygamodioecious:
staminate, pistillate and
perfect flowers are on
the different plants.
Polygamodioecy
ensures pollination in
the absence of cross-
pollination.
(ii) Monoecious.
Plants with unisexual
flowers and both
staminate and pistillate
flowers occur on the
same plant, e.g., Maize,
Castor, Cucurbits, etc.
(iii) Dioecious. Plants with
unisexual flowers. A plant
bears either staminate or
pistillate flowers, e.g., Date
Palm, Betel, Mulberry, etc.

3. Floral Symmetry:
The shape, size and arrangement
of floral appendages (i.e., calyx,
corolla, androecium and
gynoecium) around the axis of a flower is called floral symmetry. The axis to which
the flower is attached is called mother axis. The side of flower towards mother axis
is called posterior side and the side away from it is called anterior side.
On the basis of floral symmetry there may be following three conditions of a
flower:
(i) Actinomorphic. A flower with radial symmetry, i.e., the parts of each whorl
are similar in size and shape. The flower can be divided into two equal halves
along more than one median longitudinal plane, e.g., Hibiscus, Solanum, etc.
(ii) Zygomorphic. A flower with bilateral symmetry, i.e., the parts of one or more
whorls are dissimilar. The flower can be divided into two equal halves in only
one vertical plane, e.g., Pisum sativum, chickpea etc.

6
(iii) Asymmetric. A flower
which cannot be
divided into two equal
halves by any vertical
plane, e.g., Canna.

4. Arrangement of floral
organs :
(i) Cyclic. The floral parts
are arranged in definite
whorls around the axis
of flower, e.g.,
Brassica, Solanum, etc.
(ii) Acyclic. The floral
parts are arranged in
spirals and not in
whorls, e.g., Magnolia.
(iii) Spirocyclic. Some of
the floral parts are in
whorls and others in
spirals (Half cyclic),
e.g., Rose, Ranunculus,
etc.

5. Position of floral parts on thalamus in respect to ovary :

(i) Hypogynous. The upper part of thalamus is slightly swollen and forms a
cushion-like disc. The gynoecium is situated at the top of the thalamus (Thus,
the ovary is superior). All other floral parts (i.e., calyx, corolla and
androecium) arise below the level of ovary. The condition is called hypogyny,
e.g., Citrus, Brassica, etc.
(ii) Perigynous. The upper part of thalamus may be of three types - (a) disc-
shaped, (b) cup-shaped, or (c) flask-shaped. In disc-shaped thalamus, the
ovary of gynoecium lies in the centre while all other floral whorls occur on the
periphery but at the same level, e.g., Pea. In cup- shaped thalamus, the ovary
of gynoecium arises from the bottom of cup while all other whorls arise at the
rim of the cup, e.g., Prunus. In flask-shaped thalamus, ovary of gynoecium is
placed at the bottom of the flask while all other floral whorls are attached at
the mouth of the flask. The ovary is half-superior. The floral parts arise from
around the ovary and not beneath it, e.g., Rose. The condition is called
perigyny.

7
 (iii) Epigynous. The upper part of thalamus is cup-shaped, flask-shaped or
tubular in which the ovary of gynoecium is completely inserted. The wall of
ovary is fused with the thalamus. All other floral whorls are borne on the
upper part of thalamus. The ovary is inferior and other floral parts appear to
arise above its level. The condition is called epigyny, e.g., Cucurbita.

6. Number of
floral parts:
Occurrence of the
same number of
floral parts in the
different floral
whorls of a flower
is called isomery
and the flower ic
termed as
isomerous flower.
Sometimes,
flowers have
different number
of parts in each
whorl. This
condition is called
heteromerous.
The isomerous
flowers may be of
the following
types:
(i) Dimerous :
Floral parts in 2's
or multiple of two.
(ii) Trimerous :
Floral parts in 3’s
or multiple of
three.
(iii) Tetramerous
: Floral parts in 4's or multiple of four.
(iv) Pentamerous : Floral parts in 5's or multiple of five.
*Dicotyledonous flowers are usually di-, tetra-, or pentamerous whereas
monocotyledonous flowers are trimerous.

8
 Differences amongst Hypogynous, Perigynous and
Epigynous flowers

HYPOGYNOUS PERIGYNOUS EPIGYNOUS

FLOWERS
1. The upper part of
thalamus is slightly
swollen and forms a
cushion like disc.
2. Calyx, corolla and
androecium arise below
the level of ovary.
3. Ovary is superior while
all other parts are inferior.
4. The gynoecium is
placed at the top of the
thalamus. The wall of
ovary is not fused with the
thalamus.
5. Calyx, corolla and
androecium remain
separated from the
gynoecium so that the
ovary is visible from
outside.
FLOWERS FLOWERS
1. The upper part of 1. The upper part of
thalamus may be disc- thalamus is usually flask-
shaped, cup-shaped or shaped or tubular.
flask-shaped.
2. Calyx, corolla and 2. Calyx, corolla and
androecium arise from androecium are borne on
around the ovary and not the upper part of thalamus
beneath it. above the level of ovary.
3. Ovary is half-superior. 3. Ovary is inferior while
all other parts are
superior.
4. The ovary of gynoecium 4. The ovary of gynoecium
is placed at the bottom of is completely inserted.
cup or flask-shaped The wall of ovary is fused
thalamus where ovary wall with the thalamus.
is not fused with the
thalamus.
5. Calyx, corolla and 5. Calyx, corolla and
androecium often develop androecium develop jointly
from a common base. The from the neck of hollowed
ovary of gynoecium may out thalamus so that the
or may not be visible from ovary is not visible from
outside. outside.

FLORET
A single flower of an inflorescence is called a floret.

BRACTS AND BRACTEOLES

Bracts are modified leaves which bear flowers in their axils. A flower may be:
1. Bracteate. Flowers having bracts.
2. Ebracteate. Flowers without bracts.
The bracteate flowers have the following types of bracts :
(i) Leafy bracts. Large leaf-like bracts, e.g., cotton, Adhatoda.
(ii) Spathe. Large, often brightly coloured and cover spadix inflorescence, e.g.,
Banana, Maize, etc.

9
 (iii) Involucre. A large number of bracts form compact one or more whorls
around a flower or an inflorescence, e.g., Sunflower.
(iv) Petaloid bracts. Bracts are large, showy and brightly coloured, e.g.,
Bougainvillea, Euphorbia pulcherrima (Poinsettia), etc.
(v) Glumes. Dry and scaly bracts found in association with spikelet inflorescence,
e.g., Grasses (wheat, barley. Oats etc.).
Bracteole : A secondary bract at the base of an
individual flower.
Bracteolate : Flower having bracteoles.
Ebracteolate : Flowers without bracteoles.
Spathe : A single, large bract enclosing the flower
cluster, commonly present in spadix.
Involucre : A whorl or whorls of bracts around an
inflorescence. Each bract is called phyllary. bract
Epicalyx : A set of bracteoles forming an
additional whorl over the calyx.

CALYX Cotton Bracts surrounding

Calyx can be of various types based on colour, shape, the cotton boll
cohesion, shape, aestivation and duration:
1. Colour :
(i) Sepaloid. Green in colour, like a sepal.
(ii) Petaloid. Coloured and showy, like a petal.

2. Cohesion:
(i) Polysepalous. Sepals are free and separate.

10
(ii) Gamosepalous. Sepals are fused. Gamosepalous calyx may be toothed (free
parts tooth like), fid (fusion upto half), partite (fusion less than half), or
connate (fused only at their bases).
3. Shape :
(i) Pappus. A few hairy or feathery sepals, e.g., Sonchus, Eclipta.
(ii) Spurred. One or more sepals long beak-like, e.g., Delphinium.
(iii) Spinous. Sepals modified into spines, e.g., Trapa.
(iv) Companulate. Bell-shaped, e.g., Petunia.
(v) Cupulate. Cup-shaped, e.g., Gossypium (cotton).
(vi) Urceolate. Urn-shaped, e.g., Silene.
(vii) Infundibuliform. Funnel-shaped, e.g., Atropa.
(viii) Hooded. One or more sepal become hood-like, e.g., Aconitum.
(ix) Bilabiate. Differentiated into an upper and a lower lip, e.g., Ocimum.
(x) Tubular. Tube-like, e.g., Verbena.

4. Aestivation
Aestivation : is the mode or arrangement or sepals in the bud. It is of various types:
Valvate : Sepals meeting by their edges and not overlapping or turning.
Valvate aestivation may sometimes be:
1. Induplicate : Margins projecting inward.
2. Reduplicate : Margins projecting outward.
3. Involute : Margins rolled inward.
Twisted (contorted) : Margins of sepals are overlapping regularly i.e., one
margin of a sepal
overlaps the next
and the other
margin is
overlapped by a
preceeding sepal.
Twisting may
either be
clockwise or
anticlockwise.
Imbricate: The
sepals overlap
each other in such
a way that one is
internal, one is
external and the others are partly internal and partly external.
Quincuncial : Out of five sepals two are interior, two are exterior and the
fifth one has one margin exterior and the other interior.

11
5. Duration of calyx :
(i) Persistent. Sepals remain attached till the maturation of fruit and do not fall off,
e.g., Solanum.
(ii) Caducous. Sepals fall off early, e.g., Papaver.
(iii) Deciduous. Sepals fall off after fertilization, e.g., Brassica.

COROLLA

Corolla is of various types based on cohesion of petals, shape and aestivation:

1. Cohesion :
(i) Polypetalous. Petals are free and separate.
(ii) Gamopetalous. Petals are fused in whorl or in parts.

2. Shape (Fig. 30.16) :

(i) Cruciform. The four free petals are arranged in cross-shaped. Each petal has a
claw and a limb, e.g., Mustard (Plants belonging to Brassicaceae).
(ii) Caryophyllaceous. Five free petals with long claws and with limbs placed at
right angles to the claws, e.g., plants belonging to family Caryophyllaceae
(Dianthus).
(iii) Rosaceous. Five or
more free petals
spreading regularly
outwards and not
distinguishable into
limb and claws, e.g.,
plants of family
Rosaceae (Rosa).
(iv) Papilionaceous. Five
free petals are
unequal in size
(Zygomorphic) and
arranged in butterfly
like manner - one
large posterior
bilobed petal called standard (or vexillum) which over-laps two small lateral
petals called wings (or alae). The wings further overlap the two innermost
smallest and fused petals forming a boat, called Keel (or carina). Examples -
plants of family Papilionaceae or Fabaceae (Pea, chickpea, pigeonpea etc.).
(v) Infundibuliform. Gamopetalous and funnel-shaped, e.g., Petunia.
(vi) Campanulate. Gamopetalous and bell-shaped, e.g., Campanula.

12
(vii) Tubular. Gamopetalous and tubular or cylindrical, e.g., disc florets of Sun
flower.
(viii) Hypocrateriform. Gamopetalous with long tube expanding abruptly into flat
limbs, e.g., Clerodendron.
(ix) Rotate. Gamopetalous with a flat and circular limb at right angles to the short
tube (Wheel-shaped), e.g., Solanum nigrum.
(x) Bilabiate. Gamopetalous, zygomorphic and two lipped. Bilabiate corolla with
two lips closed to one another is called personate, e.g., Antirrhinum. Bilabiate
corolla with two lips wide open is called ringent, e.g., Salvia.
(xi) Ligulate. Gamopetalous, zygomorphic with a short narrow tube below and
flattened above like a strap, e.g., ray floret of sun flower.

3.Aestivation:

The mode of arrangement of petals (also sepals) in relation to one another in a flower
bud is known as aestivation. It is of the following types -
(i) Open. Petals of a whorl (or sepals of a whorl) are sufficiently apart from each
other.

13
(ii) Valvate. Petals of a whorl (or sepals of a whorl) meet by their edges
but do not overlap. Valvate aestivation may be sometimes – (a) In-duplicate
(Margins projected inwards), (b) Reduplicate (Margins projected outwards) or
(c) Involute (Margins rolled inwards).

14
(iii) Twisted (or Contorted).
Margins of petals are
overlapping regularly i.e.,
one margin of a petal
overlaps the next and the
other margin is overlapped
by a preceding petal. Ray floret
Twisting may either be
clockwise or anticlockwise.
(iv) Imbricate. Margins of petals
are overlapping irregularly. Out of five petals, one is completely internal, one is
completely external and in each of the remaining three petals one margin is
internal and the other is external.
(1) Ascending Imbricate. It is a type of imbricate aestivation in which the
posterior petal is internal, e.g., plants of family Cassiaceae (Bauhinia,
Cassia).
(2) Descending Imbricate or Vexillary. It is a type of imbricate aestivation
in which the anterior petal is internal. The posterior petal is largest and it
almost covers the two lateral petals and the later in their turn nearly
overlap the two anterior and smallest petals, e.g., plants of family
Papilionaceae or Fabaceae (Pea).
(v) Quincuncial. It is a modification of imbricate aestivation in which two petals
are internal, two are external and the fifth one has one margin external and the
other margin internal.

PERIANTH

In some plants, there is no distinction between sepals and petals. Such floral whorls
are called perianth and the individual parts of the whorls are called tepals. Their
description is same as calyx or corolla. The terms are used as - phyllous or -
tepalous. e.g., polyphyllous or polytepalous (free tepals) , gamophyllous or
gamotepalous (fused tepals), etc.

ANDROECIUM

Collection or group of stamens and staminodes (a sterile stamen) is called

androecium. The technical terms concerning androecium are as follows-
1. Cohesion of Stamens :
(i) Monadelphous. All the stamens of a flower are united in one bundle by fusion
of their filaments only. The anthers are free, e.g., Hibiscus, Althaea, Abutilon,
etc.

15
(ii) Diadelphous. All the stamens of a flower are united in two bundles by fusion of

MONADELPHOUS POLYADELPHOUS SYNANDROUS

DIADELPHOUS SYNGENESIOUS

FORMS OF COHESION OF STAMENS

their filaments only. The anthers are free, e.g., Pea (Pisum sativum). They may
be 9 fused + 1 free as in case of pulses like peas, gram, arhar etc. and 8 fuses +
2 free as in case of Groundnut.

(iii) Polyadelphous. Filaments of all the stamens unite to form more than two
groups. The anthers are free, e.g., Citrus.

(iv) Syngenesious. Anthers of all the stamens of the flower unite to form a cylinder
around the style. The filaments are free, e.g., plants of Compositae or
Asteraceae (Sonchus, Sun flower, etc.).

(v) Synandrous. Anthers as well as the filaments are fused throughout their whole
length, e.g., plants of family Cucurbitaceae (Cucurbita, Lagenaria, Luffa, etc.).

(vi) Polyandrous. Stamens are indefinite and free, e.g., Ranunculus.

16
 Difference amongst Monadelphous, Syngenesious and
Synandrous Stamens
MONADELPHOUS SYNGENESIOUS SYNANDROUS
STAMENS STAMENS STAMENS
1. All the stamens of a 1. Anthers of all the 1. Anthers as well as
flower are fused in one stamens are fused. filaments of all the
bundle by their filaments stamens are fused.
only.
2. Staminal tube is formed 2. Fused anthers form a 2. Fused anthers as well as
around the base of the tube around the style filaments form a compact
pistil which may extend to mass.
cover the style.
3. Anthers and upper part 3. Filaments of all the 3. No part of stamens is
of the filaments are free. stamens are free. free.
2. Adhesion of stamens :
(i) Epipetalous. Stamens adhere to the petals by their filaments and hence
appearing to arise from them, e.g., Solanum, Ocimum, etc.
(ii) Epitepalous (Epiphyllous). Stamens adhere to the tepals by their filaments and
hence appearing to arise from them, e.g., Asphodelus.
(iii) Gynandrous. Stamens adhere to the carpels either throughout their length or by
their anthers only, e.g., Calotropis.
3. Insertion of stamens:
(i) Haplostemonous. Stamens in one whorl, usually as many as the number of
sepals or petals.
(ii) Antesepalous. Opposite to sepals.
(iii) Antepetalous. Opposite to petals.
(iv) Diplostemonous. Stamens are arranged in two alternating whorls. The members
of outer whorl alternate with the petals, e.g., Cassia.
(v) Obdiplostemonous. Stamens are arranged in two alternating whorls. The
members of outer whorl opposite the petals, e.g., Pink.
(vi) Polystemonous. Statements are arranged in more than two whorls.
4. Size of stamens :
(i) Didynamous. Out of four stamens in a flower, two long and two are short, e.g.,
Ocimum.
(ii) Tetradynamous. Out of six stamens in a flower, two outer are short and four
inner are long, e.g., plants of the family Brassicaceae (Mustard).

17
DIPLOSTEMONOUS OBDIPLOSTEMONOUS
POSITION OF STAMENS WITH RESPECT TO PETALS
5.

18
Position of stamens :
(i) Inserted. Stamens shorter than corolla tube.
(ii) Exserted. Stamens longer than the corolla tube, protruding outwards.

6. Number of anther-lobes thecae :

(i) Dithecous. Anthers have two lobes with
four microsporangia or pollen sacs.
(ii) Monothecous. Anthers have only one
lobe with two microsporangia or pollen
sacs.

7. Fixation of anthers :
(i) Basifixed (Innate) : Filament attached
to the base of the anther, e.g., Brassica.
(ii) Adnate. Filament is continued from the
base to the apex of anther, e.g., Verbena.
(iii) Dorsifixed. Filament is attached to the
dorsal (back) side of the anther, e.g.,
Citrus.
(iv) Versatile. Anther is attached lightly at
its back to the
slender tip of the
filament so that it
can swing freely,
e.g., Bottle brush.

8. Dehiscence of
anthers :
(i) Longitudinal.
Slits appear
lengthwise in the
anther lobes.
Longitudinal
dehiscence may be
of 3 types –
(a)Introrse:
Dehiscence occurs
towards the inner
side (centre) of the
flower ; e.g.,
Leguminosae,

19
 (b)Extrorse: Dehiscence occurs on the outward side of the flower ; e.g.,
Papaveraceae, and
(c)Latrorse:
Dehiscence occurs
laterally; e.g., Croton
sparsiflorus:
(ii) Transverse. Anther
lobes dehisce by
breadthwise slits
formed roughly in the
middle, e.g., Lady’s
finger (Abelmoschus
esculentus).
(iii) Valvular. Anther
walls break and lifted
at places like valves,
e.g., Barberry.
(iv) Porous. Anther lobes
dehisce by apical or
basal pores, e.g.,
Cassia, Tomato, etc.
(v) Irregular. Anther walls break irregularly to disperse pollen grains, e.g., Najas.

GYNOECIUM

Gynoecium is the collective

term for the innermost or
central whorl of Floral
appendages (i.e.,
carpel/carpels). A unit of
gynoecium is called pistil.
Following technical terms
are related with gynoecium -

1. Number of carpels:
(i) Monocarpellary.
Gynoecium comprises of a
single carpel; e.g.,
Leguminosae.
(ii) Bicarpellary. Comprised of two carpels ; e.g., Acanthaceae.

20
(iii) Tricarpellary. Comprised of three carpels ; e.g., Liliaceae.
(iv) Tetracarpellary. Comprised of four carpels ; e.g., Datura.
(v) Pentacarpellary. Comprised of five carpels ; e.g., Melia.
(vi) Multicarpellary. Comprised of many carpels, e.g., Papaver.

2. Cohesion of carpels :
(i) Apocarpous. Gynoecium comprised of two or more carpels which are free ;
e.g., Ranunculus.
(ii) Syncarpous. Gynoecium comprised of two or more carpels which are fused;
e.g., Hibiscus.

3. Position of the ovary

(i) Superior. Ovary is borne
above the point of
attachment of perianth
and stamens on the
thalamus; e.g., Citrus.
(ii) Semi-inferior. The
condition of ovary is
intermediate between
superior and inferior;
e.g., Rose.
(iii) Inferior. Ovary is borne
below the point of
attachment of perianth
and stamens. The
thalamus completely
covers the ovary and
fuses with it; e.g.,
Cucurbita.

21
4. Number of locules:
(i) Unilocular. Ovary with one chamber.
(ii) Bilocular. Ovary with two chambers.
(iii) Trilocular. Ovary with three chambers.
(iv) Tetralocular. Ovary with four chambers.
(v) Pentalocular. Ovary with five chambers.
(vi) Multilocmar. Ovary with many chambers.

5. Placentation type :
(i) Marginal. Occurs in a monocarpellary, unilocular ovary.
The placenta develops and ovules are borne along the
junction of the two margins of the carpel; e.g., Pea.
(ii) Axile. Occurs in a bi-or multicarpellary and multilocular
ovary. The margins of carpels fold inwards fusing
together in the centre of ovary where the placentae are
formed. The ovules are borne at or near the centre on the
placenta, in each locule ; e.g., Hibiscus.

22
(iii) Parietal. Occurs in a bi-or multicarpellary but unilocular ovary. The carpels are
fussed only by their margins. The placentae, bearing the ovules, develop by the
swelling up of fusing adjacent margins of the carpels. The placentae then appear
as internal ridges on the ovary wall ; e.g., Argemone. Ligustieum
(iv) Free-central. Occurs in a multicarpellary but unilocular ovary. The carpels are
fused only by their margins. The placenta develops in the centre of ovary as an
upgrowth from ovary base which bears ovules ; e.g., Primulaceae. The free-
central placentae may also be formed by breaking down of the septa from the
initial axile placentation, as in Caryophyllaceae.
(v) Basal. Occurs in a bi- or multicarpellary but unilocular ovary. The ovules are
few or reduced to one and borne at the base of the ovary ; e.g., Compositae
(Asteraceae).
(vi) Superficial. Occurs in multicarpellary, multilocular ovary. The ovules are borne
on placentae which develop all around the inner surface of the partition wall ;
e.g., Nymphaea.
6. Style :
(i) Terminal. Style lying in the same straight line with the ovary ; e.g., Hibiscus.
(ii) Lateral. Style arising from the side of the ovary ; e.g., Potentilla.
(iii) Gynobasic. Style arising from the thalamus, e.g., Ocimum, Salvia.
(iv) Stylopodium. A disc-like swelling at the base of the style ; e.g., Coriandrum.

7. Stigma :
Capitate. Cap-like globose head ; Capitat
Discoid : Disc-shaped ; Plumose : stigma
Feather-like ; Dum-bell shaped : Like
a dum-bell ; Bifid Forked ; Liner :
Long and narrow ; Sticky : Provided
with sticky liquid.

FRUIT

True fruit : Product of a single

ripened ovary or a single flower
enclosing seeds.
False fruit (pseudocarp) : Besides
ovary, it also contains parts of other
organs viz., receptacle, pedicel, sepals,
etc.

23
 Capitat stigma

Difference amongst Marginal, Parietal and Axile Placentations

Marginal Placentation Parietal Placentation Axile Placentation
1. Usually occurs in 1. Occurs in a bi-or 1. Occurs in a bi- or
monocarpellary unilocular multicarpellary but uniloc-ular multicarpellary and bi- or
ovary. ovary (sometimes two or more multilocular ovary.
locular due to false septa)
2. It consists of a single 2. It consists of two or more 2. It consists of two or more
longitudinal placenta or longitudinal placenta or files of files of ovules attached to a
file of ovules attached to ovules attached to the wall of central placenta or axile
the wall of the ovary. the ovary. column.
3. Placenta develops along 3. The placentae develop by the 3. The margins of carpels
the junction of the two swelling up of fusing adjacent fold inwards fusing together
margins of the carpel. margins of the carpels. in the centre of ovary where
the placentae are formed.

1. Dehiscent dry fruits.

(i) Legume : A dehiscent dry fruit produced from a monocarpellary, superior ovary
which dehisces from both the sutures into two valves ; e.g., Pea.

(ii) Follicle : A dehiscent dry fruit produced from a monocarpellary, superior ovary
which dehisces from one suture only ; e.g.. Delphinium, Calotropis.

(iii) Siliqua : A dehiscent dry fruit produced from a bicarpellary, syncarpous,

superior ovary which is unilocular but appears bilocular due to false septum.
Fruits dehisce along both the sutures from base to apex and a large number of
seeds remain attached to the replum (septa) ; e.g., Brassica.

24
25
 (iv) Capsule: A dehiscent dry fruit produced from syncarpous, superior or
inferior ovary which dehisces along two or more lines of suture in various ways
(i.e., longitudinal, transverse, porous and by teeth) ; e.g., Datura, Gossypium.

2. Schizocarpic dry fruits.

(i) Lomentum: Fruit is similar to a legume but constricted between the seeds.
Dehiscing sutures are transverse. The fruit splits into one seeded indehiscent
compartments at maturity; e.g., Tamarindus, Cassia fistula.
(ii) Cremocarp : Fruit is produced from a bicarpellary, syncarpous, bilocular and
inferior ovary. It is two-seeded fruit which splits longitudinally into two
indehiscent mericarps which remain attached to a thread like carpophore ; e.g.,
Coriandrum.
(iii) Regma : The fruit is produced from a bi-or multicarpellary, syncarpous and
superior ovary. It breaks up into as many segments or cocci as there are carpels ;
e.g., Ricinus, Geranium.
(iv) Carcerule : The fruit is produced from a bicarpellary, syncarpous, tetralocular
and superior ovary. Each locule contains one seed. The fruit breaks up into four
indehiscent parts (nutlets) ; e.g., Ocimum.

3. Indehiscent dry fruits.

(i) Achene : A small, indehiscent, one seeded fruit developing from a

monocarpellary ovary and in which the pericarp is hard, leathery and remains
free from seed coat; e.g., Mirabilis, Clematis, sunflower etc.
(ii) Caryopsis : A small, indehiscent, one seeded fruit developing from a
monocarpellary
ovary and in
which the
pericarp is fused
with the seed
coat. The seed
completely fills
the chamber ;
e.g., Wheat.
(iii) Cypsela : The
fruit is produced
from
bicarpellary,
syncarpous and ACHENE OF SUNFLOWER
inferior ovary
http://waynesword.palomar.edu/images/sunfl3b.jpg&imgrefurl=http

26
 with calyx persistent and forming the 'pappus’. It contains only one seed. The
pericarp and seed coat remain free ; e.g., Tridax, Sonchus.
(iv) Nut : A large, indehiscent, one-seeded fruit that develops from a bi- or
multicarpellary ovary. The fruit wall becomes hard, stony or woody at maturity;
e.g., Litchi, Chestnut, Cashewnut.
(v) Samara : A dry, indehiscent, one-seeded winged fruit developing from
bicarpellary, syncarpous ovary : The wing is modified outgrowth of pericarp ;
e.g., Holoptelea integrifolia (Chilbil).

4. Fleshy fruits.

(i) Berry: A fleshy, usually many-seeded fruit with massive, pulpy and juicy
pericarp produced from a syncarpous ovary. The epicarp of berries generally
becomes conspicuously coloured when ripe ; e.g., Tomato, Banana.
(ii) Hesperidium : It is a berry with a firm, hard and leathery pericarp, as in Citrus.
The fruit develops from polycarpellary, syncarpous and superior ovary. Outer
glandular skin is epicarp, the white fluffy stuff is mesocarp and inner membrane
surrounding the locules is endocarp. The juice is secreted by large multicellular
hairs lying towards inner side of carpels ; e.g., Lemon, Orange.
(iii) Pepo: A large fleshy fruit developing from a tricarpellary, syncarpous,
unilocular and inferior ovary with parietal placentation. The fruit is many
seeded with pulpy interior ; e.g., Cucumber, Melon.
(iv) Drupe: A fleshy, one seeded, indehiscent fruit developing from mono or
multicarpellary syncarpous ovary. The pericarp is differentiated into outer, thin
epicarp (forming skin), middle fleshy and fibrous mesocarp and inner hard and
stony endocarp which encloses and protects the seed; e.g., Mango, Coconut,
Walnut.
(v) Balausta : A fleshy fruit with many chambers and many seeds like the berry.
Pericarp forms a firm rind and two rows of carpels are placed one above the
other bearing seeds irregularly: Fruit is crowned with the lobes of an adnate
calyx- Edible part is testa; e.g., Pome-granate.
(vi) Amphisarca: A fleshy, many-seedded fruit with a woody pericarp developing
from a syncarpous and superior ovary. The edible portion is the placenta and
inner pulpy pericarp ; Aegle marmelos.
(vii) Pome: A fleshy false fruit enclosed within the fleshy thalamus. The fruit
develops from bi-or multicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary, e.g., Apple.

5. Aggregate fruits.

(i) Etaerio of follicles : An aggregate of follicles ; e.g., Consolida, Michelia

champaca.

27
(ii) Etaerio of achenes : An aggregate of achenes ; e.g., strawberry in which it

28
 occurs scattered over the enlarged fleshy thalamus.
(iii) Etaerio of drupes : An aggregate of drupes; e.g., Raspberry.
(iv) Etaerio of berries : Bunch of berries crowded together on a thick thalamus
forming a single fruit; e.g., Anona squamosa.

6. Multiple fruits.

(i) Sorosis : The fruit is produced from the entire inflorescence which is spike or
spadix in which the flowers fuse by their succulent perianth. The inflorescence
axis becomes fleshy by hypertrophy forming a compact mass ; e.g., Jack fruit,
Pineapple, Mulberry.
(ii) Syconus : The fruit produced from the enitre hypanthodium inflorescence ; e.g.,
Ficus.
(iii) Fabaceae

29
 Proforma For Description of
A Flower
INFLORESCENCE:
1. Racemose/cymose/mixed/special
2. Racemose-Typical Raceme/ spike/ compound spike/ spikelet/ catkin/ spadix/
corymb/ umbel/ capitulum.
3. If Cymose-Monochasial (scorpoid / helicoids / dichasial / polychasial.
4. If special-Cyathium / verticillaster / hypanthodium.
FLOWER :
1. Pedicellate/sessile.
2. Bracteate/ebracteate ; type of bract.
3. Bracteolate/ebracteolate.
4. Complete/incomplete.
5. Bisexual (hermaphrodite, perfect)/unisexual (staminate/pistillate).
6. Actinomorphic/zygomorphic.
7. Cyclic/hemicyclic (spirocyclic)/spiral.
8. Hypogynous/perigynous/epigynous/nude.
9. Number of floral parts – Dimerous/trimerous/tetramerous/pentamerous.
10. Any special feature – Colour ; size ; anthophore ; androphore ; gynophore ;
gynadrophore ; disc ; nectarines.
CALYX :
1. Number of sepals.
2. Cohesion – Polysepalous/gamosepalous.
3. Sepaloid/petaloid.
4. Aestivation – Valvate/twisted/imbricate/quincuncial.
5. Caducous/persistent.
6. Modifications, if any.

30
COROLLA :
1. Number of petals.
2. Cohesion – Polypetalous/gamopetalous.
3. Shape of corolla – Cruciform/caryophyllaceous/rosaceous/papilionaceous/
campanulate (bell-shaped) tubular/infundibuliform (funnel-shaped)/rotate/bilabiate/
personate/ligulate.
4. Regular/irregular.
5. Aestivation – Valvate/twisted/imbricate/quincuncial/vexillary.
6. Apendages, if nay – spur/nectary/corona.
PERIANTH :
1. Number of tepals ; number of whorls.
2. Cohesion – Polytepalous/gamotepalous.
3. Sepaloid/petaloid.
4. Aestivation – Valvate/twisted/imbricate/quincuncial.
5. Any special feature.
ANDROECIUM :
1. Number of stamens (write α if more than 10) ; number of fertile, sterile and
staminode.
2. Cohesion – Polyandrous/monadephous/diadelphous/polyadelphous/
syngenesious/synandrous.
3. Epipetalous/ epitepalous/
gynandrous.
4. Antipetalous/ dilostemonous/
obdiplostemonous.
5. Didynamous/tetradynamous.
6. Inserted/exerted.
7.Anthers–Dithecous(two celled) /
monothecous (one celled).
8. Attachment of anthers –
Basifixed/ adnate/ dorsifixed/ versatile.
9. Dehiscence – Introrse /extrorse.
10. Any special feature.
GYNOECIUM :
1. Number of carpels – Monocarpellary/ bicarpellary/ tricarpellary/
tetracarpellary/ pentacarpellary/ poly (or multi) carpellary.
2. Cohesion – Apocarpous/syncarpous.
3. Number of locules – uni-/bi-/tri-/tetra-/penta-/multilocular.
4. Number of ovules in each locule.
5. Ovary – Superior/semi-inferior/inferior.
6. Placentation – marginal/axile/parietal/basal/free-central/superficial.

31
 7. Style – Terminal/letral/gynobasic/stylopodium.
8. Stigma – Number ; shape-simple, lobed, capitate, branched.
9. Any other special feature.

FRUITS :
Types of fruits-simple, aggregate or composite.
FLORAL FORMULA
Floral formula is the summarized account of the floral characters of a plant or
a family represented by symbols. The characters and their symbols by which they are
represented are as follows –
Flower Bracteate : Br.
Flower Ebracteate : Ebr.
Flower Bracteolate : Brl.
Flower Ebracteolate : Ebrl.
Actinomorphic : ⊕
Zygomorphic : %
Hermaphrodite or Bisexual :
Staminate (Male) :
Pistillate (Female) :
Neuter : N
Perianth : P
Calyx : K
Corola : C
Androecium : A
Gynoecium : G
Number of floral parts are written at right foot of the symbol and if they are
fused are bracketed. For example :
Sepals five free : K5
Sepals five fused : K(5)
Petals six free : C6
Petals five fused : C(5)
Stamens ten free : A10
Stamens ten in two whorls of 5 each: A5+5
Stamens indefinite : Aα
Stamens 10, diadelphous : A(9)+1 (one group has 9 fused and the other has only 1)
Carpels two free : G2
Bicarpellary sycarpous : G(2)
Carpels five fused : G(5)

32
Epipetalous condition is shown as :
Epiphyllous condition is shown as :
Superior ovary is shown by a
horizontal underline below the number: G2
Inferior ovary is shown as :
Perigynous condition is shown as : G2-
Examples of the floral formulae of some common flowers are given below –
Ranunculus scleratus (Fam. Ranunculaceae):
Br, Brl, ⊕, , K5, C5, Aα, Gα
(Bracteate, Bracteolate, Actinomorphic, Hermaphrodite, Calyx 5 free, polysepalous,
Corolla f free, polypetalous ; Androecium, indefinite, free, polyandrous ; Gynoecium
polycarpellary, apocarpous, superior ovary).
Solanum nigrum
(Fam. Solanaceae) EBr, ⊕, +, K(5), C(5), A5, G(2)
(Ebracteate, Actinomorphic, Hermaphrodite, Calyx 5 gamosepalous, Corolla 5
gamopetalous, Androecium 5 polyandrous epipetalous ; Gynoecium bicarpellary,
syncarpous, superior ovary).
FLORAL DIAGRAM
The floral diagram is a diagrammatic representation of the pooled up
informations from transverse sections of the flower bud in relation to mother axis. It
is characterized by the following -
The axis to which the flower is attached is called mother axis. The side of the
flower towards the mother axis is known as posterior side and the side away from it
is called anterior side. Mother axis is drawn at the top of the floral diagram in the
form of a small circle.
Bract is drawn as a single arc on the anterior side (opposite the mother axis).
The bracteoles are drawn on both lateral sides.
Calyx is drawn as whorl of arcs representing the number of sepals. Corolla is
drawn inner to calyx as a whorl of arcs representing petals. Number of sepals and
petals are shown by number of arcs. If sepals of petals are free, the arcs are shown
free. If they are fused, the margins of arcs arc joined. Aestivation is shown by
overlapping of margins. Relation of odd sepal or odd petal with mother axis is also
shown in the diagram. Usually the petals alternate with the sepals.
Stamens are shown inner to the whorl of petals either in one whorl or in two
whorls or arranged spirally. Each stamen is drawn in the shape of kidney. If anthers
are dithecous, they are shown as two kidney lobes and if they are monothecous, they
are shown as single lobed kidney. Symbols of stamen are drawn separated apart if
they are free and joined by solid line if they are fused. The relative position with

33
regard to petals or sepals is also drawn in the diagram. If they are epipetalous, the
symbols of stamens are joined to petals with solid lines.
Gynoecium is drawn in the centre of floral diagram. Apocarpous condition is
shown by drawing a number of separate circles. Syncarpous condition is drawn as
fused circles representing a transverse section of the ovary. Other features such as
placentation, number of locules, number of ovules, swollen placenta, presence of
nectaries and disc are shown accordingly.

A representation of floral diagram of Brassica compestris is given in figure below.

DESCRIPTION OF SOME FAMILIES
FAMILY: BRASSICACEAE
(= CRUCIFERAE OR MUSTARD FAMILY)
Systematic Position :
Class — Dicotyledonae
Subclass — Polypetalae
Series — Thalamiflorae
Order — Parietales
Family — Brassicaceae

34
 Inflorescence Petal
Stamen
Floret Pedicel Calyx
Fruit FLORET

Stigma
Leaf Petal
Stem Stamen
Style
Sepal
Ovary
Locule Thalamus
Pedicel
RACEME L.S. of FLORET
INFLORESCENCE Ovule
Placenta Wall
Anther T.S. of
Lobes OVARY
Stigma
Style
Conne
-ctive
Ovary
Filam
-ent
STAMEN GYNOECIUM
FLORAL DIAGRAM

35
Distribution:
The family Brassicaceae includes about 375 genera and over 3200 species
distributed widely in north temperate regions.
Field Recognition:
Plants are annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubby, with a smelling watery
juice. Corolla- cruciform, stamen—tetradynamous and fruit siliqua or silicula.
Familiar plants:
Brassica campestris —Mustard (Sarson), Raphanus sativus — Radish
(Mooli), Brassica rapa— Turnip (Shaljam), Brassica oleracea var. botrytis —
Cauliflower (Phool Gobhi), Brassica oleracea var. capitata — Cabbage (Band
Gobhi), Iberis — Candytuft, etc.
Family description:
Inflorescence : Typically racemose.
Flower : Ebracteate, ebracteolate, pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodite
(bisexual), cyclic, actinomorphic, rarely zygomorphic (Iberis), tetramerous,
hypogynous.
Calyx : Sepals 4, polysepalous, arranged in 2 whorls of 2 each, outer whorl is
anterio-posterior.
Corolla : Petals 4, polypetalous, cruciform (arranged in a cross), alternate
with sepals, often clawed, (petals reduced or scale like in Coronopus and absent in
Lepidium).
Androecium : Stamens 6, arranged in 2 whorls (2 + 4), polyandrous,
tetradynamous (2 outer lateral are long and 4 inner are short), 4 green dot-like nectar
glands present at the base of the outer and inner paired stamens, anthers dithecous
(rarely monothecous), introrse ; stamens are two in Coronopus didymus, four in some
species of Nasturtium, and upto 16 in Megacarpaea pofyandra.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary, superior, unilocular but
becomes bilocular due to false septum (replum), parietal placentation, replum unites
the two parietal placentae, ovules many, style 1, stigma 2 (capitate or bilobed).
Fruit : Siliqua or silicula.
Seed : Small, non-endospermic with large curved embryo, testa often
mucilaginous.
General Floral Formula : Ebr, Ebrl, ⊕, +, K2+2, C4, A2+4, G(2)
Example 1. Brassica campestris
(Mustard)
Inflorescence. Typical raceme.
Flower. Pedicellate, ebracteate, complete, hermaphrodite (bisexual),
actinomorphic, cyclic, hypogynous, tetramerous, yellow.
Calyx. Sepals 4, arranged in 2 whorls of 2 each, polysepalous outer sepals
anterioposterior, slightly petaloid.
Corolla. Petals 4, polypetalous, cruciform, valvate aestivation, yellow.

36
 Androecium. Stamens 6, arranged in two whorls, polyandrous,
tetradynamous (4 inner long and 2 short), anthers dithecous, basifixed, introrse,
glands present at the base of 4 long stamens.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, sycarpous, ovary superior, unilocular but becomes
bilocular due to false septum (replum), many ovules in each locule, parietal
placentation, style short, stigma bifid.
Fruit. Siliqua.
Floral formula. Ebr, ⊕, , K2+2, C4, A2+4, G(2).
FAMILY : FABACEAE
(= PAPILIONACEAE OR PEA FAMILY)
Systematic Position:
Class — Dicotyledonae
Subclass — Polypetalae
Series — Calyciflorae
Order—Rosales
Family—Fabaceae ( = Papilionaceae)
Distribution:
The family includes about 440 genera and 12000 species distributed all over
the world except the arctic regions.
Field Recognition :
Herbs, shrubs or trees ; leaves simple or pinnate compound with pulvinate
base ; flower zygomorphic having papilionaceous corolla ; sepals united, odd sepal
anterior ; corolla aestivation descending—imbricate ; stamens monadelphous or
diadelphous (1 + 9), carpel one, fruit a pod.
Familiar plants :
Pisum sativum (Pea), Arachis hypogaea (Ground nut), Phaseolus vulgaris
(Kidney bean), Phaseolus aureus (Green gram), Phaseolus mungo (Black gram),
Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea), Cicer aurantium (Chickpea), Glycine max (Soybean),
etc.
Inflorescence : Racemose or solitary.
Flower : Bracteate, sometimes bracteolate, complete, hermaphrodite
(bisexual), zygomorphic, cyclic, hypogynous or sometimes perigynous, pentamerous.
Calyx : Sepals 5, more or less united in a tube and persistent, odd sepal
anterior.
Corolla : Petals 5, polypetalous, papilionaceous (i.e., a posterior petal is
large and called standard or vexillum, two lateral petals are lanceolate and slightly
curved called wings or alae and two anterior petals are fused along the margin to
form a boat shaped keel or carina), posterior petal outermost, aestivation descending-
imbricate (vexillary).

37
 FLORAL DESCRIPTION OF SWEET PEAS (Pisum sativum)

Tendril
Leaflets Standard
Wing Sigma
Leaf
Keel Style
Stamen

Stem Sepal
Flower
Foliaceous
stipule Fruit Ovary
Pedicel
Anthers L.S. FLOWER

Ovule Placenta

A FLOWERING TWIG

Filaments
Locule ANDROECIUM

Standard Wall

Wings

Keel

FLORAL DIAGRAM
COROLLA

38
Androecium : Stamens 10, diadelphous (i.e., 9 are fused into a tube and 1 is free),
rarely monadelphous, anthers bithecous, introrse and dehisce by longitudinal slits.
Gynoecium : Monocarpellary, unilocular, many ovules, marginal placentation, ovary
superior, style long bent at its base.
Fruit : A legume or pod, rarely a lomentum.
Seeds : Non-endospermous.
General Foral Formula : Br, %, , K(5), C1+2+(2), A(9)+1, G1
Economic Importance
1. Pulses and Vegetables : The family is the source of several pulse crops such as
Pigeon pea (Arhar), Gram (chana), Pea (Matar), Field bean (Bankia), Cluster bean
(Gwar), Lima bean (Lobia), Lentil (Masoor), Green gram (Mung), Bean (Sem), Soya
(Soybean), Black gram (Urd), etc.
2. Ornamentals : Common ornamentals are lupin (Lupinus), Sweet pea (Lathyrus
odoratus), Butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea), etc.
3. Oil. Seeds of Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) and Soybean (Glycine max) yield oil
which is used as cooking oil, preparation of soap, cosmatics, etc.
4. Dye. Indigo dye is obtained from Indigofera tinctoria.
5. Plants belonging to this family are also used as fodder, medicinal value, etc.
Example 1. Lathyrus odoratus (Sweet pea)
Inflorescence. Racemose or solitary axillary.
Flower. Pedicellate, bracteate, complete, hermaphrodite (bisexual), zygomorphic,
cyclic, slightly perigynous, pentamerous, variously coloured.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamasepalous, valvate aestivation, green, hairy, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, vexillary aestivation, papilionaceous consisting of
larger posterior petal, the vexillum, two lateral wings (alae) and two petals fused to
form the keel (carina).
Androecium. Stamens 10, diadelphous, nine fused in the form of a tube around the
ovary and tenth, posterior one free, anthers dithecous, basifixed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Monocarpellary, unilocular, ovary half-inferior, marginal placentation,
style long and curved, stigma capitate, covered by the keel.
Fruit. Legume.
Floral frmula. Br, %, , K(5), C5 or 1+2+(2), A(9)+1, G1-.
FAMILY : POACEAE ( = GRAMINEAE)
Systematic Position : Class–Monocotyledone, Series– Glumaceae, Family – Poaceae
Distribution : The family is represented by about 620 genera and over 10,000 species
distributed throughout the world.
Field Recognition : Herbs or shrubs with round stem (culm) having usually hollow
internodes ; jointed stem ; leaves mostly flat, 2-ranked (distichous) with distinct open
leaf sheath and linear blade with often a ligule at their junction ; flowers reduced

39
enclosed in glumes, perianth represented by lodicules, ovary superior, stigma
feathery, fruit caryopsis.
Familiar Plants : Triticum aestivum (Wheat), Oryza sativa (Rice), Zea mays (Maize),
Saccharum officinarum (Sugar cane) Bamboos, Doob grass, etc.
Infloresence : Spikelet ; spikelets are arranged in racemes, panicle or spikes; each
spikelet consists of one or more flowers (or florets) and their subtending bracts
arranged on rachilla (inflorescence axis), at the base of spikelet are generally present
two sterile glumes (lower one called first glume and upper one second glume) ; In
some genera either the first glume or both the glumes are absent.
Flower : Small, inconspicuous, usually called florets ; Bisexual or unisexual ;
zygomorphic ; hypogynous; each floret consists of two bracts (one bract and one
bracteole) called lemma and palea ; lemma (fertile or flowering glume) is greenish,
keeled or awned, palea (representing bracteole) is thin membranous and bears a
flower proper in its axil.
Perianth : Absent or reduced to 2 (or rarely 3) minute scale like lodicules.
[Inflorescence axis that bears flowers = rachilla ; first bract of spikelet = first glume ;
second bract of spikelet ; = second glume ; Bract of flower ; = lemma ; Bracteole of
flower = Palea ; Perianth of flower = lodicules]
Androecium : Stamens usually 3 (rarely 1 - 6), filaments free; anthers bithecous,
basifixed or versatile, introrse ; dehiscence longitudinal.
Gynoecium ; Bi— or tricarpellary, Syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular with one
ovule, placentation basal, styles 2 (rarely 1 or 3), stigma feathery or plumose.
Fruit : A caryopsis (rarely nut, utricle or berry).
Seed : Endospernuc (endosperm starchy), embryo straight.
General Floral Formula: ⊕ or %, or or ♀, P2 or 3 or absent, P3 or 1-6, G(2-3).
Inflorescence. Spike of spikeletes ; each spikelet encloses 4 flowers and consists of
the following parts-
(i) A pair of barren glumes present at the base, outer one is called first and inner one
is called second glume, (ii) an inferior palea (or lemma) is present next to glume
towards the anterior side and (iii) a membranous superior palea (or pale) towards
posterior side. The glumes are regarded as bracts and palea as bracteoles.
Flower. Sessile, bracteate, bracteolate, complete, hermaphrodite (bisexual),
zygomorphic, heteromerous, cyclic, hypogynous.
Perianth. Tepals 2, rudimentary, membranous, free, called lodicules.
Androecium. Stamens 3, polyandrous, 1 anterior and 2 lateral, filaments long,
anthers bithecous, versatile, introrse.
Gynoecium. Monocarpellary, unilocular, single ovule, ovary superior, basal
placentation, style absent, stigma 2, long and feathery.
Fruit. Caryopsis.
Floral formula.Br, Brl, %, +, P2, A3, G1

40
 Awn
Inflorescence

Spikelet
Rachis
Flag
leaf

SPIKELET OF WHEAT
feathery stigma

T.S. OVARY Ovary

Stem
Gynoecium

PLANT Stamen

GYNOECIUM

Anther
Lodicule
Lemma
Palea

Connective Filament Glume II

Glume I

STAMEN OPENED SPIKELET FLORAL DIAGRAM

FLORAL DESCRIPTION OF Triticum aestivum

41
 Floral Biology of Wheat

Family : Gramineae
Genus : Triticum
Species : aestivum
Genome Formulae for Several Species of Triticum and some of its close relatives:
Species Chromosome no Genome Common
(2n) formula name
Diploid species
Triticum boeoticum 14 AA Wild einkorn
Triticum monococcum 14 AA Einkorn
Aegilopes speltoides 14 BB
Aegilopes caudata 14 CC
Aegilopes squarrosa 14 DD
Secale cereale 14 EE rye
Tetraploid species
Triticum dicoccoides 28 AABB Wild emmer
Triticum dicoccum 28 AABB Emmer
Triticum durum 28 AABB Durum wheat
Triticum carthalicum 28 AABB Persian wheat
Triticum polonicum 28 AABB Polish wheat
Triticum turgidum 28 AABB Solid stem
wheat
Triticum timopheevi 28 AAGG timopheevi
Aegilopes cylindrica 28 CCDD goat grass

42
 Chromosome no Genome Common
Species formula name

Hexaploid species
Triticum compactum 42 AABBDD Club wheat
Triticum spelta 42 AABBDD Spelt
Triticum aestivum 42 AABBDD Common
wheat

Introduction

Wheat is the leading grain crop of temperate climates

in the world. It is the second most important food crop
in India, after rice, both in terms of area and
production. During last few years India has become the
second largest producer of wheat in the world. China
being at the top in the world, contributing 13 % in area
and 19% in production followed by India that
contributes 13% in world wheat production and
occupies 12% of area. USA, Russia, France Canada,
Germany, Turkey, Australia and Ukraine are the other
countries that contribute significantly in the world
wheat basket. Although cultivated under a wide range
of climatic conditions, most extensive production of
wheat is in areas where the winters are cool and the
summers comparatively hot. In India five species of Figure 2.1: Spike and
wheat are grown, T. aestivum (bread wheat), T. durum Rachis of wheat
(macaroni wheat), T. dicoccum (emmer wheat), T.
sphaerococcum (dwarf wheat), and T. turgidum (rivit wheat). Maximum acreage is
planted under bread wheat.

Floral Biology

Flower
The inflorescence of wheat is called ‘ear’ or ‘head’, (Fig. 2.1) and in botanical
language it is called as ‘spike’. This is a compound distichous spike, whose primary
axis bears two opposiote rows of lateral spikelets and single terminal spikelet i.e.
spikelets are systematically arranged and are distributed along a common axis known

43
as rachis. The main axis of rachis
is a sinuous, notched structure
and has numerous internodes
with narrow base and broader
apex. This has a zigzag
appearance. There are varietal
differences for toughness of
rachis, some having tough rachis
that does not break even when
threshed, others having brittle
axis that breaks down when the
grains are ripe. Spikelets are
arranged in pairs except at the tip
where single terminal spikelet is
present. Figure 2.2: Spikelet of wheat

Spikelet (Fig. 2.2 and 2.3)

The unit of the

inflorescence (spike) is
the spikelet. Each spikelet
is a condensed
reproductive shoot
consisting of two
subtending sterile bracts
or glumes, enclosing 3 to
5 florets and rarely up to
9 florets on a short axis
called rachilla (secondary
axis). The typical glume
is boat-shaped with
rounded base. Each floret
has two bracts, lemma
and palea present Spikelet
opposite to each other.
Lemma is a brittle
structure which may be Gynoecium Floret
awned, (having awns)
awnletted (having small Figure 2.3: Spikelet, gynoecium and floret of wheat
awns) or awnless

44
(without awns) depending upon genotype. Palea
on the other hand is a membranous structure and
always awnless.

Florets (Fig. 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5)

Each floret consists of a lemma, a palea,

androecium and gynoecium. The lemma enfolds
the palea near their attachment point. Awn is the
extension of the midrib of lemma in awned
varieties. Glumes of different varieties differ in
the firmness of attachment to the rachis, in the
tightness with which they hold the mature
kernels and in size relative to size of the kernels.
These characters vary with variety and make
them resistant or susceptible to shattering.
Wheat spikes also differ in their shape, length,
width and degree of compactness. Variability
also exists for glume shape, colour and tip. Figure 2.4: Compact and
These spike and glume characters are quite lose spikes of wheat
stable (genetically controlled and highly heritable)
and are commonly used as descriptors in
categorization of wheat species and varieties.

Androecium and Gynoecium (Fig. 2.6)

Florets are bisexual and zygomorphic. Each floret
has three stamens with large anthers and a pistil
bearing bifid feathery stigma (all cereals except rice
Figure 2.5: Lemma and and bamboo have three stamens) . Wheat stamens
palea are small and produce
about 1000-4000 pollen grains per anther. Wheat pollen is
shed in this three-celled condition. The unilocular carpel of
wheat, like in other grasses, has one ovule.

Lodicules: Figure 2.6:

Androecium and
There are two delicate ovate lodicules present at the base of
Gynoecium
ovary. These are considered to be modified perianth
structures. They absorb water and swell. Swelling of
lodicules leads to flower opening and anthesis. Size of lodicules is also variable

45
among genotypes. Cleistogamous genotypes have smaller lodicules than
chasmogamous flowers.

Anthesis and Mode of Pollination: (Fig. 2.7)

Wheat normally is self-pollinated crop. Chasmogamy is

quite common. Cleistogamy is also observed in a few
genotypes. Anther extrusion is also variable,
cleistogamy to complete extrusion. In adverse climatic
conditions, when the anthers fail to dehisce, cross-
pollination may occur, depending on availability of air
borne pollen. Cross pollination ranges from 0.5 - 1.0
per cent, as most of the pollen is shed before the anther
comes out of the glumes (chasmogamy). In other
situations, the filament may not elongate at all and the
pollen is deposited in the florets resulting in
cleistogamy.

The main tiller flowers first and the lateral tillers later
in the order of their formation. Blooming is also in the
same order. Flowering begins in the upper part (2/3 rd
from the base) of the spike and proceeds in both the
directions (see PowerPoint presentation). The glumes
normally open during the flowering process, the anthers
protrude from the glumes and part of it is shed outside
the flowers.

Florets at anthesis are forced open by the swelling of

the lodicules. Filaments elongate very rapidly, attaining
three times their original length in about 3 minutes. The
stamens thus help anthesis by quickly exerting and
Figure 2.7: Anthesis
exposing the anthers. Pollen is short lived and remains
viable for only 15 to 30 minutes. Stigmas remain (see white anthers)
receptive for 4 to 5 days and may prolong to 13 days
depending upon the environment. This short viability of pollen is characteristic of the
plants in which pollen is released at three-nucleate stage.

Fruit (Fig. 2.8)

A wheat grain is a small, dry, indehiscent, one-seeded fruit with a thin pericarp and is
called as a caryopsis. The shape of the grain can be ovate, elliptical or oval. The

46
surface of the wheat grain is smooth except at the stigmatic end where there is a tuft
of persistent hairs known as the brush. The colour of
the grains varies from red (reddish brown) to white or
amber.

Emasculation and Pollination

Emasculation: (Fig. 2.9)

Crossing in wheat is simple but time consuming and Figure 2.8: Wheat grains
laborious. Since the flower is bisexual, it is necessary
to emasculate or remove the anthers from the spike that has to be pollinated. The
flower maturity starts from the middle of the spike and extends in both directions i.e.
it follows the pattern of flowering.
There can be a difference of 1-2 days in
maturity between the middle and the
extreme (upper and lower) spikelets.
Hence, depending on the condition of
the spike, one or two spikelets from
either side and the terminal spikelet are
removed before emasculation. Within
each spikelet, the two lateral ones are
bigger and the inner ones are smaller
and also mature later. The spike which
Figure 2.9: Emasculation : (a) Removal has to be crossed is selected at a stage
of central floret (b) emasculated spike when the lower portion of spike is still
inside the flag leaf. At this stage the
anthers of the middle spikelets are fully grown and still green, indicating that they
will ripen in a day or two. The central florets are removed by holding them with a
forceps and pulling them downward and outward . This leaves only the outermost
florets of each spikelet. The awns are cut slightly below the glumes which helps in the
removal of anthers. After emasculation the ear is normally covered with a butter-
paper bag to prevent natural pollination.

Pollination (Fig. 2.10, 2.11)

Pollination is effected by placing a freshly opened anther into the emasculated floret
or dusting pollen. After pollination, the bag is again kept on the pollinated spike to
avoid any foreign pollen. The bag may be removed after a few days, or kept till
maturity.

47
Male parent spike is removed from the plant
and the spikelets are cut from ½ from the top
without damaging the anthers. This spike is
then exposed to the sunlight during morning
hours (8.00AM-9.00AM) to release the pollen
grains. Stamens elongate very fast and come
out of the spikelets. These spikes are gently
taken to female (emasculated) parents and
inverted inside the bag covering the
emasculated spike. Spikes are shaken and are
enclosed along with the emasculated spikes to
achieve maximum pollination and thus
fertilization.

To perform large number of crosses, a slightly

modified method, called the “twirl method”
has been developed. In this method, the spike
that has to be used as female is emasculated as
in the previous case, but the glumes are cut Figure 2.10: (a) Male spikes
deeper, so that the stigma is slightly exposed. inserted in the soil near the
For pollination, a spike is selected which is female parent in the sun light to
ready to dehisce pollen grains. This can be release the pollen grains by (b)
easily judged by inspecting a few florets of a protruding the anthers
spike and selecting those which have yellow-
coloured anthers. The awns are cut and the spike is kept erect in sun for sometime to
allow the filaments to elongate and the
anthers to dehisce. At an appropriate stage
the spike is inverted carefully and rotated
around the previously emasculated spike
while still in the glassine bag. The pollen
grains are thus deposited on the stigmatic
surface. This avoids the tedious procedure
of placing anthers or pollen manually in
each of the florets.

In both cases, a label is kept inside the bag

Figure 2.11 : (a) bagging after and one is kept outside the bag tied to the
selfing and (b) bagging after peduncle. Details like the female and male
parents used in the cross, date of
pollination etc. are mentioned on this label.

48
 Floral Biology of Rice

Family: Gramineae
English name: Rice
Common name: Dhan
(in Hindi), bhatta (in Kannada),
arisi (in Tamil) etc.
Genus: Oryza
Species: sativa
Chromosome No.: 2n=24

Rice is a staple food of more than 60%

of the world’s population. Maximum
area under rice is in Asia. Among rice growing countries, India has the largest area of
about 40.2 million-hectare followed by China and Bangladesh.

Inflorescence
Rice Panicle
The inflorescence of rice is
a terminal panicle, 7.5-38.0
cm long with single
flowered spikelets. High
day temperature, high solar
radiation and low night
temperature promote
panicle production. More
panicle would mean a
greater number of available
spikelets.

49
 PART OF THE RICE PANICLE SHOWING ITS BRANCHING PATTERN
AND ATTACHMENT OF SPIKELETS

Tertiary
branch Spikelets

Secondary
branch

Main axis
Spikelets: The spikelets are single-flowered, each with a short stalk.

Glumes: There are two small glumes at the base of each spikelet.

Floret: The floret consists of the lemma, the palea, two lodicules, the androecium and
the gynoecium.

Lemma: The lemma is large and hairy. It is awned 5-nerved structure.

Palea: The palea is hairy, smaller than the lemma and is present opposite to it. It is
three-nerved structure. After maturity, the lemma, the palea and the glumes remain
attached on the seed as a cover called husk.

Flower: The flower is bisexual, zygomorphic and bracteate.

50
Perianth: The two-minute scales like
structures present at the base of florets are
called the lodicules. They are thick and
fleshy.

Androecium: The androecium consists of six

stamens arranged in two whorls whose
filaments are short in earlier stage. About 6
day before heading, the pollen grains mature
and the flag leaf sheath swells, which is an
indication of booting stage. The filament
elongates immediately after floret opening
and brings anther to the level of stigma. The
total number of pollen grains per anther is
reported to be directly correlated with anther
size which generally varies from 0.9 to

5.4mm The number of pollen grains per anther SPIKELET OF RICE

(Y) with known anther length (X) is estimated

by the formula Y= -1172+1277X, but this relation does not hold true when
temperature becomes lower than 200C. Normally 2-3 pollen grains are required per
stigma to fertilize one egg cell.

51
 DIAGRAMATIC PRESENTATION OF SPIKE OF RICE

Gynoecium: The gynoecium is monocarpellary and has a superior ovary, with two
feathery stigmas on a style. Receptivity of stigma is maximum during the first 3 days
after opening of spikelet and then is gradually lost after 7 days. Stigma exertion, large
stigmatic area and its receptivity, all play a major role in determining high seed set in
CMS parent.

Anthesis and Mode of Pollination

Rice is a self-pollinated crop, with 0.1 to 4 per cent outcrossing. The flower may open
from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m., depending upon the season. Most of the flowers start opening

52
 at the apex and the flowering proceed
downward in the panicle, but in the
branches, it is not strictly so. In rice
three types of pollination are possible:
• The usual process is that the anther
burst as they emerge and pollinate
the stigma (leading to self-
pollination).
• The anthers burst open and
pollination takes place before
blossoming, generally at high
temperature and under low
humidity (leading to self-
pollination).
• Under certain temperature and
humidity conditions, the anthers
may emerge from the flower
without bursting and such flower is
generally cross pollinated.
The terminal spikelet opens first and

then the lower ones.

The stigma remains
receptive from the
time of anthesis up to
3 days. Pollen grain
on the stigma
germinates in about
three minutes after
the pollination. The
ovary with single
ovule develops into
the fruit / caryopsis.

Emasculation
Several methods have
been used for emasculating rice:
(a) Standard method: This is
most widely used method of
emasculation in rice.

53
 Remove all the immature and mature spikelets from the panicle. The mature
spikelets are translucent and have anther outside the florets. Separate the glumes
with the help of a pair of forceps and gently remove all the six stamens. To
speed up the emasculation, suction may be used. For this, a pipette is attached to
a vacuum pump and the tip of pipette is inserted in to the florets to collect the
anthers. Emasculation is generally performed in the evening and the pollination
is done next morning. After emasculation, cover the female with butter paper
bags. Tagging is also done.
(b) Hot water treatment: This method of emasculation is commonly used in Japan.
The immature spikelets are cut off. The panicles are dipped in hot water
containing constant temperature of 43 0C for at least 5 min. Great care should be
taken to have constant temperature of water for which thermos flasks are best.
This method is relatively more time consuming and pollen must be immediately
available to introduce in to the florets before their closing.

Pollination
Collect the pollens just before
anther dehiscence. To apply CARYOPSIS OF RICE
pollens, remove butter paper bags
and the anthers from the derived male parents are shaken over the emasculated
florets. If pollens are not available in plenty then repeat the above process. If two
panicles on the same plant are to be pollinated by the same male parent, they are
brought together by wrapping the two clums and are tied with a clip. The other bag is
also placed over both panicles.

54
 Floral Biology of Oats

Family : Gramineae
Genus : Avena
Species: sativa
Chromosome No.: 2n = 42
Basic chromosome No.: x =7

Ploidy nature: Oats forms a polyploid series of Diploids, Tetraploids, and

Hexaploids.

The genus has been classified into 19

texonomic species of which
Terminal
¾ Ten are Diploid (2n = 14)
spikelet
¾ Five are tetraploid (2n = 28)
¾ And four are Hexaploids (2n
= 42)
Other Species: spikelets
¾ fatua
¾ sterilis L. (Wild varieties of
oats)

Oats rates fourth among our cereal grains

after wheat, rice and maize. Oats originated
as a wild grass and had been greatly altered
by centuries of cultivation. The grain was Fig.5.1.Panicle of oats
first known as a weed among other cereals.
The oldest oat grains known were found in Egypt in materials dating to the twelfth
dynasty. Oats are mainly grown as fodder crop. Oat growing countries are
Canada, Germany, France, Poland, England, Wales, Sweden, Denmark,
Argentina, Russia and India. Varieties of A. sativa occupy the major oat-
producing area of North America, Northern Europe and Asia and all leading oat

55
 Single terminal
spikelet

Node

Rachis

Fig.5.2

producing countries produce largely exclusively oats of this type. Cultivation of

this crop in India can certainly be traced to the beginning 19th century.

Inflorescences: Inflorescences of the oat plant is a panicle (Fig. 5.1, 5.2)

composed of a central loose, open rachis with five to seven nodes, from
which branches arise bearing spikelets. Each lateral branch terminates in a

56
 Fig.5.3

single apical spikelet. Other spikelets are born on second or third-order of

branches. Each panicle may have 20 to 50 spikelets. Spikelets consist of
several florets enclosed in two-empty glumes, with the tip of one glumes
extending slightly above the other. Florets with in each spikelet are
arranged alternatively upon a central axis, the rachilla, and usually the two

57
 Fig.5.4

basal florets are fertile. The

flowers are perfect zygomorphic,
bracteate and hypogynous. The
flower consists of a lemma and a
palea, two lodicules, three stamens
and one pistil (Fig. 5.3, 5.4, 5.5).

Spikelets:- Three to four florets are

present in each spikelet, but the third
or fourth floret is sterile. Two glumes
cover these florets (Fig. 5.3, 5.4,
5.5).

Glumes: - The two outer bracts of the

spikelet. They are broadly lanceolate,
pointed, boat shaped, usually glabrous
and arched. The glumes may be pale,
yellow or red (Fig. 5.3, 5.4, 5.5).
Fig.5.5
Lemma:- Lemma is a rigid structure
which encloses the rachilla at the base of the flower. Its primary function is to

58
protect the caryopsis. Lemma varies in colour from white, yellow, gray or red to
black. It may be awned or awnless.

Palea:- One membranous palea is present opposite to lemma. Primary function of

palea is to protect the caryopsis (Fig.
5.3, 5.4, 5.5).

Lodicules: - Two small, smooth,

pointed and shinning lodicules are
present at the base inside the floret;
mature lodicules are thick at the
base and pointed at the tip. The action
of the lodicules in opening the
flowering glumes is not so important
in self fertilized plants, but enhance
cross-pollination by wider opening of Fig.5.6
the florets.

Androecium: There are three stamens present. Stamens first appear as papillae
upon the apex of the floral axis above the flowering glumes primordia. The
versatile anther consists of four locules. The filament is attached to the central axis
at its lower extremity (Fig. 5.3, 5.4, 5.5).

Gynoecium: - (Fig. 5.6). There is one

ovary with bifid stigma. The ovary is
elliptical in cross section. Long
monocellular, epidermal hairs entirely
cover the ovary and also present on the
interior surface and base of styles. The tip
of style and the inner surface near to the
base are covered with stigmatic branches.
A single, sessile, anatropous ovule is
located inside the ovary.

Anthesis and mode of pollination: -The

stigma becomes receptive one day before
anthesis and remains receptive for five
days. The receptivity of the stigma
depends upon genotype and the
environmental conditions. Anthers
dehisce the pollens just before or during
opening of the floret. As the grain
matures, the lemma and palea remain
attached to the kernel forming the hull
Fig.5.7 except in the naked or hulless oat. The

59
hull comprises 25-30 per cent of the total weight of the grain.

At anthesis the stigma elongates, the anthers dehisce and become introse and
elongated, the floret opens and anthers are exerted from the floret.

Self-pollination is the rule but cross-pollination may range from 0.5-1.0 per cent.

Emasculation: - (Fig. 5.8). Since anthesis normally occurs in the afternoon,

emasculation should be done in late fore noon or early afternoon. Select those
spikelets from a panicle in which anthesis is expected one or two day after
emasculation. Keep only one floret within a spikelet. By applying light pressure
on the dorsal glumes. Separate glumes, palea and lemma and remove all the three
anthers with the forceps. When emasculation in delayed until very shortly before
the time of normal
anthesis, the floral
structure, being Anthers
better developed
will likely to be
less injured by
emasculation
operation than
they would be if
manipulated a day
or more before
pollination. Cover
the emasculated
floret with a
proper (e.g., Forceps
glassine) bag to
prevent
contamination
from foreign
pollen and tagging
is done.
Fig.5.8. Emasculation in Oats
Pollination: - Researchers have reported different time interval for pollinating the
emasculated floret: Three
• First view: Pollination should be done within 1-3 days of emasculation.
anthers
• Second view: Emasculate the floret in the morning and pollinate in the
evening.
Method 1: Anthers from desired male parent are collected. The anthers are
yellow and plump. Separate the lemma and palea of emasculated floret using
forceps and place the collected anthers (with the help of forceps) in the inner
side of the lemma. Cover the pollinated floret with the same glassine bag used
in emasculation.

60
 Placing anthers inside the
emasculated floret
(pollination)

Fig.5.9. Pollination in Oats

Method 2: Approach method of pollination is also used in oats. In approach

method remove secondary floret and the anthers of the primary floret. The
upper portion of each spikelet after emasculation is removed by clipping
glumes, lemma and palea just above the stigma. The pollens from the male
parent are shed directly on the stigma of erect clipped spikelets.

61
 Floral Biology of
Pearl Millet
Local name: Pearl-Millet (Bajra)
Family: Gramineae
Genus: Pennisetum
Species: americanum (L) K. Schum
glaucum (L) R.Br (most
acceptable)
typhoides
Chromosome Number: 2n = 2x = 14
Related Species: P. purpureum
Origin: Africa

Pearl millet is the

fourth most
extensively
cultivated cereal in
India. It is termed
as poor mans’ crop
because it has high Fig. 6.1.
nutritional value Spike
and can
successfully be grown on marginal lands
and can tolerate drought and heat to a
great extent. Its grain is generally superior
to sorghum as human food and
approximately similar to maize as feed
Fig. 6.2 grain (Fig. 6.2).
Plant
The inflorescence is a cylindrical spike
tapering towards the ends and may vary in
length from a few centimeters to over a

62
 Fig. 6.3. Panicle initiation stage

meter. It consists of a central rachis with closely spaced fascicles(Fig. 6.2, 6.7)..
Each fascicle contains one or more spikelets (generally 2-5, The most common
number being
two) and a
whorl of bristle
(usually 30 to
40 in number).
However, there
are generally
two spikelets in
most of the
fascicles. The
bristles are the
prolongations
of the fascicles
and may be
longer or
shorter than the
spikelet. (Fig. Fig. 6.4. Ear Emergence
6.6, 6.7, 6.8).

63
Each spikelet comprises a short lower glume and two florets, the lower one being
staminate or some times even without stamens, and upper one bisexual or perfect.
The male floret consists of a single lemma enclosing three stamens, but has
neither palea nor lodicules. The perfect floret has a broad lemma, a thin palea,
three stamens and carpel with two styles which terminate in a brush-like stigma
(Fig. 6.8, 6.10)..
Anthesis: (Fig. 6.5). Fig. 6.5

The stigmas begin to appear two to three days after emergence of the spike.
Stigma attains full length after
36 to 48 hours and remains Fig. 6.6
receptive for one to two days.
The anthers emerge after
stigmas dry up. The anthers of
the bisexual flowers appear two
to three days before those of the
staminate flowers. Style divides
in two branches in its upper part
and possesses stigmatic hairs to
admit pollen grains. Stigma
takes 12 to 24 hours to protrude
and open out, and remains
receptive for one to two days.

64
Mode of pollination:
Pearl millet is a highly cross pollinated crop and up to 80 per cent out crossing

Fig. 6.7

occurs in it. The emergence of anthers is slow probably because of the absence of

Fig. 6.8

lodicules.
Emasculation:

65
Emasculation is not required in pearl millet due to its protogynous nature (Fig.
6.9) The head is covered with glassine bag before style appears. The exerted style
can be watched through the
glassine bag. When styles are
exerted then pollination is
performed with desired male
parent. However, the
emergence of the stigmas
before emergence of the
anthers is used for artificial
cross-pollination.
Pollination
Pearl millet is highly cross- Fig. 6.9
pollinated crop. About 80%
of the flowers are cross

Fig. 6.10. Spikelets, florets and stamens of pearl millet

66
pollinated. However, about 20% of selfing occurs especially in the lower part of
the ear.
Self Pollination
1. Bag the spikes before the
emergence of stigma.
2. Length of bag must be
such that lower most
spikelets, which will be
emerging later, could be
covered. Usually
parchment or khaki paper
bags of 5cm x 60cm
(depending upon the
length of spike achieved
in that genotype) are used.
3. Alternate way is that two
spikes from the same plant Fig. 6.11
may be enclosed within
the same bag. These
spikes are such that the
older one sheds Pollen
when the stigma emerges
in the second spike.
4. Label it with lead pencil.

Cross-Pollination
1. Minute flower size and protogynous condition of flowers makes
emasculation and crossing difficult and laborious.
2. An easy method of crossing without the necessity of emasculation
takes the advantage of protogynous condition of bajra.
3. Being sure that anthers of a spike will not ripen at the time of stigma
receptivity we can select a spike
4. About four-fifth of the upper spikelets of the inflorescence are
removed. The remaining spike of spikelets is enclosed in a bag before
the stigma emergence. Upper spikelets bloom a day prior to lower
spikelets.
5. Bag the spikes to be used as pollen parents and collect the shedding
pollen dust.
6. In the morning dust the pollen grains on the stigmas.

67
 7. Bag the spike after gross pollination has taken place.
8. Label the necessary information.

Fig. 6.12

Other methods include:

9. Use of male sterility: Male sterility (CGMS) may be incorporated for
genetic emasculation of bajra: The male sterility conditioned by
recessive genes is introduced in to plants to be used as females by
back crossing and the genetic emasculation is completed.
10. Hot water treatment: Dip the spike in hot water having a desired
temperature of 45-50oC for 1 to 10 minutes depending up on the
variety.
Seed production (Fig. 6.11, 6.12, 6.13).
Pearl-millet, being a cross-fertilized crop, has been improved through
conventional breeding procedures by developing composites, synthetics and
hybrids. Before the exploitation of cytoplasmic genetic male sterility (CMS) in
1965, pearl-millet varieties were used to be open-pollinated. But after 1965, the
development of first ever hybrid ‘HB1’ by using CMS resulted in a break through
in the yield levels of this so called poor man’s crop. Subsequently, more hybrids
and synthetics with great yield potentials and having resistance to various diseases

68
were developed. To maintain the high yield levels of released cultivars and to
minimize the chances of varietal deterioration, it is essential to adopt proper seed
production practices. The genetic purity of the varieties must be maintained.

Production of Hybrid seed using CGMS: (Fig. 6.13: Example of HHB-67)

Almost all the varieties of pearl millet are the hybrid varieties. The hybrid pearl-

Fig. 6.13

69
millet seed is produced by utilizing cytoplasmic genetic male sterility. The various
steps involved in the production of hybrid pearl-millet seed are: maintenance of
parental lines namely:
1. Male sterile lines (A-lines).
2. Maintainer lines (B-lines).
3. Restorer lines (R-lines).
The maintenance of parental lines is referred to as foundation seed production,
whereas the hybrid seed production is known as certified seed production.

Production of Breeder Seed

Breeder seed’s the seed of the highest genetic purity and is produced under the
direct supervision of breeder, originating institution or agency. It is the source for
the production of foundation and certified class of seed. Breeder seed of
maintainer (Line B) and restorer (Line R) is produced by growing them in isolated
plots having a minimum distance of 1000m from fields of other varieties or some
varieties not conforming to varietal purity requirements for certification.
The breeder seed of established pearl-millet variety can be maintained by raising
breeder seed of a variety in isolation (more than 1 km) through mass selection.
The seed plot in isolation is thoroughly rouged at various stages such as
vegetative, flowering and maturity, and all off-types are removed and when
noticed. The breeder seed of pearl-millet variety is often purified by mass
selection. Approximately 2000 to 3000 true to type plants are selected at maturity,
harvested separately, and after careful sorting bulked to constitute the breeder
seed. Modified mass selection by dividing the plot in sectors and selecting an
equal number of true to type plants from each sector can also be practiced for
maintaining breeder seed.
Maintenance of Male sterile lines:
The male sterility in pearl-millet is due to cytoplasmic genetic factors (CGMS). It
is maintained by crossing male sterile line (Line A) with a male fertile, non-pollen
restoring maintainer (Line B) in an isolated plot. This B line is a sister strain of
line A and is essentially similar to line A in genetic constitution except that it
carries fertile pollen (Isogenic/isonuclear line). In a crossing field, the usual
planting ratio of line A and Line B is 4:2. In addition 4-8 border rows are planted
with line B around the field. The seed harvested from line A would be male sterile
and is used for hybrid seed production.
The field for producing the foundation seed of male sterile line A must be isolated
by 1000 m (1 km) from other pearl-millet fields.

70
Maintenance of maintainer line:
The seed of maintainer line is produced by sowing B lines in isolated plot or B
lines sown in the field for production of A-seed can be harvested separately to get
B-seed.
Maintenance of restorer line:
The seeds of restorer line (Line R) are produced by multiplying the seed in an
isolated plot having a distance of 1,000 m from nearby pearl-millet fields having
different cultivars or from the same restorer line not conforming to certification
standards.
Hybrid seed of pearl-millet
The hybrid seed is produced by crossing male sterile line (Line A) with a specific
restorer line (Line R) in an isolated plot. Since hybrid seed is a commercial
produce and is termed as certified seed, the requirements for isolation distance are
200 m from fields of other varieties and 25 m from fields of the same variety not
conforming to varietal purity requirements for certification.

The hybrid seed is produced by growing 6 rows of male sterile line A alternated
by 2 rows of restorer line (Line R). The 2:6 proportion of male rows (Line R) and
female rows (Line A) can be increased safely to 2:10 depending upon the
pollinating vigour of the restorer parent. The seed harvested from the female rows
(A-lines) is the hybrid seed.

PEARL MILLET FLORAL BIOLOGY

¾ Inflorescence is a one half to

more than three feet long
cylindrical terminal spike
consisting of a central rachis on
which infinite numbers of
fasicles are packed.
¾ A fascicle contains one or more
spikelets and a whorl of bristles.
It is considered to be unit of
inflorescence.
¾ Spikelets occur in pairs.
¾ Each spikelet contains two
florets partially
enclosed by a short Fig. 6.14

71
 outer glume and another inner glume. Lower floret is
staminate and upper one is hermaphrodite.
¾ Three stamens are present with filiform filaments and
versatile anthers in each floret.
¾ Style develops into two branches (bifid feathery
stigma) in its upper part and possesses stigmatic hairs
to admit pollen grains.
¾ It is protogynous in nature. Fig. 6.15.
¾ Three flushes of anthesis occurs Stigma
in pearl millet (Fig. 6.5).. emergence
¾ First Flush of anthesis:
Emergence of stigmas start from
top to bottom. Stigma takes 12 to
24 hours to protrude and open
out, and remains receptive for
one day (Fig. 6.9, 6.15)..
¾ Second Flush of anthesis:
Before the basal stigmas
protrude, stamens of perfect
florets also start emerging from tip down wards.
¾ Third Flush of anthesis: Before the emergence of
stamens of hermaphrodite florets reach the base, the
second flush of emergence of anthers from staminate
flowers start from the tip down wards.
¾ Humidity and cool temperatures favour anthesis.
¾ The maximum emergence of styles is between
9.00a.m. and 3.00 p.m. The maximum number of
stamens comes out between 12.00 p.m. and 2.00 a.m.
and maximum between 3.00 p.m. and 6.00 p.m.

72
VARIATION FOR FLORAL CHARACTERS IN
PEARL MILLET

Fig. 6.16.

Fig. 6.17.

73
 Fig. 6.18.

Fig. 6.19.

Fig. 6.20.

74
 Floral Biology of Maize

Family: Poaceae (Gramineae)

Botanical Name: Zea mays L.
Chromosomes Number: 2n =20
Fig. 7.1
Corn, commonly known as maize (Zea mays L.), (Fig.
7.1) belongs to family Poaceae (Gramineae). Its close
relatives are Euchlaena and Tripsacum and these three are easily crossable with each
other. Maize, rice and wheat are the three main cereal crops of the world. Unlike rice
and wheat, maize is consumed as feed for livestock rather than directly as food.
Maize is basically grown as an energy crop. It is consumed directly by majority of
people. Maize is also
Tassel used for protein, oil and
is a good source of starch.
silk In some parts of Latin
America, it is grown for
human consumption.
Agro botanical studies
Cobs indicated Mexico and/or
low land Central America
as the centre of variability
for the commercial dent
types.

FLORAL BIOLOGY
Fig. 7.2
Maize plant (Fig. 7.2) is
monoecious. The male or
staminate flowers are
found, on the terminal

75
inflorescence known as tassel (Fig. 7.2, 7.5 and 7.6), whereas female flowers are on
the lateral branches called ear shoots (cobs). The tassel comprising male flower is
present on the top of the plant in which central axis is in continuation of the main axis
of the stalk. Primary, secondary and tertiary branches are also present in a tassel. The
spikelets are present in pairs, one being sessile and other being pedicellated (Fig. 7.4
and Fig. 7.5).
Paired spikelets are arranged in several rows on the main axis and in two rows on the
lateral branches (Fig. 7.6). These spikelets are similar in structure, one is borne on a
short pedicel and other is sessile. Each spikelet consists of a pair of glumes that
comprises of two florets, each of which is enclosed by a lemma and palea and has two
lodicules, three stamens and rudimentary pistil. The ovary ends in a thread like
structure, the silk which is actually modified style. Silk length may attain 45 cm in
some varieties.
Each floret contains there anthers (Fig. 7.4 and 7.5) and each anther produces about
2500 pollen grains The pollen grains are very small, barely visible to the naked eye,
light in weight, and easily carried by wind. Pollen is dispersed by wind; however,
insects cause an insignificant
amount of pollen dispersal. The
amount of pollen dispersed
from one tassel varies from
genotype to genotype. Hybrids
shed more pollen than inbreds.
Dispersal of pollen may begin
about 3 hours after sunrise and
continue for 1 to 3 hours.
However, the dispersal may be
delayed until mid day. The
pollen remains viable for few
minutes because of rapid Fig. 7.3
desiccation Silk become
receptive as soon immediately
after emerging from the ear
husk. It may require up to 5 to 6 days for all silks to emerge from an ear. Receptivity
up to 14 days after emergence has been reported. The female inflorescence consisting
of pistillate flowers is located in lateral side of the main stem. The single
inflorescence comprises many vertical rows of densely crowded female flowers on
the fleshy rachis. The sessile spikelets are present in pair on a rachis. Due to this, each
cob contains even number of kernel rows. Within each spikelet, two flowers are
present. The lower flower is reduced to form lemma and palea. Rudimentary lodicules
may also be present. The pistil is tricarpellary, out of which two carples extend to
form silk and third forms ovule, the silk is the modification of style.

76
Fig. 7.4 - FLORAL PARTS OF MAIZE (PHOTOGRAPHS)

77
 Silk Pollen
anthers

Sessile
spikelet

Spathe

Cob Tassel Pedicillate Paired

spikelet Spikelets
FEMALE MALE
INFLORESCENCE INFLORESCENCE

Fig. 7.5
Stamen
Silk

Lemma
Pedicillate

Paired Sessile

spikelets
Lodicules
Floral Diagram
Glume II Glume I
Spadix

Spathe
AN OPENED SPIKELET

FLORAL PARTS OF MAIZE (Zea mays)-DIAGRAMS

The desiccation of pollen grain occurs quickly because of this outer membrane, which
results in the loss of pollen viability within a short period. The stigma (silk) becomes
receptive as soon as it emerges from the stalk and may remain receptive up to 14 days
after emergence depending upon environment.

Maize is generally protandrous, that is, the male spikelets mature earlier than the
female spikelets. Because of monoecious plant habit and protandrous nature of
anthers, the maize is considered highly cross-pollinated crop. The pollen is generally
dispersed by wind. The wind-borne nature of the pollen, monoecious plant type and

78
 Fig. 7.6 Tip of
tassel Tassel at
anthesis

Pair of
spikelets

TASSEL (PART OF) AT VARIOUS STAGES

protandry enhances cross-pollination, but there may also be about 5 per cent self-
pollination.

SELFING AND CROSSING TECHNIQUES

Selfing

• At the time of flowering, right plant must be selected to cover the ear shoot.
• Ensure the stage of cob is such that the silk emerges after one or two days.

79
• Short bags are placed over each ear shoot.
• Tassel of the same plant is also covered with tassel bag (craft
paper of size 7.5 cm x 16 cm) for the collection of the pollen.
• Check the ear shoot daily. If it is at the right stage, then in the
morning hours the tassel bag of the same plant is lifted and
dusted on the cob.
• Bag the spadix with tassel bag and repeat the process in the
next morning.
• Put the tag and label it.

Crossing
Fig. 7.7
• A tassel produces its utmost quantity of pollen in the
second and third days of dehiscence.
• The tassel bag is placed over the tassel of the male parent
on the day before the pollination to avoid from contamination of foreign
pollen. The bag is tied by a paper clip or a staple.
• When the ear shoot is at the right stage of the female parent and the tassel of
the male parent also has abundance of pollen grains, the tassel bag is lifted
and dusted on the ear shoot and the ear shoot bag is replaced by the same
tassel bag to supply maximum
amount of male parent pollen
grains.
• The bag should again be fastened
by paper clip.
• The tassel bag should remain
over the ear shoot until harvest.
• When more than one ear on a
plant is pollinated, seed set on
the lowest ear is most reliable, if
pollinated one day before the ear
at higher node. Lower ear has
least chances of contamination.
Fig. 7.8
• Label the tassel bag with
graphite pencil properly
indicating male parent, date of
pollination etc.

80
 Floral Biology of Sorghum

Family: Gramineae (Poaceae)

Genus:Sorghum
Species: bicolor (L.) Moench
Chromosome No.: 2n=20
Common names : Sorghum (Eng.)
Jowar (India), graansorghum (Afr);
mabele (Pedi, Sotho, Ndebele);
amabele (Z) amazimba (Xhosa).
Other names : Durra, Egyptian
Millet, Feterita, Guinea Corn,
Jowar, Juwar, kaffir corn, Milo,
Shallu and Sudan Grass.

The grass family (Poaceae) is a Fig. 8.1. Sorghum Crop

large family of 10,000 species
and at least 600 genera. Grasses range in size from small annuals (Poa
annua) to towering, timber bamboo (Dendrocalamus giganteus). This is
unquestionably the most important plant family, providing the majority of
food for humans and their domesticated animals. The grasses are relatively
recent additions to the earth's flora, having evolved only 30 to 40 million
years ago, long after the demise of the dinosaurs. Vast grasslands provided
food for the rising age of herbivorous mammals which in turn provided the
food for a variety of carnivores. In addition to cereal grains (rice, wheat,
barley, oats and corn), grasses are the source of bamboo shoots used in

81
Asian foods, the primary source of sugar
(sucrose) from sugar cane (Saccharum
officinarum), alcoholic beverages from barley
malt (beer) and fermented rice (sake), and
bamboo timbers for construction and scaffolding.

Sorghum (Fig. 8.1) is forth in importance among the

world's cereals, coming after wheat rice and maize. It
grows in the tropics and subtropics. In India it is known
as Jowar. Height generally varies from 40-600 cm (Fig.
8.2). It's stem has 7-18 nodes and internodes. Sorghum
is grown in three seasons:
1. Kharif season during monsoon i.e. from June-July
to September.
2. Winter season i.e. from September to February it
is 35% of the total sorghum hectarage at national
level.
3. Summer sorghum planted from February to June Fig. 8.2. Sorghum
under irrigation. Plant
It is used for human consumption as food in African countries. It is also used as
animal feed; it can be used green as well as dried (straw). It is rich in starch (70-
80%) and proteins (9-13.5%). It contains 2-3% cellulose, 2-2.5% minerals and 2.5-
3.5% fats.
Sorghum is a genus of about 30 species of grasses raised for grain, native to tropical
and subtropical regions of Eastern Africa, with one species native to Mexico. The
plant is cultivated in Southern Europe, Central America and Southern Asia. Most
cultivars are annuals, few are perennials.

Species
• Sorghum almum • Sorghum drummondii
• Sorghum amplum • Sorghum ecarinatum
• Sorghum angustum • Sorghum exstans
• Sorghum arundinaceum • Sorghum grande
• Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench • Sorghum halepense
• Sorghum brachypodum • Sorghum interjectum
• Sorghum bulbosum • Sorghum intrans
• Sorghum burmahicum • Sorghum laxiflorum
• Sorghum controversum • Sorghum leiocladum

82
 • Sorghum macrospermum
• Sorghum matarankense SORGHUM INFLORESCENCE /
• Sorghum miliaceum ARROWS
• Sorghum nitidum
• Sorghum plumosum
• Sorghum propinquum
• Sorghum
purpureosericeum
• Sorghum stipoideum
• Sorghum timorense
• Sorghum trichocladum
• Sorghum versicolor
• Sorghum virgatum

Inflorescence Compact

The inflorescence (Fig. 8.2 and Fig.

8.3) is a panicle (called arrow) 8.3
with a central rachis from which
primary branches arise. They
give rise to secondary and some
times tertiary branches which
carry the racemes of spikelets.
Panicle: A panicle may be shoot,
compact or loose and open, 4 to
25 cm or more in length (Fig.
8.3). The central axis of panicle
the rachis may be striated and it Lose
may be hairy or glabrous. The
panicle usually grows erect at the
apex of the clum, but may be
recurved. It releases 25-100
million pollen grains.
Raceme: A raceme always
consists of one or several
spikelet. One spikelet is always
sessile and the other pedicellate
(Fig. 8.4), except the terminal At maturity At anthesis
sessile spikelet, which is
accompanied by two pediceled
spikelets. Raceme may vary in length according to number of nodes and length of

83
internodes. On the
pedicellated Fig. 8.4
spikelet, the
pedicels vary in
length from 0.5 to
3.0 mm and usually
similar to
internodes.
Flower: Perfect
flower (Fig. 8.7,
8.9) consist of two
glumes one hairy
lemma, a small
palea, small awn, 3
stamens two
lodicules and one
pistil. Ovary has
two styles with feathery stigmas.
Mode of Pollination: Sorghum is an often cross pollinated crop like pigeonpea and
cotton. The extent of out crossing ranges from 4-20 per cent on account of the
exposure of the stigma before the dehiscence of the anthers.
Anthesis (Fig. 8.5 and 8.6): The sorghum inflorescence usually begins to flower
when the peduncle has completed elongation. The first flower to open is either the
terminal or the second flower of the uppermost panicle branch. The time at which
flowering commences has been reported are as follows:
Timing Anthesis (Event)
2.30 a.m. Glumes begins to open
2.31 a.m. Staminal column visible
2.32 a.m. Stamens separate
2.33 a.m. First anther tilts down and becomes pendent
2.34 a.m. Other two another tilt down and become pendent
2.50 a.m. Glumes begin to close
3.15 a.m. Glumes completely closed
Emasculation: Various methods of emasculation in sorghum are described below:

84
 Fig. 8.5

Fig. 8.7

Fig. 8.6

85
 Fig. 8.8

Hand Emasculation or traditional methods: Remove all the open spikelets with fine
blade scissors preferably in the after noon. Remove all the three stamens with the help
of forceps. Care must be taken that there is no injury to stigma.
Hot water treatment: The immature and mature spikelets are removed from the
panicles which have just begun to gloom. The panicle is then inserted in a sleeve of
rubber, which tied lightly around the panicle and open at the top. The panicle is
inserted for about 10 min. in 480C hot water. After treatment cover the panicle with
bag.

Male Sterility: Genetic (GMS) and cytogenetic male sterlity (CMS) are available in
sorghum. These types of male sterlity may be used for the production of hybrid seed
on a large scale. Tagging is done as usual. MSCK 60 (male sterile combine Kafir 60)
is a male sterile variety of sorghum. It contains the Kafir chromosomes and Milo
cytoplasm.

86
87
VARIABILITY FOR GRAIN COLOR AND EAR
(ARROW) SHAPE IN SORGHUM
One phenomenon which has been observed by the seed producer is the occurrence of
female sterility in male sterile parent resulting in poor seed set. Mainly observed in K
60A, 2071 A and 2219 A verities.
Pollination: For pollination the emasculated panicle the pollen is collected in the
morning from the desired male
parent panicle which is flowering.
Dust the pollen on the emasculated Fig. 8.9
spikelet and cover is again with
pollinated bag.

Fruit (Fig. 8.9): Fruit of sorghum

is caryopsis (Kernel), naked or
covered. The individual grains are
small- about 3-4 mm in diameter.
They vary in colour from pale
yellow through reddish brown to
dark brown depending on the
cultivar

88
 Floral Biology of
Sugarcane
Class : Monocotyledones
Order : Glumaceae
Family :Gramineare
Group : Andropogneae
Genus : Sacchrum
Species officinarum
sinense Cultivated
barberi
robustum Wild Sugarcane crop
spontaneum

Chromosome Number
Sacchrum officnarum 2n = 80
S. barberi 2n = 90, 92
S. sinense 2n = 116, 118
S. spontaneum 2n = 40 to 128
S. robustum 2n = 60 to 148

Ploidy Nature
Sacchrum species are extremely complex polyploids, The most common
basic chromosome numbers are 8 and 10

Sacchrum officinarum; Octaploid , x = 10

S. spontaneum; Two groups
Îx=8 2n = 40, 48, 52-------
Î x = 10 2n = 40, 50, 60-------

S. robustum; x = 10 2n = 60, 80.

Sugarcane is important commerical crop used for large scale production of sugar
in the world. Out of about 93.05 million tonnes of sugar produced in the world
during 1977-78, about 55 million tonnes is reported to be from sugarcane.

89
Sugarcane provide the cheapest form of energy giving food (sucrose) with the
90
lowest unit of land area per unit energy produced. Average man’s annual
consumption of energy is 1 million calories which is produced by one-eight of an
acre of sugarcane while wheat flour requires 7 times, milk 20 times and beef over
100 times.

Flower Structure

Inflorescence
The inflorescence
consists of an open
branched panicle
known as the arrow
and may contain
thousand of florets.
The loose terminal
panicle is silky due to
rings of long hairs
below each spikelet.
At the base of
panicle, primary
branches are about
15cm long. The
secondary branches
tend to arise in two
rows alternately along the primary branches and may contain tertiary branches.
The spikelet consists of two florets, one sessile and other pedicellate. The sessile
floret is fertile and contains palea,
three stamens, one ovary and a
stigma with two feathers. Lemma is
absent. The pedicellate floret is
sterile and has only lemma. At the
base of the floret, there are long
silken hairs known as fuzz or fluff
which help to disperse the seeds.
Two short edge shaped lodicules are
present opposite the palea near the
base of the ovary.

Flower / floret
The flowers are borne in paired
spikelets, one sessile and other
pedicellate. Both spikelets have two
florets; one is sterile and is
represented by a delicate pointed
lemma. The upper floret of each is

91
 Pedicellate spikelet

Sessile
Stigma spikelet

Anther

PART OF INFLORESCENCE OF SUGARCANE

FUZZ / TRUE SEEDS OF SUGARCANE

bisexual without lemma.

Androecium
Three stamens with large bi-lobed anthers are
present in a whorl. The indehiscent anthers are
usually yellow or pale yellow, white dehiscent
anthers are brown or purple.

Gynoecium
Ovary is round on the central surface with a
single ovule. The pistil has two long terminal
sytles with large brush like stigma.

Lodicules Reproductive
At the base of ovary opposite the palea are two organs
short edge shaped lodicules.

Mode of Pollination
Protogyny leads to cross pollination in sugarcane. In commercial practice,
sugarcane is propagated by means of seed cane. The vegetative variety remains
true to type. In sugarcane no variety breeds true from seed. Each seed produces a
distinct variety. Once a variety is obtained, it is kept pure by vegetative

92
propagation. Thus the
population structure of a
variety is heterozygous
homogeneous.

Anthesis
The canes flower from Oct.-
Dec. in Northern Hemispher
and March-June in Southern.
Anthesis takes place early in
the morning from 5 to 6 a.m.
An arrow takes about one or
two weeks to complete
blossming. The opening of
flowers commences from the top and proceeds downwards.

Pollen Viability
Pollen grains remains viable for a short time after anthesis but stigmas are
persistent.

Emasculation
The minute nature of spikelets create problem for emasculation. The general
practice is to use the entire inflorescence as a unit. The sugarcane breeders select
clones for female parents that are highly male sterile to be used as female parent
in the crossing programmes.

To have the
inflorescence at
optimum levels of
height and to avoid
contamination for
hybridization, some
techniques have been
developed to induce
rooting of the nodes of
standing canes.

¾ In Java, the cut

end of the male
stalk is placed is
water and the stalk is changed every 2-3 days.
¾ The tile pot method of isolating arrows which was in practice in India was
replaced by stove pipe.
¾ Presently the use of alkathene for marcotting has bees adopted.

93
 ¾ The sulphureous acid method developed from Hawaii is adopted by many
countries.

Recommended solutions:
1. 150 ppm sulphurus acid
2. 75 ppm phosphoric acid
3. 37.5 ppm sulphuric acid
4. 37.5 ppm nitric acid.

Pollination:

The female parent is pollinated by

pollen from male parent every day
for 5-10 days. Alternatively, the
male inflorescence is tied with the
female inflorescence to receive
continuous pollen naturally.

a. Lantern method: A male

sterile female parent and
male parent are kept together
in lantern for isolation.
b. In another approach several desired male and female parents are kept
together under a crossing shelter.

94
 Floral Biology of Cotton

Family : Malvaceae
Genus : Gossypium
Species
Cultivated species : arboreum, herbacium (Asiatic cotton)
hirsutum, barbadence (American cotton)
Related species : anomalum, thurberi, tomentosum
Chromosome Numbers : Asiatic cotton 2n = 26
American cotton 2n = 52
_____________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Cotton is mainly grown for its
Fig. 10.1 lint. This is basically used in
textile industries. Seeds and
seed oil are important
byproducts. The oil of cotton is
used for various purposes
including cooking, and oil cake
as animal feed.
Cotton is cultivated in India
from sub-Himalayan region of
Punjab in the north to Kerala in
Growth of a fruiting branch from the main stem. The south and from dry regions of
branch forms in the axil above a main stem leaf. Kutch to high rainfall areas of
Manipur in east. Gujrat is
largest producer in India followed by Punjab and Maharastra.

95
Among all the cotton growing countries, India occupies the foremost position in
cotton acreage.

Fruiting Branch: (Fig. 10.1) A fruiting bud, called a square, begins to form at the
initiation of the fruiting branch. The first square produced on a fruiting branch is
referred to as a first-position square. As this square develops, the portion of the
fruiting branch between the main stem and the square also elongates. This portion of
the fruiting branch is also called the internode, similar to the portion of the main stem
between main-stem nodes. An axillary meristem also develops adjacent to this square.
The axillary meristem produces a second position square and subtending leaf. As
many as four squares may be produced in this fashion on a fruiting branch.

The branches on a cotton plant can be classified as either vegetative branches

(monopodia) or fruiting branches (sympodia). Vegetative branches, like the main
stem, are referred to as monopodia (meaning “single foot”) since they have only one
meristem. Because vegetative branches have only one meristem, they grow straight
and erect, much like the main stem (Figure 10.2). Vegetative branches can also
produce fruiting branches.

Fig. 10.2

Source: pubs.caes.ua.edu/caespus/pucd/B122.htm

A cotton plant with leaves removed

shows the straight growth habit of the A fruiting branch with leaves removed
main stem and the vegetative branch. shows its zig-zag growth habit.

The branches from which fruiting buds arise are called fruiting branches, or sympodia
(meaning “multiple feet”), because each fruiting branch contains multiple meristems.
Fruiting branches have a “zig-zag” growth habit, as opposed to the straight growth
habit of the vegetative branches (Figure 13). The initial growth of a fruiting branch is
terminated once a fruiting bud forms. The fruiting branch, however, initiates a new
growing point, called an axillary meristem. The axillary meristem is located at the

96
base of a leaf that subtends the newly formed fruiting bud. The “zig-zag” growth
habit is a consequence of the stop-and-go growth of the fruiting branch.

Fig. 10.3

A defoliated cotton plant shows the 3/4 alternate phyllotaxy of branches. Each
branch is 3/8 of a turn around the stem from the branch below it. The
branches form from the axils of main stem leaves. (b) A diagram of the
general timing of flower emergence from buds on the fruiting branches by
fruiting position.
Source: pubs.caes.ua.edu/caespus/pucd/B122.htm

The first fruiting branch will generally arise at main-stem node 5 or 6. A cotton plant
will mainly produce fruiting branches, but several common environmental factors
such as low population density, insect and disease pressure and over-fertilization can
cause vegetative branches to form. Vegetative branches are produced after fruiting
branches, and develop at nodes directly below the node at which the first fruiting
branch was developed. For instance, if the first fruiting branch is initiated at main-
stem node 5, a vegetative branch may develop at main-stem node 4.

New fruiting branches are generally believed to develop approximately every 3 days,
although recent studies show that this developmental rate varies. Squares are
produced at new positions on a fruiting branch approximately every 6 days. The age
of fruiting structures on a cotton plant can be mapped according to this time sequence
(Figure 10.3b).

97
Formation of the Cotton Bud from Square to Bloom

During the 21-day period from square to bloom, there are several recognized
developmental stages of the cotton flower bud. A “pinhead” square is the first stage at
which the square can be identified. The next stage of square growth is “match-head”
or “one-third grown” square. Just prior to the time the flower opens, a candle shape
can be seen (Figure 10.4). This period of square development prior to bloom is called
“squaring.”

Fig. 10.4

Development of the bud from match head square (a) to flower (e)
involves both a size increase and petal development. Two bracts
have been removed from each square, candle and bloom to show this
development.
Source: pubs.caes.ua.edu/caespus/pucd/B122.htm

Once the cotton begins to bloom, it is said to be “flowering.” A cotton plant typically
blooms or flowers for about 6 weeks. Thus, until the cotton begins to produce fruit,
the stage of development is discussed in terms of leaves or nodes. Once fruiting
begins, the stage of cotton development is discussed in terms of square development
and the number of nodes. Once blooms are present, the stage of cotton development is
discussed in terms of weeks of bloom.

Flower

The flowers are extra axillary, terminal and solitary. On the account of the sympodial
development of the fruiting branches, the flower opening follows a spiral course in

98
 Fig. 10.5

Fig. 10.6

A
Petal

Bract

Subbracteal
C
B Nectary

Stigma
Style
Staminal column
Anther
Filament
Ovule
Calyx
Floral nectary
Subbracteal nectary
acropetal and
Inner bracteal nectary
centrifugal
succession. The Cotton flower: A-Side view showing one subbracteal nectaries; B-Bracts
slightly spread to show one of the three inner bracteal nectaries;
innermost bud of the C-L.S. of flower
lowest branch is the (Modified from Source: pubs.caes.ua.edu/caespbs/pbcd/B152.htm)
first to open while the
outer most bud of the highest and youngest branch is the last to do so.
Each flower is subtended by involucres (epicalyx) of usually 3 unequal leaves like
bracts, which may be free, as in case of American cotton or united, as in case of
Asiatic cotton. They are generally large, uneven, entire or notched/toothed

99
corresponding to the primary vein. Characterstic satellite hairs are found on the outer
surface. Bracteoles, alternating with the bracts on the inside of involucre or standing
on either side of the small bract, may be present. Extra floral nectaries occur
sometimes on the apex of the peduncle below the auriculate base of the bracts. The
flower is bisexual complete and regular, pentamerous, hypogynous and
actinomirphic.
Stages of Flowering

Flowering is important to cotton production because pollinated flowers form cotton

bolls. The bloom process takes several days, and bloom age can be estimated by the
bloom characteristics Fig. 10.7
(Figure 10.7). On the
PINK
day a flower opens it is FLOWER
white in color.
Pollination of that WHITE
flower usually occurs FLOWER
within a few hours after
the white flower opens.

On the second day the

flower will have a pink-
like color, and a red
PINK PINK
color on the third day. SHRIVELLING SHRIVELLED
Approximately 5 to 7 FLOWER FLOWER
days after a flower
Development of a cotton bloom. A white flower emerges on day
appears it usually dries 1 (a), then gradually darkens and takes on a red color during
and falls from the plant days 2, 3 and 4 after emergence (b and c). The bloom eventually
dries up and either falls off or becomes a bloom tag (d).
exposing the
developing boll. Source: pubs.caes.ua.edu/caespus/pucd/B122.htm

Occasionally a flower
will stay attached to the developing boll for a longer period of time. This is referred to
as a bloom tag (Figure 10.7d).

Androecium
The stamens are numerous and united to form a tubular sheath (staminal column)
which surrounds the pistil, except for the exposed portion of the style and stigma. The
stamens are monadelphous and epipetalous. The filaments of stamens though
appearing to arise in five fascicles really contain ten well-defined groups of stamens
arranged in paired vertical rows. The number of stamens may vary from 90-100.
Petalody of cotton anthers has been reported in Karunganni cotton (G. indicum).

100
There is a little elongation of the
filament in the beginning but it
lengthens rapidly prior to blossom
state. The anthers are reniform,
bilocular, dehisce along a single
line over the top of the anther and
liberate spinose pollen grains.
There are about 10,000 pollen
grains in a flower. Some of the
pollen grains develop more than
one pollen tubes on the stigmatic
surface. Fig. 10.8

GYNOECIUM
Gynoecium
The gynoecium consists of three to five carpels. Each carpel has a syncarpous style
passing through the staminal tube. The ovary is superior and ovules are attached to
the parietal placenta of the loculi. The placentation is axile. Style is glandular and
style
club shaped. The style varies in length and splits near the apex into 3, 4, or 5 parts
depending on the number of carpels. The dehiscence of the boll is along the dorsal
sutures.

Calyx
The calyx has 5 persistent,
shallow, cap like sepals with
variable lobes. It is truncate, and
GYNOECIUM undulate that adheres tightly to
the base of the boll as it
develops.
In certain genotypes three extra
floral nectaries, irregularly
triangular in shape and surrounded
by stiff hairs, are present in the
outer calyx. The sepals possess a
number of globular sub-epidermal
glands erratically. Inside the calyx,
5 greenish obvoate or spatulate
organs rudimentary and small in
size are frequently seen alternating
with the lobs. These intercalicary CALYX

101
organs have been interpreted as supernumerary “calyx lobs” or “free stipular
elements”.
Epicalyx
The epicalyx consists of three persistent modified leafy bracts, also called as
bracteoles or Squares. Sometimes these are small or minute
and cordate, toothed or entire, and rarely caducous.
Corolla
It is tubular consist of five obcordate petals, alternating
with the calyx lobes and overlapping the next one in the
series in a convoluate manner. The petals may be white EPICALYX
creamy white, light yellow or purple. In some species a
spot of purple or dark red colour called ‘Eye’ is found on
the claw/base of petals. It is due to the presence of anthocyanin content whose
intensity may vary from genotype to genotype. The first day after the anthesis the
corolla changes its colour
to pinkish tone and then to
red during the following
day. It withers and falls on
the third day, along with
the staminal column and
stigma leaving the ovary,
calyx and epicalyx intact.

COROLLA: COLOR VARIATION

Fruit
Fruit is a loculicidal (3-5 loculed) capsule
termed boll. The development of the fruit
(boll) begins with the fertilization, and
shedding of withered floral organs enclosing
it. Bolls developing under falling
temperature will need more days to mature
than those growing under rising T.S. OVARY
temperature. The ripened boll contains seeds
varying from 1 to 9 in each locule. A fair percentage of seeds remain undeveloped
due to non-fertilization, heredity and environment. These are called “ motes”.

102
Seed:
Completely developed seed attains pear shape.
The size may vary depending upon genotype and
environment where it was grown. Seed may have
short hairs (called fuzz) or may be hairless
(naked). All cultivated cottons bear long fibers
called lint. Its color, length and fineness varies
from variety to variety and
species to species.

Anthesis & Mode of

Pollination
Cotton is an often cross-
pollinated crop. The amount
of natural cross-pollination
COTTON ranges from 5 to 30%,
BOLLS depending upon number of
insects which brings it
about. They usually travel a few yards only within
a cotton field. The twisted corolla emerges from
bracts a day prior to pollination, and during
anthesis corolla changes from white, cream to pink
and gradually turns red and ultimately it is shed
away. When anthers dehisce the pollen grains fall
directly on the stigma or may be carried away by
insect or wind. Pollen is wind-borne only to a very
slight extent, if at all, on account of its heavy
sticky nature. Fertilization is complete after pollination in 36-40 hours. There is much
variation in the time of flower opening. American types open earlier than Asiatic
types. Asiatic cotton open between 8-10 a.m. Temperature and humidity also affects
flower opening.
Selfing
Since cotton is often cross pollinated and a small amount of out crossing usually takes
place, it is necessary to cover a bud with a paper bag a few hrs before it opens.
Therefore, the flowers which are expected to open next morning are bagged with
butter bags to prevent cross pollination.
If the bag is placed too much in advance of the opening the flower the boll may be
shed because of high temperature developing in the bag. The deposition of foreign

103
pollen may also be avoided just by putting the tips of the corolla together with a
rubber band, a clip or with a piece of wire or string.

STAGES OF FLOWER DEVELOPMENT TO BOLL FORMATION

Emasculation & Pollination
Select those buds in which anthesis is to occur next day. Usually white buds are
selected for emasculation. Remove epicalyx, corolla and staminal column with an
emasculating instrument. Great care should be taken that there is no injury to stigma.
The application of 100ppm gibberellic acid solution at the base of anther at the time
of the emasculation improves seed set. To protect the stigma of the emasculated bud
from contamination of foreign pollen, a soda straw of optimum length or a paper bag
may be used. Proper tagging is also done. Emasculation and pollination should be
completed simultaneously in the morning between 8.30 to 10.30a.m.

The extent of cross-pollination in cotton ranges from 5-30 per cent. In some cases,
cross-pollination up to 50 per cent has been reported. That is why cotton is considered
as an often cross-pollinated crop. The out crossing is mainly carried by insects
particularly bees.

The flowers which are expected to open next morning are bagged with butter bags to
prevent cross pollination.

The pollen grains are collected from the ripe anthers of the flowers of the male parent
with small sections of the soda straw. The anthers are slipped down or the stigma
from the soda straw. The bracts are pulled up around the soda straw and are tied
firmly to hold it. It is desirable to do both emasculation and pollination on the same
day to avoid the drying up of the stigma.

104
Hybrid seed production
There are three methods suggested for producing F1 hybrid seed:

1. Hand pollination and natural cross pollinations.

2. Use of chemical gametocides to induce male sterility.
3. Use of genetic or cytoplasmic male sterility.

As the commercially utilizable male sterility is yet to be achieved, hybrid seed

production has to depend on hand emasculation on an extensive scale. This
indispensability of hand emasculation has rendered the hybrid cotton seed production
more costly, labour dependent, restricting the area under seed production to one or
two acres per farmer. This constraint has indeed restricted the production of hybrid
cotton seeds. Such restriction is not found in case of any other crops as the male
sterile lines are invariably available in all other crops.

The enormity of work involved in hybrid cotton seed production can be realized by
the extent of crossing and emasculation work need in each seed plot. It is necessary to
emasculate 176633 female flowers and collect pollen from 22080 male flowers, cross
and bag 176633 flowers to obtain 151 kg of hybrid seeds (based on the studies
conducted by Sheriff and Shivandaiah 1974). Further, the stigma receptivity and
pollen viability have put many restrictions on hybrid seed production.

The emasculation and crossing can be carried out between 4 and 6 p.m. and 9 a.m.
and 11 a.m. respectively. Any fluctuation in timings leads to poor seed setting or
admixture of pollen.The crossing work has to be carried out for about 40-45 days to
cover the entire period of flowering. It is also necessary to harvest the kapas from the
crossed bolls separately from uncrossed bolls to avoid possibility of admixture of
seeds.

Discovery of cytoplasmic male sterility in cotton has renewed interest in the

utilization of hybrid vigour in cotton by growing first generation hybrid increased
following the discovery of cytoplasmic male sterility in cotton which was obtained by
transferring G. hirsutum chromosomes into G. harknessii cytoplasm. Fertility is
restored by a fertility restorer (Rf) gene from G. harknessii and a gene from Pima
cotton that enhances fertility. An obstacle not overcome is that of obtaining sufficient
cross pollination by bees and other insects in the seed production field to make hybrid
cotton economically feasible.

In India seeds of hybrid cotton are commercially produced by hand emasculation

and pollination, or by hand pollination of genetic male sterile cotton, the labour

105
required for hand pollination makes this procedure economically unfeasible in
countries with high labour costs.

Following are the schemes for hybrid seed production in cotton:

A. CONVENTIONAL METHOD:
This method of cotton hybrid seed production is described below with a suitable
example of a cotton hybrid currently in practice.
Hybrid Seed Production : HHH223
Parentage: H1157 (Female) x H1220(Male) (G. hirsutum x G. hirsutum)
For the seed production in an area of one acre, the female parent is to be raised in 80
per cent and the male parent in 20 per cent area.
Spacing
For female parent : Line to Line: 1.35m (4.5 ft) Plant to Plant: 30 cm
Male parent : Line to Line: 0.67m (2.25 ft) Plant to Plant: 30 cm
Synchronization
Synchronization is not a problem in these parents. However, the onset of flowering in
both the parents can be adjusted by manipulating date of sowing so that flowering in
male and female flowers can coincide.
Seed rate
Female: 800g and Male: 200g
Emasculation and pollination
These steps are more or less same in all the genotypes. Slight modifications may be
required under certain situations that can be tackled by the concerned cotton breeder.
However, general procedure is:
• Emasculate and pollinate as far as possible in the buds appearing during the
first six to eight weeks of reproductive phase (preferably up to August 1 –
September 20 in May sown crop) to ensure good setting and development of
bolls.
• Restrict emasculation to each day evening from 3 to 6 PM and pollination
next morning between 9 AM to 1 PM.
• Emasculated buds may be protected with butter paper bag. Tie a thread to the
pedicel of the bud immediately after pollination.
• Nip the top and side shoots to arrest further vertical and horizontal growth,
respectively.

106
 • Normally one flower from the male parent will cover 5 to 10 flowers of the
female parent for crossing.
• Keep the isolation distance of 30 m from the same species of cotton and 5
meter from the other species.
B. GMS BASED METHOD
In this method there is
no need of
emasculation. Seed-
setting is far superior to
the conventional
method. This method of
cotton hybrid seed
production is described
below with a suitable
example of a cotton
hybrid currently in
practice.
Hybrid: HHH 287 (G.
hirsutum)
Parents: HGMS 1
(female) and HHM-1
(male) [both belong to
G. hirsutum]
• Sowing plan is done as shown above.
• GMS segregates into 1: 1 of fertile heterozygotes and recessive homozygotes
• Remove all the fertile heterozygotes producing pollen grains (powdery mass).
• Pluck / remove all the bolls formed / fresh flowers from the male sterile plants
before starting the hybrid seed production programme.
• Pollinate f lowers of male sterile plants every day with the pollen of fertile
line.
• Nip the top and side shoots to arrest further vertical and horizontal growth,
respectively.
• Normally one flower from the male parent will cover 5 to 10 flowers of the
female parent for crossing.
• Keep the isolation distance of 30 m from the same species of cotton and 5
meter from the other species.

107
 Floral Biology of Chickpea

Family : Leguminoceae
Sub family : Papilionaceae
Genus : Cicer
Species : arietinum
Chromosome no. : 2n = 14, 16
Origin : Near Eastern Centre (West Asia )
Related species : C.reticulatum.
C.pinnatifidum.
C.songaricum

Chickpea is the world’s second most important pulse crop in terms of area sown and
third in annual production. The main producing region is the Indian subcontinent
where it is the chief
pulse and a major
source of protein for
the predominantly
vegetarian population
(Fig. 11.1).

Two main categories

of chickpea are
recognized which are
distinguished mainly
by their seed
characteristics. They
are (1) the Desi Fig. 11.1
types, which are
relatively smaller, angular seeds with rough yellow to brown coloured testas; (2)
Kabuli types, with large, more rounded and cream coloured seeds.

108
Two main categories of chickpea are recognized which are distinguished mainly by
their seed characteristics. They are (1)
the Desi types, which are relatively Fig. 11.2
smaller, angular seeds with rough yellow
to brown coloured testas; (2) Kabuli
types, with large, more rounded and
cream coloured seeds (Fig. 11.2).

Botanical Characteristics

Chickpea is an indeterminate annual Kabuli Desi

herbaceous shrub with yellowish green
to bluish green or purple foliage. Plants
are erect, semi-erect or prostrate. The main stem is round and the branches
quadrangular and ribbed. Branches originate from the first node in the axils of simple
scale-like leaves. Basal primary branches on the main stem are more vigorous than
those that arise at the upper nodes.
Plants are profusely branched with
secondary and tertiary branches at
various levels. Chickpea possesses a
deep -tap root system with three to four
well-defined rows of lateral roots. The
primary and secondary roots may
Fig. 11.3 develop large lobbed nodules that
contain Rhizobia which fix atmospheric
nitrogen symbiotically. The first two
nodes on the main stem have simple
scale-like leaves fused with two lateral
scale-like stipulae. Leaves are borne
singly at each node from the third node
onwards. They are compound, arranged
in an alternate phyllotaxy and generally
imparipinnate having 11 to 13 leaflets.
Types with a highly dissected
compound leaf or with simple leaf larninae or multipinnate also occur. The leaf
structure is bifacial with stomata in equal abundance on both the upper and lower leaf
surfaces. The normal floral botany of chickpea is fairly consistent with a single
monocarpellary flower on each peduncle with five sepals, five (2+2+1) petals, and ten
stamens in diadelphous (9+1) condition. Occasionally, twin polycarpellary flowers
per peduncle are also reported. The flowers are borne axillary on short jointed

109
peduncles arising from the leaf axil and are situated opposite the leaves. They are
white, pink, purple or blue in colour. Yellow deformed buds, which desiccate without
opening, and termed pseudo-flowers (Fig. 11.3).

Floral Biology

Chickpea is predominantly a self-pollinated crop, perhaps, obligatory since

pollination takes place at the
hooded bud stage. Pollen is
most viable when the flower is
half opened, and pollination
occurs 12 to 24 h before the
flower is fully expanded.
During the early stages of
green bud development and
enlargement, the style Flowers are
elongates and the stamens borne in the axil
remain clustered at the base of of leaf
the ovary. At the so called Fig. 11.4
white bud stage, when white
petals have emerged from the calyx but are still enfolded, filaments elongate so that
anthers are positioned close to the stigma. At this stage, pollen is shed and most of it
lands on the stigmatic surface. It adheres to papillate cells in a small localized area at
the most distal region of the stigma. Full bloom occurs approximately 24 h after
pollen is shed. The white bud stage is the stage of floral development that has been
empirically suggested as most appropriate for hybridization in chickpea because at
this stage, stigma is most receptive and pollen viability is high. Crossing attempts
involving either emasculation or no emasculation have given erratic results (23 to
98% hybrid seeds) and this compounded by the low rate of natural seed set (18 to
52%) due to flower drops has hampered works on genetic and breeding research. The
low rate of success may be attributed not only to the stage of bud development but
also to the small number of papillate cells on the stigmatic surface that are receptive
to pollen. Thus flowers for cross-pollination should be selected carefully so that
pollen with the highest viability is available.

110
Flower: The flower is
typically papilionaceous
(Fig. 11.5)., zygomorphic, Standard Papilionaceous flower
solitary, axillary (Fig.11.4).
polypetalous and bisexual,
with vaxillary aestivation. Wings
However cultivars with two
or three flowers are known.
The peduncle is short jointed
and arises from the leaf axils
opposite to the leaf. The
flowers are small, white and
violet. Each flower has 5
sepals and 5petals. Out of 10 Keel
stamens, 9 are fused to form
Calyx (ONE SEPAL REMOVED)
a staminal column and 1 is
free. The carpel with its (hairy)
style is born laterally on the Standard
ovary.
(back view)
Calyx: The calyx (8 to 10
mm) is composed of five
partly joined sepals which
makes it gamosepalous. The
two sepals are large and three
are small. The calyx tube is
obliqe, gamosepalous,
lanceolate, and densely
covered with hairs (Fig. Fused sepals
11.5).
at the base
Corolla: The corolla (8 to Fig. 11.5
11 mm ) may be greenish
white, purplish pink , red or
blue in color. The standard
FRONT AND BACK VIEWS
petal is broad and clawed, the OF CHICKPEA FLOWER
wings are free and the keel
incurved. Thus corolla consists of 5 petals (2+2+1) (Fig. 11.6).

111
 Standard

Wing I Wing II

Fig. 11.6
Keels
COROLLA (STANDARD + WINGS+ KEELS)

Androecium: The androecium is composed of 10 stamens nine fused and one is free
(9+1) .The length of stamens varies from 6 to 8 mm. The anthers are bi-celled, orange
and basifxed (Fig. 11.7).

Gynoecium: The gynoecium consists of a superior ovary with a terminal slightly

curved or upturned style and blunt knot- like stigma (Fig. 11.9)

The developmental stages of bud and flower of chickpea have been categorized as
follow.
A. Closed bud stage: in this stage stigma is immature and anthers are still at
the base of the bud.

112
 B. Hooded bud stage: the corolla is elongated, and the anthers are at the half of
the height of the style . The stigma is receptive and remains so until stage
D. Emasculation is done at this stage.
C. Half open flower: the anthers now have reached the same height as the
stigma and the pollen is mature just before the anther is dehisced.
Pollination now takes place and keel remains closed preventing any pollen
from reaching the stigma. Pollen grains for crossing are collected/selected
at this stage.
D. Fully open flower: The anthers are shriveled, while the standard and wings
are fully expended. Fertilization takes place 24 hours after pollination.
E. Fading flower: the post fertilization stage, in which ovary starts to elongate.

Fruit: The fruit is an inflated pod, with 1 , 2 , or 3 seeds (Fig. 11.10) attached to
the ventral suture. The seeds are beaked, round to semi-round wrinkled or semi-
wrinkled . The seed coat is either brown, light brown, fawn, yellow, orange, black,
white or green. The carpel with the style is borne laterally on the ovary.

9 fused stamens
Staminal column

Stigma Calyx (sepals

removed)
Style
Ovary

Anther One free stamen

Peduncle
Fig. 11.7

113
Mode of pollination: Gram is considered to be highly self pollinated because of

Fig. 11.8

Calyx
Pod

cleistogamy, although
small amount of cross
pollination is observed due
to insects particularly bees.

Emasculation:
Emasculation in gram is
generally performed in the Fig. 11.9
afternoon. The flowers in
hooded bud stage are
selected for emasculation and the flowers and buds are
removed. The stamens are removed by pushing keel petal
gently by holding the bud between thumb and first finger.
Care should be taken that gynoecium parts are not injured
during emasculation, there is no need of bagging and tagging
is done as usual. (Fig. 11.11).

Pollination: The anthers for pollination are collected DEVELOPING

GRAIN
at half open flower stage. Pollination is done next
morning. Apply pollen to the stigma lightly by gently Fig. 11.10 pressing
anthers against the stigma.

114
 Fig. 11.11

EMASCULATION STEPS IN CHICKPEA

115
 Floral Biology of Pigeonpea

Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Fabales
Family: Leguminosae /
Fabaceae
Genus: Cajanus
Sub-tribe: cojaninae
Species: cajan

Scientific Name:
(Cajanus cajan (L.)
Millspaugh)
Common Names: Angola pea, Congo
beans or pea, Red
Gram, Yellow
Dhal,
Origin: South and
Southeastern Asia.
Fig. 12.1
Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.)
Millspaugh) (Fig. 12.1, 12.2 and 12.3) is PIGEONPEA
one of the major grain legume (pulse)
crops of the tropics and subtropics. It is the second most important pulse crop of
India. Production is about 2 million tones annually world wide, of which a little
less than 85% is produced in India. Although pigeonpea ranks sixth in area and
production in comparison to other grain legumes such as beans, peas, and
chickpeas, it is used in more diverse ways than others. Besides its main use as
dhal (dry, dehulled, split seed used for cooking), its tender, green seeds are used as

116
 Mature pods
Flowers

Fig. 12.2
Pigeonpea plants

a vegetable, crushed dry seeds as animal feed, green leaves as

fodder, stems as fuel wood and to make huts, baskets, etc.,
and the plants are also used to culture the lac-producing
insect. It is grown on mountain slopes to reduce soil erosion.
Pigeonpea seed protein content (on average approximately
21%) compares well with that of other important grain Fig. 12.3
legumes. ICRISAT holds about 13,544 accessions of this
crop in trust under the Food and Agriculture Organization-Consultative Group for
International Agricultural Research agreement (ICRISAT web page).

Pigeonpea is cultivated in more than 25 tropical and sub-tropical countries, either

as a sole crop or intermixed with such cereals as sorghum (Sorchum bicolor),
pearl millet (Pennisetium glaucum), or maize (Zea mays), or with legumes, e.g.
peanut (Arachis hypogaea).

Pigeonpea may be self-pollinated crop, but up to 40% cross -pollination can occur.
Therefore, it comes under the category of Often Cross-pollinated crops. Pigeonpea
plant types may be determinate to indeterminate.

Floral structure

Inflorescence: (Fig. 12.4, 12.5)

The flowers are borne on short axially or terminal racemes and are usually about
2cm in length. They vary in colors from pale-yellow to orange often with the
standard striped or splotched with dark red or purple. Flower colour may also be
yellow or yellow with purple veins or diffuse red. Pigeonpea has typical
papilionaceous, bracteate bracteolate flowers consisting of 5 sepals

117
(gamosepalous), 5 pleats (polypetalous) and one carpel with the style born

Fig. 12.4

Immature/ young flowers Mature / older flowers pods in the oldest flowers

Pigeon pea Inflorescence: Raceme

laterally on the ovary.

Petals and Sepals (Fig. 12.6, 12.7, 12.10, 12.11)

Raceme
(upper half)
The petals are large and brightly colored and 5 in
number, comprised of one standard, two wings and
two keels. Sepals are also 5 in number.

Reproductive Organs:

Stamen (12.7, 12.9)

It consists of a slender stalk or filament, which
supports an anther. These are 10 in number, 9 fused to
form a staminal column and one is free i.e. are in
diadelphous condition. The ovary is unicarpellary,
unilocular, superior, sub-sessile with 2-9 ovules; style
long, filiform, much upcurved; stigma capitate and
glandular papillate.
Fig. 12.5
Anthesis and Mode of pollination

Pigeonpea flowers can be self-pollinated or cross-pollinated. Self-pollination

occurs in bud before the flower opens. Majority of workers have reported the
range of cross-pollination from 5-40%.Although the stigma is completely covered
with the pollen of its own flower, considerable outcrossing occurs in pigeonpea.

118
P igeo n p ea
Fully open flower
FRONT VIEW

Wings

Developing Pod
Keels (fused)

Standard

Calyx

P igeo n p ea
Fully open flower

SIDE VIEW
Keels (fused)

Wings
Standard
Developing grains

Calyx

P igeo n p ea
Fully open flower

BACK VIEW
Keels (fused)
Wings

Standard

Calyx

Fig. 12.6

119
 Free stamen’s
Pigeonpea attachment point
Gynoecium
(yellow)
Keel 2
(light yellow) Calyx
Wing 1
(yellow)

Staminal
column
of 9 fused
Anthers
(white)
Standard Keel 1
(red) (light yellow)
Wing 2
(yellow)

PFloral
igeo npea
B iology

© A.K. Chhabra T.S. of flower

Make a cut and see the T.S a: free anther
g
b: gynoecium
c: staminal
g column of 9
fused anthers
b b d: keels
Upper
c b portion e: standard
a c f: wings
c
d f d a g: calyx
f
e d
f f
e
a e e
T.S. o f t h e Flo wer

PFloral
igeo n pea
B iology
T.S. of the Flower © A.K. Chhabra

Fig. 12.7

The foreign pollen has an advantage over native pollen in affecting fertilization. It
has been proven by pollinating the flower buds by foreign pollen. It was observed
that the percentage of ‘self’ was negligible when flower buds were pollinated with

120
 Pigeonpea Gynoecium

Ovary
Stigma
Style

Fig. 12.8

Pigeonpea Androecium
9 fused stamens
Forming staminal column

One free stamen

Fig. 12.9
anther
foreign pollen without emasculation. Some of the reasons attributed to it are
delayed germination and slow pollen tube growth of the native pollen. Such
mechanism provides sufficient gap for foreign pollen to be introduced into the
stigma and thus it favours outcrossing. Among the insects involved in cross-
pollination are Apis florea, Apis dorseta and Megachile spp. Anthesis normally
occurs between 8.00 a.m. and 5.00 p.m. and flowers may remain open for 6 to 48
h. Flowering period is influenced by weather conditions.

Emasculation and Pollination

Flowers are generally emasculated in the evening and pollinated in the next
morning. For emasculation, flowers that will open one or two days later are
selected, and the rest of the flowers and the buds in a branch are removed. The

121
stamens of the selected buds are removed with a pair of a fine forceps by gently
pushing the keels apart. The emasculated floral branch is then bagged.

Wing 1 Standard

Wing 2
Keels
(fused) Fig. 12.10

Parts of corolla
sepals Calyx
Unopened
Only four sepals are visible

gam
ose
palo
us

Cu t-o p en ed
Unopened Showing 5 sepals
Only 3 sepals are visible
In gamosepalous Fig. 12.11
condition

122
 Dh en ch a
surrounding pigeon pea fields
(it provides isolation for seed production plots)

Pigeon pea
Fig. 12.12

Self pollination
To ensure selfing the flowers need to be bagged. This is because insects may
sometimes carry pollen to the stigma and bring about cross-pollination.

Seed Production: (Fig. 12.12)

Seed production is done in isolation using dhencha as a border crop to protect the
seed crop from contamination through foreign pollen. CMS lines are also
available and are under test for use in seed production programmes.

123
 Floral Biology of Field Pea

Common Name: Field pea

Genus: Pisum
Species: sativum
Family: Papilionaceae
Chromosome no: 2n =14
X=7
Scientific name: Pisum sativum
L.

Fig. 13.1 Peas without

Field pea (Pisum sativum L.), a native tendrils
of Southwest Asia, was among the
first crops cultivated by man. It is an annual herbaceous legume adapted to cool,
moist climates. It is one of the oldest cultivated plants.

Fig. 13.2. Peas with

tendrils

124
Field pea is grown for forage or dry mature
seeds, which are used as food or feed. It is
also used for soil improvement; it makes
good hay crops when mixed with grain. This
mixture may also be used to make excellent
quality silage of high feeding value, also as
dry edible peas. Used for winter clover,
green manure, soup preparation etc.

Field pea is a self-pollinated crop. However

cross-pollination can be quite extensive with
some genotype and in some environments,
ranging from 0-60 %. It is less than 1% in
commercial cultivars.

Field pea is of the indeterminate (climbing)

type or determinate (bush or dwarf) type.
(Fig. 13.1, 13.2, 13.3) Flowers are borne on
racemes arising in the axils of the leaves. In
most varieties, the blossoms are reddish-
purple or white. Pods are about three inches
long and contain four to nine seeds. Seed
Fig. 13.3. Plant
may have a green, yellow or cream colored
structure
seed coat and are classified as such.

Floral biology

Flower (Fig. 13.4, 13.5, 13.11)

Flower is zygomorphic,
cleistogamous, reddish purple or
lavender or white in color.
Inflorescence is a raceme arising
from a leaf axil. There are usually
1-3 flowers per raceme, some
genotypes may have more. The
number of flowers per peduncle
may vary from one to several on
Fig. 13.4. Flower the same plant . Floral initiation
(Back view) begins at the lowest node and
proceeds sequentially up the stem.

125
 Fig. 13.5. Flower

Calyx (Fig. 13.4, 13.11)

It is composed of 5 sepals in gamosepalous condition. Two sepals are behind the
standard, 2 subtending the wings and one anterior subtending the keel.

Corolla (Fig. 13.4, 13.5, 13.11)

It consists of five petals in (2+2+1) condition having 1 standard, 2 wings and 2 keels
that are fused except at their base. They cover the pistil and the stamens. The standard
has notch in the center. Aestivation is vexillary.

Androecium (Fig. 13.6, 13.11)

It consists of 10 stamens in 9+1 arrangement. The filaments of 9 stamens are joined
for much of their length to form a staminal tube around the ovary. The 10th stamen is
free. When young, the filaments are shorter than the style but elongate by the time of
pollen shedding.

126
 Fig. 13.6

Gynoecium (Fig. 13.7)

Ovary is superior, green and flattened containing 5-12 ovules. The style is slightly
flattened, Cylindrical and bends at right angle to ovary. It recurs towards the ovary
near its tips .The tip has a brush of stylar hairs. Stigma is elliptical, viscous and
sticky.

Anthesis
Anthesis proceeds sequentially upward from node to node .It begins at the lowest
floral node and proceeds upward. With cool, moist environmental conditions 5-6 days
may separate anthesis between nodes. Under hot, dry condition the separation may be
only one day.

Emasculation (Fig. 13.10)

It can be done at any time of the day. The flowers are emasculated just prior to
pollination. Usually emasculation is carried out in the morning. The right stage of

127
 Fig. 13.7. Gynoecium

emasculation is when the plant just begins to flower and the buds are not yet
developed.

Pollination
Pollination naturally occurs 24 hour before flower
opening and the pollen placed on stigma
germinates in 8-12 hour. Fertilization occurs
about 24-28 hours after pollination. Stigma is
receptive several days before anthesis until one
day after the flower wilts. Pollen viability is from
the time of anther bursting until several days
thereafter. Freshly dehisced anthers are collected
Fig. 13.8. Hanging pods
and transferred to the tip of the stigma with the in peas
help of a toothpick, forceps, cotton swap or camel
hair brush.

128
Fruit
Hanging pods are green or yellowish green. (Fig. 13.8, 13.9)

Fig. 13.9. Pods and

peas seeds

Fig. 13.10.
Emasculation in peas

129
130
 Floral Biology of
Groundnut
Crop Name: Groundnut
Genus: Arachis
Species: hypogaea
Family: Leguminosae
Chromosome No.: 2n = 40
Origin: Brazil
Related Species: A. sylvestris,
A. pusilla

Groundnut (Fig. 14.1, 14.2, 14.3) is

primarily used as an oilseed corp. Large
quantities of it are also consumed
directly as food. The groundnut plant is
also used as a fodder crop. The oil cake
is an important source of protein and fed
to the animals and is also used for
manure.
The genus Arachis includes annual and
perennial diploids (2n = 20) and annual
tetraploids (2n = 40). The cultivated
Arachis hypogaea L. is allotetraploid
with 2n = 40.
Floral Biology

Inflorescence (Fig. 14.4, 14.12)

The flowers are born either solitary or in clusters (raceme) in the axils of the
leaves, near the base of the plant. Flower Fig. 14.1.Groundnut plant
number per inflorescence varies with sketck-Photographed at ICRISAT
museum

131
 Fig. 14.2

cultivars. A flowering branch never occurs at the same node as a vegetative

branch, although they may appear to do so because of the shortness of the
internodes. In the variety hypogaea, the inflorescences are simple and expand
slightly in length during maturation. In the variety vulgaris, the inflorescences are
compound and expand moderately. In the variety fastigiata, the inflorescences are
simple, but may
elongate to form a
conspicuous long
branch that may
occasionally
terminate in
leaves. The length
of the
inflorescence is
also dependent on
the cultivar and
may exceed 10 Fig. 14.3
cm in some
cultivars

Flower
Close-up view of crop
The flower is
papilionaceous. It is complete, zygomorphic, sessile, bracteate with a reduced
pedicel and yellow in colour. What appears to be a pedicel is actually an
elongated hypanthium (Fig. 14.4, 14.12)

132
 Fig. 14.4
Standard Wings

Calyx

CALYX &
COROLLA

Parts of corolla

Re-curved
beaked keel
Wings

Keels

Standard

GROUNDNUT FLOWER AND ITS PARTS

Calyx (Fig. 14.4, 14.5)
There are five pale-green sepals. They form a narrow sparsely pubescent
hypanthium 4 to 6 cm. long. The calyx has five lobes; in two groups of one and
four. The single sepal is juxtaposed (placed side by side) to the keel while the
other four are fused except at their tips.

Corolla (Fig. 14.4, 14.6)

There are five petals, viz., the standard and the two lateral wings are free and the
remaining two petals are fused to form a keel. The standard petal has a range of
colours from yellow to orange to dark orange or garnet, and in rare cases, it is
white or creamy white. It has a central area called the standard crescent, which has
darker lines (or markings) radiating form the base to the periphery of the standard
in most cultivars. The wings are generally yellow and wrap around the keel. The

133
keel is pale yellow, and
closely wraps around the Fig. 14.5
stamens and the upper
parts of the style and
stigma.
4 sepals

Androecium (Fig. 1 sepal

14.14.6, 14.7). There are
10 monadelphous
stamens of which two are
staminodes (sterile)
represented only by The calyx has five lobes; in two groups of one and four.
They form a narrow sparsely pubescent hypanthium
filaments. The remaining
eight are dimorphic. Of these, four are with globose, dorsi-fixed and monothecous
anthers, alternating
Gynoecium and androecium taken out of keels with four having
adnate, notrorse,
Reproductive organs
oblong anthers, three of
which are bithecous
and one, opposite the
standard, monothecous.
The basal two-third
length of the filaments
is fused. The filaments
of the globose anthers
are initially shorter
than those of the
Keels oblong ones, but they
elongate and become
equal to or longer than
them a few hours after
pollination. Four anthers are oblong and four globose, arranged alternately.

Gynoecium (Fig. 14.6, 14.7). The ovary is situated at the base of the hypanthium;
it is superior, about 1.5 mm long, and normally has two to four ovules,
occasionally five, and rarely six. The style is long and filiform with two bends; the
first bend is closed to the upper end of the hypanthium, and the second one occurs
along with the bend in the keel petal. The style has upward-slanting hairs on its
distal portion. The stigma is club-shaped and usually on level with, or slightly
above, the anthers.

Anthesis : Flowering begins 17-35 days after seedling emergence, depending on

the cultivar and environmental conditions. Low temperatures generally delay
flowering. The flowering pattern varies among and within the botanical varieties.
Generally the valencias flower before the other types and have short time of

134
 Stigma REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
Fig. 14.7
Oblong
anthers (4)
Keel

Staminal
column

Globular
anthers (4)

Non-functional
anthers (2)

Androecium (diadelphous) Gynoecium

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF GROUNDNUT

flowering. The spanish types also flower early, but the first flowering peak may
be broader than that in the valencias and some cultivars have multiple peaks. The
virginia types take more time than the other two types to start flowering and have
multiple flowering peaks.

135
 Flowers are born in
Fig. 14.8
the axil of leaf

Aerial
Portion

Peg

Under
ground
PLANT Axil of leaf
WITHOUT
ROOTS

Peg

Pegs

Pods
Pods of
groundnut
being
uprooted
from the soil

The flower bud is 6-10 mm long 24 h before anthesis and, during the day, the
hypanthium elongates slowly and the bud attains a length of 10-20 mm. During

136
the night, elongation of the hypanthium is faster. The flower reaches maximum
length of 50-70 mm at the time of anthesis. Flower opening is normally at sunrise,
but may be delayed by low temperatures. Anthers may dehisce 7-8 h before
flowers open in some genotypes; in others they may not do so even at flower
opening. Stigma becomes receptive about 24 h before anthesis and its receptivity
persists for about 12 hours after anthesis. Pollen grains are smooth, oval and
sticky. Fertilization occurs about 6 h after pollination.

Pod formation
(Fig. 14.1, 14.8, Fig. 14.9
14.9, 14.11).
After fertilization,
the stalk of the
ovary elongates to
form what is known
as the gynophore
(needle or peg),
which curves
downwards and
enters the soil
pushing the ovary
below the ground
where the pod is
developed. The pods
are fibrous, each having 1 to 3 seeds.Mature Groundnut Fruits

Mode of Pollination
The groundnut flowers are cleistogamous; therefore, it is essentially a self-
pollinated crop. The extent of natural cross pollination is very small.

Emasculation (Fig. 14.10).

Method 1
The emasculation is generally performed in the evening. Usually one flower bud
from each inflorescence which is near to main stem is selected. In order to get
more percentage of hybrid seed, the plant should be young and in the early stage
of flowering.

The sepal which is in front of keel is removed and the sepals on the side of
standard are pushed down. Spread the petals apart and remove the stamens with
care. After emasculation, the petals are placed back. Usually bagging in not
necessary to protect the emasculated flower. The emasculated flowers are
identified by attaching a small thread to the hypanthium and aluminum tag/foil
around the hypanthium or emasculated flower.

137
 EMASCULATION AND POLLINATION IN
GROUNDNUT
Modified from Source:
floral%20stock%20files/groundnut%20all/Artificial%20hybridisation%20of%20Bambara%20Gro

Fig. 14.10

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

10 11 12

13 14 15 16

Fig. 14.10…contd.

138
 Fig. 14.10…contd.

17 18 19

20 21 22 23 24

25 26 27 28

1. EMASCULATION: Flowers at a good stage for emasculation. Notice that

anthers are still closed
2. Flower attached to peduncle. Each peduncle usually bears two flowers.
The second flower was removed in this picture.
3. Hold flower at base with left hand tweezers. Make sure not to bruise
flower.
4. Insert tip of right hand tweezers at base of keel petals
5. Move tweezers to tip of flower splitting the keel petals
6. Push tip of tweezers through middle of flag petal and split to the tip.
7. Open flower and locate stamen and style with stigma

139
 Fig. 14.10…contd.

8. Push style with left tip of tweezers to the left side of the
flower to prevent damage
9 Hold accessible stamen with tweezers
10. Remove anthers from flower
11. Repeat procedure to get hold of remaining anthers
12. Open flower to check for hidden anthers
13. Remove anthers with tip of tweezers
14. Clean tip of right hand tweezers. Let flower go from left
hand tweezers. Emasculation is finished.
15. POLLINATION: Get stamen and carpel from male partner.
Make sure that anthers are freely shedding pollen.
16. Open flower with right hand tweezers exposing stigma.
17. Pollinate stigma with stamen and carpel from male
partner held by left hand tweezers.
18. Pollinated stigma
19. Close flower with right hand tweezers leaving male
organs at stigma.
20. Hybridization finished
21. Tag flower with thin copper wire.
22. Fix tag
23. Tagged flower
24. Successful fertilization can be determined if ovaries fold
back at flower base, pointing towards glandular apex.
Unfertilized flowers fall of without folding back.
25. Fertilized ovaries can stay at this stage for several days,
during which the peduncle lengthens to bring ovaries
to or below soil surface.
26. After about 10-14 days pod development starts.
27. Left photo taken on 10.10.2001, Right photo taken on
14.11.2001. This is a typical example of paused pod
development. In the same time period other pods
developed to a size of ca. 15 mm. Despite above soil
development of pods is possible, underground pods
are generally preferred in development.
28. Pod at about 18mm size.

Method 2
In this, the flower buds two thirds down from the tip are cut to remove the
standard and a small portion of the wing petals. The anthers are then removed and
a folded piece of drinking straw is inserted over the emasculated flower.

140
Pollination (Fig. 14.10).
Pollination is done on the morning of the day following emasculation. The pollens
are collected from the desired male parent and pollens are applied with a small
camel hair brush on
the stigma. Fig. 14.11
Peg Formation
After fertilization,
the stalk of the
ovary elongates and
curves downward
pushing the ovary
below the ground
where the pods
containing the nuts
develop.

Extent of cross
pollination
The groundnut is
self-fertilized,
Pod at physiological maturity
although bees do visit the flowers and there may be occasional cross-pollination.

Wing
Standard

Stigma
Fig. 14.12 Anther Keel
Sterile anther Filament
Style
Calyx tube Staminal
Ovary tube

Calyx tube
Ovule
Longitudinal Section of Groundnut flower

141
 Floral Biology of Rapeseed
and Mustard

Family : Crucifuae
Genus : Brassica
Species : campestris, napus, juncea, rapa, nigra, carinata

Chromosome numbers, genome structure etc.:

Species Chromosome Mode of reproduction

No. (2n)
B. nigra Kotch 16 CROSS POLLINATED
B. oleracea L. 18 CROSS POLLINATED
B. rapa L. 20 Brown sarson
Lotni type…….CROSS POLLINATED
Tora type……. SELF POLLINATED
Toria……………CROSS
POLLINATED
Yellow sarson…SELF POLLINATED
B. tournifortii Gouan 20 SELF POLLINATED
Eruca sativa 22 SELF POLLINATED
B. alba Rab. 24 SELF POLLINATED
B. carinata 34 OSELF POLLINATED
B. juncea Czern 36 OSELF POLLINATED
B. napus 38 SELF POLLINATED and CROSS
POLLINATED

142
 Fig. 15.1. Crop view of Brassica species

Rapeseed and Mustard (Fig. 15.1) are most important oil seed crops in India.
Next to groundnut, they are important edible oil seed crops. Most of edible oils
are obtained from rapeseed and mustard. Rapeseed & mustard play an important
role in oil seed economy in India. They are considered as ‘cash crops’.

Brassica juncea was originated in China and from there it was introduced into
North Eastern India. From India it has spread into Afghanistan via Punjab and
adjoining parts of India and Pakistan is the place of origin of brown sarson
(Brassica Campestris)

The crop is grown both in subtropical and tropical countries. In Asia it is chiefly
grown in China, India and Pakistan. In India, Brassica crop is widely cultivated
in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Haryana,
Punjab, Gujarat and West Bengal.

Inflorescence (Fig. 15.3)

The inflorescence is an elongated raceme, borne terminally on the main stem and
branches, usually carrying bright yellow flower, although colours can vary from
orange to very pale yellow.

The number of flowers is influenced by climate, cultural techniques and variety

and can range from dozen to twice this, occasionally more. Rapeseed produces
many more flowers than pod and under controlled conditions it was found that
only 68% of flowers became pods, the rest were shed indicating that flower
shedding is a problem.

143
 Stamens (tetradynamous)
stigma

Petals(4)
(Cruciform)

stamen
Sepals (4) ovary

Outer whorl
FLOWER
Inner whorl
claw
veins

anther
stamen limb

ANDROECIUM COROLLA
(TETRADYNAMOUS) (CRUCIFORM)
(open out petals)
stigma
style Inner
False sepal
whorl
septum
bicarpellary
syncarpous
calyx ovary Outer
whorl Sepals in
two whorls
GYNOECIUM CALYX

Fig. 15.2. FLORAL MORPHOLOGY OF BRASSICA FLOWER

The anthers are placed lower than the stigmas at bud stage but prior to flower
opening, the filaments elongate and carry the anthers upward so that they are as
high as or above the stigma (Fig. 15.9). Vernalization, i.e., low temperature in the

144
 Youngest Youngest
flower flower Opened
bud bud white
flowers

Opened
white
flowers

Developing
pods

Fig. 15.3

B. juncea B. napus
early vegetative stage is a major factor influencing flower bud development and
therefore seed yields in winter.

Anthesis
The flower begins to open before 8 a.m. and continue to open until about noon.
Flowers remain open for 3-4 days after which the petals, sepals and stamens are
shed.

Fruit
The fruit is a long narrow pod, Siliqua, 5-10cm in length (Fig. 15.11) consisting of
2 carpels separated by false septum called replum (Fig. 15.2) which shatters when
mature. The pods contain 15-40 small, round seeds. Seed is generally matured 30-
40 days after fertilization.

Mode of Pollination
See table 1 on page 142

145
 Petals

Corolla
Calyx

Sepals

Gynoecium Androecium

Peduncle
Fig. 15.4. THE FLOWER

Fig. 15.5

146
Cruciform
a

Claw c

Limb
e d

a = flower with yellow petals, b = flower

with vain pattern petals, c = flower with
white petals, d = flower without petals, e =
detached petals from the flower

Fig. 15.6

147
 Stigma

Style

Ovary

Six
stamens
(4+2) in Fig. 15.7
two whorls

Stamens
Stigma

Style Sepal

Corolla is absent Peduncle Fig. 15.8

B. juncea Apetalous Flower

148
 Comparative growth of
androecium and gynoecium

A B C D

The anthers are lower than the stigmas at bud

stage but prior to flower opening, the filament
elongate and carry the anthers upward so that they
are as high as or above the stigma

A: immature bud stage showing shorter stamen

than style,
B: Style elongates to reach the level of stigma ,
C: Anther above the level of stigma and
Fig. 15.9
D: Elongation of ovary after fertilization.

149
Emasculation, Crossing and Selfing Techniques
Flowers are emasculated in the evening and pollinated the next morning (Fig.
15.14, 15.15) . Flower buds that will open next day are selected and the
remainder of the buds and flowers and flowering branches are removed.

The petals as well as stamens of the selected buds are removed with a pair of
tweezers and the emasculated flowers are bagged.

Ripe anthers are collected next morning and pollination is made by dusting
pollens from the ripened anthers over the stigma. After pollination, the flowers are
again bagged.

Flowers to be selfed should be bagged before they open to avoid natural cross
pollination. Bag should be of such size as to allow lengthening of flowers.

In rape, the pollen grains are reported to remain viable for seven days while the
stigma is receptive from three days prior to opening of flowers to 3 days after
opening.

Insects also enhance pollination, leading to cross pollination (Fig. 15.10).

Fig. 15.10

150
BRASSICACEAE (CRUCIFERAE) -
Mustard Family
Herbs with odorous, water juice, annuals,
biennials, and perennials
Leaves alternate, simple, often dissected, stipules
absent
Flowers bisexual, actinomorphic, usually in
racemes

Androecium of 6 stamens, 4 long and 2 short

Corolla of 4 petals arranged in a cross, hence Cruciferae
Fruit a silique (long) or a silicle (short) - modified capsule dehiscing by 2 lateral valves
having a central septum (replum)

350 genera, 3000 species

Brassicaceae is a sharply defined and readibly recognized family, however, genera are ill-
defined
Economic importance
Brassica - brussel sprouts, broccoli, mustard, cabbage, cauliflower, turnips, kohlrabi, kale
Raphanus -radish
some ornamentals and weeds (escaped Brassica)
Diagnostic characteristics: herbs, infl. a raceme, stamens 4+2, fruit a silicle or silique

Fig. 15.11

151
 Eruca sativa
Fig. 15.12
(Taramira)

Calyx

Fig. 15.13

152
 POLLEN COLLECTION

Fig. 15.14

Emasculated
buds

Fig. 15.15

153
Inflorescence is raceme, i.e. infinite type of inflorescence in which older flowers
are at the bottom.
Fig. 15.17
petal Varying
degree of
incision

petal
Fig. 15.16

Flowers are regular, cruciform, bisexual, complete and hypogynous (Fig. 15.4,
15.17).

Calyx comprises of 4 sepals in two whorls of two sepals in each whorl in

polysepalous condition (Fig. 15.5).

Corolla consists of 4 petals (Fig. 15.4, 15.6); the petals bifurcated with varying
degree of incision (Fig. 15.16). They are generally yellow in colour. Petals are
cruciform with distinct limb and claw (Fig. 15.6).

Androecium comprises 6 stamens arranged in two whorls in tetradynamous

condition (Fig. 15.2, 15.7). The two outer stamens are short and four inner are
long. The immature stamens are always below the stigma and after maturity
anthers split longitudinally and shed their pollens.

Gynoecium is bicarpellary in syncarpous condition (Fig. 15. 2, 15.7). Ovary

becomes two selled owing to the development of a false septum called, the
replum.

Anthesis and mode of pollination: (Fig. 15.9). Opening of flowers start from
8.a.m. and continues up to mid day. There is an increase in style length before the
bud opens. Just prior to bud opening the filaments elongate and carry the anthers
at the level of stigma. Anthers start dehiscing downwardly from the apex as soon
as the flower opens. The flower remains opened for three to four days, fading
gradually on successive days. On 5th and 6th day the petals and sepals fall away.
By this time fertilized ovary also increases in length. Pollen grains remain viable
for 7 days after dehiscence. Stigma becomes receptive 3 days prior to the opening
of the flower and remains receptive 3 days after the opening of the flower.

In B. compestris, yellow sarson (turnip rape) and toria (Indian rape) are self-
pollinated, although 5-12% of outcrossing may occur. In yellow sarson. The
brown sarson and toria of lotni type are cross pollinated because of self sterility.

154
 Floral Biology of Sunflower

Family: Compositae
Fig. 16.1
Genus: Helianthus
Species: annuus
Origin: Native of United
States and Mexico
Other Species: tuberosus
petiolaris
Chromosome No. :
Basic chromosome No, x=17
Helianthus annuus : 2n =
2x = 34
Helianthus tuberosus: 2n = 6x = 102
Helianthus petiolaris: 2n = 2x = 34

Sunflower was introduced in India as an oilseed crop for the first time in 1969.
Sunflower is a new oilseed crop. But it was grown in India as an ornamental crop
since ancient times. Sunflower is a native of United States and Mexico from
where it was introduced into Spain by early explorers and merchants. In the
nineteenth century, the cultivation of sunflower as an oilseed crop began in Soviet
Union and the majority of the present day varieties grown all over world trace
back their origin to USSR. The cultivated sunflower for oil purpose is an annual
having a single un-branched stem terminating in a large golden head, the
capitulum (Fig. 16.1). It exhibits wide range of variation for morphological
characteristics. Plant height varies from 50 to over 500 cm with stem diameter
ranging from 1 to 10 cm. Plant height depends on number and length of
internodes. Sparse hairs are seen all along the stem. The elongation of stem ceases

155
after ray floret opening in the inflorescence. Wild species and majority of the
restorer lines are branching types (Fig. 16.6), each branch originating from the
leaf axil and terminating with a small-sized inflorescence. Four different
branching forms have been observed. The plant has a strong central root called
tap-root which penetrates soil to a depth of 150 to 300 cm. The lateral roots spread
widely from 60 to 150 cm. In cultivated sunflower, generally 20 to 25 leaves are
borne on the stem. Leaves are produced in opposite-alternate pairs and exhibit
wide differences for colour, size, shape, margin, surface, hairiness, apex and
petiole length.
It can be cultivated in any season viz. kharif, rabi and summer throughout India.
Sunflower seed derives almost 80% of its economic value from oil, while defatted
meal is the main by product after oil extraction. The meal contains 40-45% highly
digestible protein suitable for human food or livestock feed. The major sunflower
producing countries of the world are the Soviet Union, USA, Argentina, Romania,
Spains, Yugoslavia, Turkey and South America. In India sunflower is grown in
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orrisa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu
and U.P. Maharashtra and Karnataka are two major producers.
Floral Biology
Inflorescence (Fig. 16.3, 16.4, 16.5)
The inflorescence is a capitulum (Fig. 16.1) or head which varies in size and
shape. Most of the cultivated varieties in India show a range of 10 to 35 cm for
head diameter. The leaves are heliotropic which increases the photosynthetic
efficiency, until flowering inflorescence is also heliotropic after that it remains
fixed facing eastwards. The shape of head may be concave, convex or flat
attached to main stem at varying angles. Involucral bracts (phyllaries) (Fig. 16.3)
which vary in size and shape surround the head. Sunflower head consists of two
types of flowers. The outer flowers, which are usually yellow, are ray florets.
These flowers are sterile but do attract insect pollinators. The inner disc florets,
which are hermaphrodite and fertile, are arranged in arcs radiating from the centre
of the head.
The flowering process begins with unfolding of outer ray florets. The outer whorl
of disc flowers open first proceeding gradually towards the centre of the head. In
general, 2 to 4 whorls open daily and complete flowering occurs within a head in
5-8 days. The flowering period will be longer if heads are large or weather is cool
and cloudy. Anthesis (Fig. 16.2) takes place in the morning hours between 0600-
0800 hrs on warm sunny days. Anthesis is delayed if weather is cool, cloudy or
wet. The sunflower is protandrous. Pollen is dehisced within the anther tube. As
the style elongates and pushes up through the anther tube, the pollen is
mechanically forced out. The style continues to elongate until the stigmas emerge
from the anther tube and the lobes separate, exposing their pollen receptive
surfaces. Pollination and fertilization occurs when the spiny viable pollen is
transferred to stigmatic surface. There is a limited role of wind in pollen transfer.
Cross pollination is favoured by insects, in particular, honey bees.

156
 Fig. 16.2

Progressive stages of anthesis

(Disc florets)

1 2

3 4

5 6
The outer whorl of disc flowers open first proceeding
gradually towards the centre of the head. In general,
2 to 4 whorls open daily and complete flowering
occurs within a head in 5-8 days

157
 The inner disc
florets, which are
hermaphrodite and
fertile, are arranged
in arcs radiating
1 from the centre of
the head.
Involucral bracts

Ray florets (folded)

(phyllaries)
Involucral bracts (phyllaries)
3
Ray florets are Ray florets almost opened uncovering
uncoiled from
the centre first the disc florets

Ray florets
(folded)

2 Capitulum

Disc florets

Completely
opened
ray florets achne
MATURE Mature seeds
CAPITULUM Ready to Side view of Capitulum
harvest Ray florets Disc florets

Anthers forming Tubular Fig. 16.3

Bracts A tubular structure sepals

Each disc floret consists of inferior ovary, two pappus scales (modified sepals)
and a tubular corolla formed by the fusion of five petals, except at the tip. Five
anthers are united to form a tube with separate filaments attached to the base of
corolla tube. Inside the anther tube is the style, terminating in a divided stigma.

158
When the flower is fully developed, the style is elongated and the bifid stigma
curls outward.

Fig. 16.4
Tubular Sepals free
sepals at the top Towards
centre
of capitulum

Progressive
Stages of
Stigma
emergence

Towards
CLUSTER OF Periphery of
DISC FLORETS capitulum

ovary bifid stigma curls outward

Pappus corolla tube

(second is broken) anthers are united
Disc Floret Showing Receptive Bi-fid Stigma

The individual disc flowers are effectively protandrous and the positioning of
stigma above the anthers make self pollination difficult. The disc flowers are
perfect with petals and five anthers that are united in separate tubes. The disc
flowers are arranged in concentric circles radiating from centre of the head. These
are hermaphrodite and fertile. Each disc floret is made up of inferior ovary, two
pappus, which are modified sepals and a tubular corolla formed by fusion of petals
except at the tip. The five anthers are also fused to form a tube with filaments
attached independently at the base of corolla tube. The style is inside the anther
tube with stigma divided at the tip. When the flower is fully developed, the style
elongates and the bifid stigma curls outward.

159
Ray florets are male and female sterile i.e. they are normally asexual but some
may produce pollen. The ray flowers open first and flowering then proceeds from
periphery to the centre of the head at the rate of four rows per day.

Tubular Sepals free

sepals at the top

achne achne

Pappus Pappus

Pappus attachment at physiological maturity of seed

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Developmental
DevelopmentalStages
Stagesof
ofDisc
DiscFlorets
Florets
Fig. 16.5

160
Fruit : (Fig. 16. 3, 16. 5). Sunflower seed (achne) comprise pericarp (seed coat or
hull) derived from the ovary wall and the kernel which is mostly embryo. The
pericarp comprises between 20 per cent (oil types) and 40 per cent (confectionery
types) of seed weight. Seed exhibits a wide range of variation for seed weight,
seed coat colour and size. Total seed yield in a head is the product of total number
of seeds and seed weight. The fruit is compressed, flat, oblong with top truncate
and base pointed giving a roughly diamond shape. Colour of seed may be white,
black or black with strips. Seed is Dicotyledonus and exalbuminous.
Anthesis : (Fig. 16.2). Opening of all florets on a single heads is usually
completed in 5-10 days but if individual florets are not quickly pollinated they can
remain receptive for 14 days with a greatly reduced possibility of being fertilized.
Flowering within a crop of hybrid sunflower is remarkably uniform, with 80-90
per cent of heads opening within 3-4 days.
Pollination : (Fig. 16.6). Sunflower is a highly cross pollinated plant. The
individual disc flowers are effectively protandrous and the positioning of the
stigma above the anthers make self-pollination difficult. A genetically controlled
system of self-incompatibility in certain lines prevents the pollen from penetrating
the styles and carrying at fertilization.
Sunflower is pollinated mostly by insects. Bees are frequent visitors to flowers on
warm, sunny days. Little pollination is accomplished by wind drops on the leaves
or on the ground in clumps of five or more grains. Self pollination is achieved by
placing a bag over the head before anthesis or anther dehiscence. The amount of
seed set depends on the degree of self compatibility of the lines and type of bag
used. Cloth bags have been found to be most efficient among several kinds tested
for effecting self-fertilization of sunflower. Seed set was increased considerably
when heads were pollinated by brushing with cotton batting.
Pollination in field nurseries can be effected simply by rubbing heads from the
two parents against each other. The pollinated head is maintained in isolation by
re-bagging.
Emasculation
Emasculation of the female parent can be performed with forceps. Workers have
individual preferences for the type of forceps. Some prefer a fine, sharp-pointed
surgical type; others use a somewhat larger, coarser type with points about 3 mm
wide.
A disinfectant, such as ethanol is used for sterilizing the forceps between
emasculations to prevent unwanted cross pollination.
The ray flowers and bracts usually are removed before emasculation to make the
flowers on the disc more accessible and eliminate a large surface area on which
pollen could lodge. The flowers opening prior to the day of emasculations can be
removed from their ovaries by a simple sideways pulling motion with the thumb

161
Fig. 16.6

A-Line B-Line

Pollen
R-Line Collection

Pollination

Selfing R-Line

162
and forefinger. The
ideal time to Fig. 16.7
emasculate is in the
period when the
anther tube is
extended
sufficiently to be
grasped with the
forceps but the
pollen has not yet
dehisced. In practice
however, because of
the short duration of
this period the
anther tube often is
removed after
dehiscence, but
before the stigma
has grown for
enough into it to be THE CAPITULUM
injured or for the
stigmatic lobes to
separate when the tube is removed. Free pollen on the outside of the stigma lobes
must be blown off. Undeveloped central florets are removed, usually by cutting
them off with a knife just above the ovaries. A few flowers closely adjacent to
those emasculated cannot be cut off with a knife without danger of damaging the
emasculated flowers. These can be removed with forceps.

Pollen Viability
It is best to use the pollen shortly after collection. Some studies [Arnoldova
(1926)], indicate that pollen can be stored for a year, but other workers have found
that viability is lost within a month whether the pollen is stored at room
temperature or is refrigerated.

Stigma Receptivity
The stigma normally remains receptive for 3 to 5 days, although its viability can
be preserved up to 17 days under field conditions. Stigmas of flowers which are
not fertilized continue growth for several days to form a coil which will allow the
stigmatic surface to contact pollen adhering to outer surface of the stigma lobes.

Hybrid Seed Production

Hybrid seed is generally produced using CGMS system, i.e. A-, B-, and R-lines
(Fig. 16.6). R-lines are generally branched and have many small heads. B-line is
isogenic to A-line. R-line has high sca with A-line.

163
 Floral Biology of Linseed

Family : Linaceae
Genus : Linum
Species : usitatissimum
Chromosome no. : 2n=30
Origin : South-Western Asia and Mediterranean area of Europe
Common name: Alsi

Normally
Linseed (Fig. Fig. 17.1
17.1, 17.2) is a
self pollinated
crop although
0.3% to 2%
natural crossing
has been
observed. The
amount varies
with the variety,
season, and kind
and number of
insects present.
Linseed
contains a good Linseed
percentage of The Crop
oil and it varies
from 35 to 45%. It is also an important source of industrial oil in the country. Linseed
oil is used for cooking purpose in various parts of India. Its oil is an excellent drying
oil which is extensively used for preparation of paints, varnishes, printing ink, soap,
patent leather and water proof fabrics. Oil-cake is a good cattle feed for mulch animals

164
and also a good manure. Oil-Cake contains 36 per cent protein out of which 85 per
cent is digestible. It contains 5.5 per cent N, 1.4-1.5 per cent P2O5, and 1.2-1.3 per cent
K2O. It produces fiber of good quality and used in making paper and plastics. Fiber is
used for the manufacture of linen goods such as twine, canvas, suiting and shirting,
water resistant pipes etc. The remaining material after fiber extraction can be utilized
as pulp for manufacturing straw boards, writing papers and parchment paper. The stalk
is used for fuel. The fiber also forms a cheap source of cellulose for the development
of artificial silk.

Fig. 17.2

Fig. 17.3

Linseed is a winter annual plant

with tap root which is slender
and possesses numerous small
lateral roots (Fig. 17.2). The
stem is woody and branched. Its
height varies from variety to
variety (about 80-90 cm tall).
Leaves are small, alternate,
entire, stipulated, linear to
lanceolate and blunt at the apex.
The leaf colour ranges from fresh green to bluish green.

Floral Biology

Inflorescence is usually cymose i.e. the flowers are born in cymes.

Flower: (Fig. 17.3, 17.4, 17.8)

The flowers are pentamarous i.e. 5 free persistent sepals, 5 free petals, 5 stamens and
gynoecium with 5 slender styles are present (Fig. 17.8).

165
Calyx: (Fig.17.3, 17.5)
The Sepals are 5 in number- ovate, ciliate, three- nerved, acuminate and persistent.

Corolla: (Fig.17.4, 17.7)

Petals are 5 in number and their colour varies from variety to variety. These color
variations are white with blue tinge, pale-blue, deep-blue, violet, deep-violet, soft-
bluish violet, purple or pink, bluish-pink. Pink corolla is not observed in India and is
found in European materials. The petals vary in shape from sub-linear to broad in
which the length and breadth are equal. They fall into 2 classes- Narrow and Broad
petals. In fully opened flowers with narrow petals, a certain amount of space is left
between the petals, but when the petals are broad, they overlap. The petals remain
twisted in bud and fall off early. They remain twisted at the base into hypogynous
discs on which are 5 glands representing perhaps an absorptive whorl of stamens-
opposite the base of the petals.

Fig. 17.4
Petals (5)

Reproductive
organs

Androecium: (Fig. 17.4, 17.9)

The various parts of the stamens including pollen, exhibit wide coloured range. The
filaments are white or white with various shades of blue or purple. All shades of
colour from pale blue, bright blue to purple are present. The anthers are either white or
white with a blue line or blue. Pollen grains are blue, yellow or white. This difference

166
 Calyx
Fig. 17.5

is accentuated by the colour of the anther. The blue pollen which occurs in European
forms is not observed in
Indian linseeds.

Gynoecium: (Fig. 17.4,

17.9).The ovary is 5-
celled; each locule more
or less completely divided
into two by a false Free

septum, resulting in a ten-

roomed capsule, each
containing one ovule,
developing into one
embryo. The ovules are
pendulous, anatropous Fig. 17.6 Free
Twisted Twisted
and are situated in the
inner angle of the locules, Twisted Aestivation of calyx
two in each. The five
long styles are free to the at Early Stage Only
base, with loose union at the stigmatic ends. The styles are white which also show
variations of blue or purple shades. The stigma remains receptive for a period of 2

167
hours before and 5 to 6 hours after opening of the flower i.e. stigma receptivity is up to
8 hours.

Fig. 17.7

Linseed

Corolla
Twisted Aestivation
Fruit: (Fig. 17.10)
The seed is oval and pointed at one end. Its length varies between 4 - 6mm and breadth
between 2 - 3mm. The seed surface is smooth and generally shining, but in some
varieties it may be rather dull. The capsule possesses five chambers, formed from five
carpel which are then incompletely halved by a false septum, resulting into a ten-
roomed capsule each with one seed. Thus we may expect ten seeds in one capsule.

Anthesis

When the petals become visible, the anthers are still short and immature. On clear
days, the flower opens and the pollen is shed shortly after sunrise. The flower is fully
open by 7 a.m. and the petals falls before noon. The linseed flower has 5 anthers and a
pistil with five slender styles. Linseed is normally self- pollinated crop although 0.3-
2% natural crossing has been observed. The maximum natural cross- pollination is
found in varieties with open disc-form flower and least in the varieties with tubular
flowers. The plants usually blossom over a long period.

168
 Pentamarous
Flower
Fig. 17.8

Five Sepals

Five Petals

Five Styles

Five stamens

Five Carpels

Emasculation and pollination

The linseed flowers show a cone of flower on the after-noon preceding opening and
emasculation are made late the afternoon or early evening. The cone of petal is
removed by pulling gently with the thumb and index finger. The one or two sepals are
rolled back and held down while the five anthers are removed with the point of a
pencil or fine pointed tweezers. Care must be exercised to prevent injury to the stigma
or it will dry out rapidly. The emasculated flower may be marked by tying tags. The
emasculated flowers need not be bagged, because they do not attract insects.

Pollination is made the next morning before 8 a.m. Delay in pollination may result in a
poor seed set because the pollen dries out rapidly. Petals are removed to supply the
pollen, and their anthers are brushed lightly over the stigma of the emasculated flower.
One male flower will pollinate two or three emasculated flowers. About 5-7 flowers
open on a plant each day during the full gloom period. With careful emasculation,
correct timing of pollination and good weather, a high percentage of flower will set
seed with an average of 5-7 seeds per boll. The linseed plant usually blooms over a
long period of time.

According to another study, the flowers open in the early morning and in all such buds
the unfolded corolla is visible the evening before. When the corolla becomes visible,

169
 Fig. 17.9
Reproductive
anthers Organs (fully opened) One locule
is 2-roomed

Stigma (5)
= one cell

ovule
ovary
filaments

Intact flower

T.S. of Ovary

Flower with Reproductive Reproductive Gynoecium

one petal removed organs Organs (opened) removed

Androecium & Gynoecium

Stigma (5)
Stigma (5)

Styles (5)
ovary
ovary
ovary
T.S.
of
Ovary
Gynoecium
Gynoecium (Linseed)
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF LINSEED

the filaments are still short and unbursted anthers stand well below the slightly twisted
stigma. Further, the rapid growth of the filament soon brings the anther to the same
level as the stigmas and this is the position when opening begins. According to these

170
authors the time of opening of flowers depends on the temperature and humidity. On
warm mornings the flower open very early, while on cold mornings the process is
delayed. According to another study the flowers open fully by 8 a.m. in the winter
months. The stigma in the bud stage protrudes over the anther lobes but as the bud
expends and the petals begin to unfold, the anthers gradually overtake the stigma and
when the flower is in full bloom, the anthers surround or envelope the stigma
completely. Dehiscence of the anthers occurs
before the opening of the flower is complete. Thus
the chances of natural crossing are considerably
reduced.

Seed Production
Linum usitatissimum is self- fertilized. Separation
from other crops of the same kind by a barrier or a
gap of 3 meters is needed to prevent mixture at
harvest. Where the cultivars to be grown for seed
are of different kinds a greater distance should be
provided. Fig. 17.10

171
 Floral Biology of Lentil

Genus: Lens
Species: culinaris
Family: Leguminosae
Sub family: Papilionaceae
Scientific name: Lens culinaris
Local name: Masur
Chromosome No. 2n=2x=14

‘Lens’ originates from the Latin word meaning disc-shape seed (Fig. 18.7). It is a
small genus comprising only six recognized species namely L. montbretii, L.
ervoides, L. nigricans. L.
orientalis, L. culinaris CROP VIEW
and L. odomensis. L.
culinaris is the only
cultivated species found
in Lentil. Lens culinasis
(Fig. 18.1) is divided
into two subspecies:

1. Macrosperma:
found mainly in
Mediterranean
region. The seeds
are large (6-9 Fig. 18.1
mm), have
yellow cotyledons and have little or no pigmentation in flower or
vegetative structure.

172
 2. Microsperma: Found mainly in Indian subcontinent. Smaller seed
(2-6 mm) with orange or yellow cotyledons. It has smaller convex pods,
leaf and leaflets.

Standard
Wings
Sepals
Standard

Keels

Sep Flowers in pair Peduncle

als Peduncle
Fig. 18.2
In India Lentil is cultivated in mid October to early November. It is nutritious and
is mainly consumed in the form of dal and as an ingredient in soups. It is also used
in textile and printing industries and young plants as fodder. The lentil seed
contains 12.4% moisture 0.7% fat , 59.7% Carbohydrate, 25.1% Protein and 2.1 %
ash.

The plant is branched, sub-erect,

slightly pubescent, annual, usually Standard
15-75 cm tall. The roots may be Keels
much branched, shallow root system
or slender tap root system or an
intermediate form. The stem is Wings
square and ribbed with several basal
branches. The leaves are alternate
with 4-7 pairs of opposite of
alternate, leaflets approx. 1.25 cm.
long.
Sepals
Inflorescence

Calyx and Corolla (Fig. 18. 6) Calyx

It is an axillary raceme with 1-4
flowers; with a slender peduncle
(Fig. 18.4). Rachis ends into a Peduncle
filiform apex, bracts are absent and
Fig. 18.3. Flower
pedicles are short. Calyx is
companulate; tube is about 1.5 mm
long, 5-lobed, narrow, sub-equal, about 3 mm long. Corolla may be white, pink,
purple or red in colour. Standard petal is hood shaped, broadly obovate, small,
about 5x4 mm, clawed, obcordate and mucronate at top. Wings are oblong to

173
obovate about 4.0 x 1.5 mm with a long claw, adhering to the keel, 4.0 x 2 mm,
entirely split dorsally, ventrally split near the base and clawed.

Androecium: (Fig. 18. 5). Stamens are

diadelphous (9+1), axillary stamen being free, Flower
gradually winged towards base. Staminal
sheath is about 2.5 mm long. Anthers are
basifixed, nearly spherical, about 0.2 mm in
diameter, light yellow in colour.
Peduncle
Gynoecium: (Fig. 18. 5). Ovary is sub sessile,
laterally compressed, about 3 mm long,
sparsely pubescent, with 2-3 ovules. Styles are
abruptly unturned, slightly flat, about 1-5 mm
long, glabrous, but hairy along the inner lower
surface of stigma. Stigma is spatulate,
swollen, and glandular papillate.
Axillary

Anthers
Fig. 18.4. Branch
Staminal column
Fruits: Pods are oblong, laterally
compressed, bulging over the seeds,
measuring 1.2 – 1.4 cm, rounded at base
with a short beak at tip, glabrous, with 1-
Sepal
3 seeds.
Free stamen

Mode of pollination: It is a self-

Androecium pollinated crop but cross pollination can
Fig. 18.5
also occur to little extent.
Stigma
Anthesis: Flowers begin to open at 8
Style a.m. to 10 a.m. and continue to do so till
Hairs noon and remain open the whole of that
night and the next day. It depends chiefly
on temperature and humidity.
Ovary

Flowering: Lentil requires long days for

Gynoecium flowering. It may start from 50th day.
Flowers are born on axillary racemes as
1, 2 or 3 to 4 flowers per node.

Seed: (Fig. 18. 7) Seeds are lens shaped, 4-8 mm in diameter. Co lour varies from
light gray, brown to grayish black. Cotyledons are yellow to orange.

174
 5 sub-equal
sepals

Calyx

STANDARD WINGS
Fig. 18.6

COROLLA KEELS

175
black

orange

green

Disc/lens shaped pulse grains/seeds

Fig. 18.7

176
 Floral Biology of Berseem

Family: Leguminosae
Genus: Trifolium
Species: Alexandrium
Chromosome no.-2n=16
Basic chromosome no. x=8.

Berseem (Fig. 19.1) is primarily grown as fodder crop in North India. It is a

multi-cut crop and
generally 4–6 cuts are
taken. It grows very
fast and provides
fodder for a longer
period. The fodder is
succulent.

Inflorescence: The
berseem (Fig. 19.2)
inflorescence is
racemose and
axillary. The flowers
are complete,
irregular, Fig. 19.1
zygomorphic and
polypetalous (Fig. 19.3, 19.8).The flower head is round to oblong with yellowish
colour. Colour may vary (Fig. 19.5).

Calyx: Sepals are 5 in number and form a tube that terminates into 5 lobes or
teeth. (Fig. 19.5, 19.8).

177
Corolla: A standard petal, two wing petals and two keel petals unite at the base to
form the corolla tube. The keel petals are straight, while standard and wings are
narrow shaped. (Fig. 19.5, 19.8)

Younger flowers
Younger flowers

Older flowers

Axil of leaf
Older flowers

Florets

Fig. 19.2

INFLORESCENCE OF BERSEEM

Androecium: (Fig. 19.4, 19.7 and 19.8) Stamens are 10 in number and in
diadelphous condition.
Gynoecium: (Fig. 19.4, 19.7 and 19.8). The gynoecium consists of
monocarpellary ovary which is superior and unilocular. The style is incurved and
stigma is oblique. Inside the corolla are 9 stamens and one stigma united into a
sexual column. The number of ovules per ovary varies from 1 to 4. Single seed is
formed in each floret.
Anthesis and Mode of Pollination
Berseem is generally a cross pollinated crop but self pollination do occur. The
stage of bloom for optimum seed set appears to be when each flower is about half
open. Stigma receptivity and pollen viability continue for 10 days with a gradual

178
 Wings and Keels enclosing
reproductive organs

Calyx Standard

Fig. 19.3

The flowers are complete, irregular, zygomorphic

and polypetalous. The flower head is round to
oblong with yellowish colour.

Reproductive organs Staminal

column

Fig. 19.4

Keel
FLORET
Calyx WITH
Wings
STANDARD
Forceps CUT AWAY

Sepals
Standard

Fig. 19.5
Wings

Keel

COROLLA CALYX

179
decrease each day. The fertilization takes place 28-32 hours after pollination.
Berseem is mainly pollinated by bees. If pollinating insects are present it sets

WHITE YELLOWISH ORANGE RED

CREAM RED

Fig. 19.6 WHITE

SHAPE AND COLOUR VARIATION OF BERSEEM

FLOWER
more than 70 seeds per head.

Emasculation: Emasculation is done by removal of corolla. The underside of

corolla is gripped with forceps at a point midway between the tips of calyx and the
tip of the standard. The corolla tube and attached anthers are removed leaving the
pistil intact.

For self incompatible genotypes water is sprayed over stigma to kill pollens that
may have dehisced prior to removal of corolla.

Pollination: The most favorable stage of pollination is soon after flower opening.
Pollination can be done at any time. Cross pollination of half open flowers results
in maximum seed set.

180
 Anthers

Staminal Column
Filament

Stigma
Style

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
Stigma
Style
Anthers

Filament

Staminal Column

Fig. 19.7

ANDROECIUM AND GYNOECIUM

Pollination can be done by two methods:

Manual Pollination- The pollen is removed from the male plant by inserting a
toothpick between standard and keel and applying downward pressure. This
causes staminal column to strike and adhere to the toothpick. Pollen is then

181
transferred from toothpick to female flowers. One collection of pollen usually
pollinates 10-15 emasculated flowers.

wings

stigma
anthers
Keel
9 stamens

standard petal
style

Fig. 19.8 calyx

Single stamen

ovary
ovule

BERSEEM FLOWER

Natural but Controlled Hybridization- Cross pollination is done by growing

two parents in a cage. Honeybees are introduced into cage to effect pollination and
thus seeds obtained are hybrid. The bees may be washed before introducing them
into cage. Washing causes the bursting of the pollen grains already sticking to the
insect body, thereby making them ineffective.

182
 Floral Biology of Green
Gram (Mungbean)

Common Name: Moongbean / Mungbean (Green gram)

Genus : Vigna
Species : radiata
Family : Leguminosae
Chromosome no : 2n = 22,24
Origin : India

Mungbean is herbaceous annual crop having a height from 30-100cm. Stem is

diffuse and branched. It is green or purple and covered with dense hairs. The
leaves are alternate, trifoliate with pointed leaflets subtended by small stipules.
There are two stipules at the base of petiole. The leaves are dark green. Green
gram is an excellent source of high quality protein. It contains about 25% protein.
Mung is also used as manuring crop. Being a leguminous crop, it has the capacity
to fix the atmosphere nitrogen. It also helps in preventing soil erosion. Mung is
cultivated in India, Burma, Ceylon, Pakistan, China, Fiji, Queens land of Africa.
In India, mung is grown in almost all the states. The important moong growing
states are Orrisa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pardesh, Madhya Pardesh, Gujarat,
Rajasthan & Bihar.

FLORAL BIOLOGY

Inflorescence: Small flowers are borne in capitate clusters on the ends of long
hairy peduncles.

Flower: The papilionaceous flowers are produced in short axillary racemes in

clusters of 9-15.

Calyx: The calyx comprises five sepals (Three large and free, two small and
fused).

183
Corolla: The corolla
Immature pods
consists of five petals, Main stem Calyx (Indeterminate growth)
papilionaceous (one
standard, two wings and
two keels united). The
standard is wide and
yellow. The keel is spirally
coiled.
Standard
Androecium: The
androecium is diadelphous Wings
(9+1).
Mung bean Inflorescence
(at green plant stage)
Gynoecium: The
gynoecium is Fertilized flower with corolla removed
monocarpellary with a (developing pod)

superior, unilocular ovary. Calyx (gamosepalous)

Standard
The style is twisted below (outer most
the stigmatic surface. The petal)

stigma is hairy and the Main stem

placentation is marginal.
Fertilized flower with
corolla (developing
Anthesis and Mode of pod)
Pollination Unfertilized
Self-pollination is the rule. pods

In about 50% of flower, the

buds do not open (i.e. they
are cleistogamous). The Fig. 20.1
flowers open in the early
morning, i.e. from 6-8 a.m.
The dehiscence, however,
takes place about 3-9 hours Undeveloped
pod
before the flower open.
Mature pod
Emasculation and
Pollination Dried flowers
Fertilization in mungbeen
occurs in the bud stage.
The age of the bud
appropriate for Mung bean Inflorescence
emasculation is indicated (at plant maturity)
by the appearance of the
corolla just above the calyx. Immature anthers can easily be removed at this stage
with a pair of forceps or with a needle. All the buds, except those which are to be

184
 Opened calyx
(gamosepalous)

Closed calyx
(gamosepalous)

Sepals (5)
Calyx Fig. 20.2

Corolla:
Wings

Corolla:
Keels

emasculated are removed. One day after emasculation, the anthers collected from
newly opened flowers of the male parent are gently rubbed on the stigma of the
emasculated flower. The petals of the emasculated flower are again brought to the
normal position.

SEED PRODUCTION

Isolation: Mung bean is fully self-fertile and almost entirely self pollinated.
Therefore isolation sufficient to prevent mixture at harvest is around 3 meters.

185
 Fig. 20.3
Reproductive Style
organs
anther

Stigma Filament

Staminal column
(9 fused anthers)

Reproductive anther Style (typically curved)

organs

Feathery Filament
Stigma

Staminal column
(9 fused anthers)

186
 Mature pod Pods
(ready to harvest)

Locule containing seed

Developing pod Mature open pod

Upper one third portion of mature pod

Mature Pod
(bursting)
Hair

Grain

Locule

Fig. 20.4

187
 Floral Biology of Barley

Family: Gramineae
Genus : Hordeum
Species: vulgare, distichum, irregulare.

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), one of the oldest of the cultivated cereals (Fig.
21.1), is widely grown in many climates of the world. Barley grows in the arid

CROP VIEW

Fig. 21.1

climates of the Sahara, the high plateaus of Tibet, and the tropical plains of India.
Much of the barley grown in America is used for livestock feed with about 30-
35% being used for malt to enter into the production of beverages or foods. There
are two theories regarding the origin of barley. According to first theory, centre of
origin is Abyssinia as many diverse forms grow wild there. According to another
theory, centre of origin is South Eastern Asia, particularly China, Tibet and Nepal.
Barley, through the slow adaptive processes of nature, has developed a diversity
of head and seed types, disease resistance, and quality characteristics.

The genus Hordeum comprises about 24 species. These include diploid,

tetraploid, and Hexaploid species.

188
FLORAL BIOLOGY:

A B C
Fig. 21.2: 6-rowed (B, with awns and C-awns removed; and
2-rowed (A) barley

Inflorescence (Fig. 21.2, 3, 4, 5):

The barley inflorescence is a spike with three spikelets borne at each node. In
most varieties the glumes are about one-half the length of the of lemma and
terminate in a slender awn. In the six-row types each spikelet bears a flower (Fig.
13.1A and B), but in the two-row types only the center spikelet at each node
bears a flower, the lateral spikelets being sterile or vestigal (Fig. 13.1C).

Barley may be 6-rowed or 3-rowed. Three spikelets are borne on each node or
joint of the rachis of a spike in a 6 row variety. Sexual parts are enclosed within
glume, lemma and palea. Glumes are usually one half of the length of lemma
and terminate in a slender awn. In six-rowed barley, each spikelet bears a flower,
whereas in two row barley only the central spikelet develops a flower. The pistil
bears a bifurcated feathery stigma. Three anthers are borne on long slender
filaments. The flower, like those of wheat and oats, is enclosed within a lemma
and palea (Fig. 13.1D). The pistil has a two-branched feathery stigma, and three
anthers are borne on long slender filaments. Flowering begins in the central
florets of the upper part of the spike and precedes both up and down the spike.

189
 Fig. 21.3

As anthesis approaches, the lodicules at the base of the ovary swell, the flower
opens, and the filaments elongate. The anthers dehisce as they emerge from the
flower, and pollen is spilled upon the stigma. Slight cross-pollination may result
if the flower opens before the anthers dehisce. During periods of high mean
temperatures the anthers usually dehisce before the spike emerges from the boot.

Fig. 21.4

Under these conditions cross-pollination seldom results. If artificial cross-

pollinations are made during periods of high mean temperatures, emasculation of
the anther must be done early in the development of the spike because the pollen

190
ripens so early.

Great care must be exercised to prevent the mutilation of the flower as it is very
tender at this stage. High percentages of seed set may be obtained in barley if the
emasculation and crossing procedures are carried out carefully.

The barley crop is Fig. 21.5

characterized by many
variations in spike and
awn characters. The six--
row and two-row species
are found. Many anthers
variations in the form of
the hoods and awns occur.
Some awnleted varieties
have short awns on the
center florets while the
lateral florets are
essentially awnless. Other
varieties are almost
completely awnless.
Smooth awned varieties
have been developed in
palea
which the awn is free of lemma
barbs. The hull adheres to
the seed (Fig. 21.6) in gynoecium
most commercial
varieties, but free- SPIKELET OF BARLEY
threshing hull-less or
naked barleys also exist.

Anthesis: Blooming starts in the ear of main shoot, followed by lateral shoots in
the order of their emergence. Blooming first appears in the central spikelets and
proceeds upward and downward gradually. Filaments elongate during anthesis and
the anthers emerge out from the flower. Blooming is maximum between 6 am and
8 am and 3 pm and 5 pm. Anthers dehisce just after emergence and shed pollen on
feathery stigma. Pollens lose their viability after two hours of the dehiscence.
Stigma remains receptive for 2 days after anthesis

Emasculation and pollination:

Selfing :
Natural selfing (self pollination) is a rule in barley. However, to ensure complete
selfing, parchment paper bags are used. The spike is enclosed in the bag after

191
clipping the awns as soon as the spike emerges out of the boot. Tagging and
libeling is done.

Emasculation and Pollination:

Emasculation:
Select spike which is just emerging
from the flag leaf. Remove central
Fig. 21.6
spikelet and retain two lateral
spikelets per node or joint of the
rachis of a spike in six-row
varieties. Retain a total of 20
spikelets on ten nodes in a
continuous series or in alternate
position in the middle portion of the
spike. Remove rest of the spikelets.
Cut one-fourth portion from the top
of each floret so that anthers
become visible. Remove anthers
with the help of fine pointed
forceps. Cover the emasculated
spike with a butter paper bag. Tag
and label it.

Pollination:
After 2 or 3 days of emasculation,
when stigma becomes feathery, pick
up the spikes from the desired male
parent which have just emerged
from the flag leaf and cut the top one-third of the spikelet. Expose this ear to
sunlight for 10-15 minutes, so that the anthers burst and pollen grains come out.
Make slight tapping of the ear by hand, when pollen mass becomes visible. The
pollen from this ear is dusted on all sides of the emasculated ear. Bag the
pollinated spike.
Barley is the major crop for feed and food in Northern areas of the world or at
high elevations where its short growing season makes it more dependable than
wheat or oats. In USA, it ranks 5th in the total production. Barley is the most
important cereal grain for malting because of special physical and chemical
properties.

Isolation requirements: The crop is generally self fertilized. Usually not more
than 0.15% cross pollination occurs. Pollination occurs while the head is in the
boot in many varieties. An isolation of 3m all around the field is considered
sufficient for maintaining varietal purity.

192
 Floral Biology of Cowpea

Family: Leguminosae
Sub-Family: Papilionaceae.
Tribe: Phaseolas.
Genus: Vigna
Species: Unguiculata (sinense)
Local name: Gomatar, Barbati
Common names: Black eye pea, catjang, chinapea, cowgram.
Related species: V. luteola, V. marina, V. nilotica.
Chromosome No: 2n = 22
Origin: India.

Cowpea [ Vigna
unguiculata
(sinense) ](Fig.
22.1, 22.7)
commonly known
as lobia is used as a
pulse, a fodder and
green manure crop
being rich in protein
and containing
many other
nutrients. On dry
weight basis
cowpea grains
contain 23.4% Fig. 22.1
protein, 1.8% fat
and 60.3% carbohydrates. The crop gives such a vegetative growth and covers the
ground so well that it checks the soil erosion in problem areas and later can be

193
ploughed in as green manure. The cowpea is highly palatable, very nutritious, and
relatively free of metabolites and other toxic principles. The seed particularly
contains protein (90 % of which is water insoluble globulins and 10 % water
soluble albumins), starch and vitamin.

Wings Developing
Standard Standard
pod after Stigma
fertilization Keels
Wings

Keels Calyx
Calyx
Anthers
Staminal
column
Standard
Anthers
Wings
Calyx
Stigma

COWPEA FLOWER
Keels (OPENED FROM FRONT)
PURPLE YELLOW WHITE

Staminal FLOWER COLOURS

column
Calyx

COWPEA FLOWER
(OPENED FROM FRONT)
Fig. 22.2
PARTS OF COWPEA FLOWER

Inflorescence It is composed of axillary racemes, with 2-12 flowers in each

peduncle. Peduncle is 4-30 cm long, glabrescent at top, purplish at base. Rachis is
glabrescent, tuberculate.

Flower (Fig. 22.2, 22.5)

It is bisexual, white, purple or pale violet. Fertile flowers are paired, laterally
inserted into a tubercle. Bracts are one per flower and deciduous, about 3-4 mm
long, fleshy at base, with ciliolate edge. The flower is complete with five sepals
and five petals. The keel petal is straight, the standard petal is whitish to violet in
colour, the stamens are 10 in numbers in which 9 are fused and 1 is free. The
ovary is multilocular, the style is right angled and pubescent, stigma is oblique.

194
The stigma becomes receptive one day before flower opening and remains
receptive up to noon on the day of anthesis.

Calyx (Fig. 22.3, 22.5)

The calyx is composed of five sepals, which are gamosepalous. The two are large
and three are small which makes 2+3 arrangement of sepals.

COROLLA
Sepals

Gamosepalous
STANDARD OPEN STANDARD CLOSED

Keels at flower bud stage Wings: a close-up

COROLLA

Fig. 22.3
Keels in mature flower

CALYX AND COROLLA OF COWPEA FLOWER

Corolla (Fig. 22.3, 22.5)

The corolla is composed of five petals same as in case of chick pea. It consists of
one large standard, two wings and two keels which are straight and purple in
color.

Androecium (Fig. 22.4, 22.5)

The androecium is diadelphous (9+1). The nine stamens are fused and one is free.

Gynoecium (Fig. 22.4, 22.5)

The style is right angled and is hairy on inner side, with a terminal stigma; the
ovary is monocarpellary with many ovules and is unilocular.
.

195
Fruit (Fig. 22.6, 22.7)
The pods are 20 -30 cm long, cylindrical and slightly curved, with a thick beak
slightly constricted between the seeds the seeds are variable in size and color.

Reproductive Organs
Free
stamen CLOSE-
CLOSE-UP
Free stamen Stigma

Anthers

Stigma & Style

Anthers
Staminal column

Reproductive Organs Staminal column

GYNOECIUM Style Style Ovary

(Close-up)

Hairy stylar top

Fig. 22.4
Stigma
Stigma Hairy stylar top
GYNOECIUM

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

Anthesis and Mode of Pollination

Self-pollination is the rule. In about 50% of the flowers the buds do not open (i.e.
they are cleistogamous). The flower opens in the early mornings, i.e. from 6 to 8
a.m., and may remain open till 11 a.m.. The dehiscence, however, takes place
about 3 to9 hrs before the flower opens.

Emasculation and Pollination

Fertilization occurs in the bud stage. The age of the bud appropriate for
emasculation is indicated by the appearance of the corolla just above the calyx.
Immature anthers can easily be removed at this stage with a pair of forceps or with
a needle. All the buds except those which are to be emasculated are removed. One
day after emasculation the anthers collected from the newly opened flowers of the

196
male parent are gently rubbed on the stigma of the emasculated flower. The petals
of the emasculated flowers are again brought to the normal position.

Another method of emasculation in cowpea requires removal of the entire corolla.

Wings

Standard Gynoecium

Cut here
Androecium

T.S. of
flower

Parts of flower Fig. 22.5

Then push a soda straw of optimum length over the pistil and pinch the upper end
of soda straw with adhesive tape. Tagging is done as usual.

Pollination: The mature anthers are collected in the next morning and pollination
is done by gently rubbing ripe anthers against the stigma of female flowers. After
applying the pollen, the soda straw should be replaced and left until fertilization is
completed.

197
 Developing grain
Ovary pealed off to see ovules (early stage)

Ovary pealed off to see ovules

Anothe
Half
half of
seed
Ovary pealed off to see ovules (close-up)
seed
Mature pod

Fig. 22.6
Pod pealed off to see grains (Close-up o

Flower

SPECIAL FEATURE

Abortion Problem: There is high rate of

abortion in cow pea, which can shed 70 Pods
to 80 % of its 100 to 500 flower buds
prior to anthesis. Only 6 to 16% of the
total flower buds produce mature fruits.

Fig. 22.7

198
 Floral Biology of Isabgol

Family : Plantaginaceae
Scientific Name : Plantago ovata (Plantagoinsularis)
Common Name : Desert Indian wheat, Desert Plantain
Chromosome No. : n=4, 2n=8

Plantago ovata forsk, commonly known as Isabgol (Desert Indian wheat) and
commercially as blond phyllium, is an important medicinal plant. Name of Isabgol
differs from place to place (see table).

Uses
The husk of the seed yields a colloidal mucilage which primarily consists of
xylose, arabinose and galacturonic acid. Galactose and rhamnose are also present.
The husk seed contains semi-drying oil, glycoside Audubon, tannin and inactive
principle resembling ace tylcholine. Seed husk is used in anti inflammatory,
gastrointestinal and genitor-urinary disorders, and is astringent mildly demulcent,
diuretic, emollient and laxative. It is also used in chronic cases such as
constipation of varied etiology, diarrhea specially of hill origin and of children,
dysenteries of amoebic and bacillary origin in piles, decoction in cough and cold.

Occurrence and Distribution

Plantago ovata forsk require cool and dry weather and sandy soils. It is cultivated
in plains of North Gujarat, Punjab plains and the Utter Pradesh. It is also
cultivated in Sind, Baluchistan-West wards to Spain and the Canary Island.

Chemical constituents
Planteose, raffinose, stachyose, sucrose (all in stem, root), fructose, glucose,
mucilage containing arabinose, galactose, galacturonic acid, rhamnose and
xylose, aucubin etc.

199
Plant morphology and flower biology (Fig. 23.1, 23.2, 23.3)

Fig. 23.1

ISABGOL PLANTS
Plantago ovata is an annual herb, a small stemless plant covered with dense or
soft hairy growth. Plant attains a height of 30-45cm. Leaves are filiform or
narrowly linear, 10-20cm long, entire or distantly toothed, attenuated at the base,
usually 3-nerved. It has a large number of flowering, shoots arising from the main
stem.

Inflorescence (Fig. 23.2, 23.3)

Inflorescence of P. ovata is a spike made up of many florets. The flowers are
sessile, small, bisexual and crowded on the main axis scapes longer or shorter than
the leaves, glabrous or pubescent. Spike is cylindrical, ovate to oblong in shape. It
is 1-4 cm long and is borne at the tip of long wooly peduncle that arises from the
axils of the leaf. Subtending each flower is a large broadly ovate or sub orbicular
membranous except the narrow midrib bract with a green colored keel. It is 4 mm
long, concave, glabrous.

200
Calyx (Fig. 23.2)
Calyx is about 3 mm long, usually glabrous. The flower possesses four free
oblong ovate sepals which is elliptic, obtuse, concave, scarious except midrib
which is as broad in the inner as in the outer sepals.

Fig. 23.2

ISABGOL INFLORESCENCE
Corolla
Corolla is gamopetalous with a papery tube and spreading limb of four rounded
ovate, macronate segments.
Androecium
There are four exerted stamens with long filaments and largely versatile anther
which dehisce by longitudinal slits.

201
 ISABGOL FLOWER

Fig. 23.3

Gynoecium
Ovary is superior having two cells with single rule in each cell. Style is slender,
pabillate, exserted with simple stigma. Flowers open in basipetal succession.
Being protogynous the gynoeciums of the bottom most flower mature first,

202
protruding its stigma through the tip of the unopened flower and thus favouring
out crossing. The androecium matures latter.

ISABGOL SEED Fig. 23.4

The fruit
The fruit is an ellipsoid capsule obtuse, the upper half coming off as a blunt
conical lid, membranous, glabrous, about 8mm long containing 2-3 mm long,
boat-shaped, smooth rosy-white, ovoid-oblong seeds. The concave side of the
seed is covered with a thin white membrane, produced by fusion of outer layer of
ovule together with the inner epidermis, forming the seed coat. The seed
epidermis is made of polyhedral cells whose wall is thickened by a secondary
deposit, which is the source of mucilage. The coating of the seed provides the
husk on mechanical milling.

Summary:

P. ovata requires cool and dry weather and sandy soils. The seeds are sown during
November-December. The crop comes in flowering at about 60 days after sowing
and the flowering in completed in next 8-17 days in a spike. Flowers and fruits
are born during January-April. The stigma is single with a pointed open in the
bud; on opening of flower, it splits into two and become receptive as it protrudes

203
out of the bud, reaching up to its open. Anthers in the flower come to dehiscence
in about 48 hours after the emergence of stigma. The occurrence of short styled
flowers have also been reported in P. ovata and their stigma appears to be single
in bud stage having pointed apex covered with hairs. But next day when flower
open, it splits into two in the long styled flowers, the stigma becomes receptive in
48 hrs before anther dehiscence. But in short style of flower stigma receptivity
synchronizes with the time of anther dehiscence. Thus the long styled flowers
were protogynous.

It has also been observed that stigma of P. ovata flowers remains receptive for a
pretty long period. On an average 38.55% stigma were found receptive between
7.30 to 8.30 a.m. in the early morning and about 47.53% in the evening hours
between 17.00 to 17.30 p.m.; it decreases to 2.98 % at noontime. However, the
anthesis is largely (84.61 %) confined to early morning hours of 7.30 to 8.30 a.m.
and only 13.74 % was found to occur between 9:30 to 10:20 a.m.

204
 Floral Biology of Jojoba

Family: Simmondiaceae
Common Name: Jojoba Fig. 24.1 Male Plant
Genus: Simmondisia
Species: chinensis
Scientific Name:
Simmondsia chinensis

Introduction:
Jojoba (Fig. 24.1) is an oil
yielding plant and pronounced Male flowers
as HO-HO-BA. It is native to
the triangle of Sonaran desert
of Mexico, California and
Arizona. It is found growing naturally in sandy soils, stony and gravel lands of
these areas. In India it was introduced about two decades ago and its cultivation
has been successfully tried in Rajasthan. Jojoba plant is an evergreen long living
bush with a life span up to 200 years. It is a slow growing shrub, which attains a
height of 3-5 meters.
Jojoba oil and its derivatives are used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, lubricant,
foods, electrical insulators, foam control agents, high pressure lubricants heating
oils, plasticizers fire retardants and transformer oils. Jojoba oil is also a source of
long chain alcohols with double bond in slightly different configuration from
those in other natural fatty acids. It is also used for skin disorder to reduce
inflammation as a cream for sunburn and chapped hands.

Floral Biology:
Jojoba bushes are either male or female (dioecious) (Fig. 24.4). Tendencies
towards hermaphroditism are noted in a few male bushes. These produce all
grades of perfect flowers from those with an undeveloped pistil to those with a
complete ovary that can even yield fertile seed. Typically flowering occurs at

205
 Female Plant

Pedicel
Female flower
Calyx

Stigma

Seed formation

Three partitioning of stigma

Fig. 24.2

Fruit Mature Fruit

FEAMLE FLOWERS
alternate nodes along the branches, although some plants produce flowers at each
node and others produce them at every third node (Fig. 24.5).

Male Plant:
In the male plant flowers are born in clusters and the number of flower varies
from 7 to 36 per cluster (Fig. 24.3). The males produce pollen and flowers

206
 Male flowers

Male flowers
Fig. 24.3 At bloom

Sepals
Anthers
Male flower
Male flowers
Parts of male flower fully open

containing only stamens. The females produce the fruit and seeds and have
flowers containing one ovary with three ovules. These are commonly solitary and
have no petals or odors to attract insect (Fig. 24.2).

Sex determination: (Fig. 24.4, 24.6)

The sex of a young jojoba plan cannot be judged until the first flower bud appears.
In precocious individuals this may be in the summer of first year whereas in slow
plant this may take until the forth year. In one of the studies it has been shown that
male plants grow faster than females during early years, whereas, females grow
faster in later years. However it still needs confirmation.

Mode of Pollination
Jojoba is a cross-pollinated crop and mostly depends upon wind for pollination.
Although honeybees and a variety of other insect are often seen foraging for
pollens on male or on the hermaphroditic flowers they rarely visit female flowers.

Anthesis (Fig. 24.6)

Flower bud appears on current season’s growth, mainly the summer and the fall.
They usually open in the following spring. This flowering is triggered by the
stress of cold or drought or both. The fruits are greenish at first and turn brown as
they mature. They contain one seed occasionally, two or three.

207
 Fruiting
branch
from
female
plant

Male
inflorescence

Stigma is tricarpellary

Ovary
Stigma is
tricarpellary
or
tetracarpellary
Fig. 24.4

REPRODUCTIVE
ORGANS
OF JOJOBA

Pollen Viability:
Pollen viability is very high, however, it varies from genotype to genotype. Pollen
stored at room temperature were successfully used up to 45 days for pollinating
stigmas of female flowers. However, stigma receptivity is for few hours only.
Longer pollen viability is of great use in jojoba. Pollen of desired parent can be
transported at normal temperature for use in breeding programmes at distant
places.

208
 Typically flowering occurs at
alternate nodes along the
branches, although some plants
produce flowers at each node
and others produce them at
Fig. 24.5
every third node.
Seeds (Fig. 24.6).
Jojoba seeds are far larger than coffee seeds, and their size and shape are not
uniform. Of more than 350,000 identified plant species, jojoba is the only one that
produces significant quantities of liquid wax esters akin to the natural restorative
esters produced by human sebaceous glands. The extractable liquid content of our
matured jojoba seeds ranges from 50% to 54%, by weight.

209
 Fig. 24.6

Parts of seed
OJOBA
Floral Biology

Male
flower

PLANT CANOPY

ANTHESIS

Female
flower
Different stages
of grain maturity

Female Female Branch Seed

flower

Male
Flower
ANTHESIS Mature Grain Mature Grain

210
 Floral Biology of Guayule

Family: Compositae
Genus: Parthenium
Species: argentatum
Chromosome No. 2n=36-100 or more
Scientific name: Parthenium argentatum Gray

More than 2,000 species of plants

can produce rubber, but guayule Crop view
(Parthenium argentatum) (Fig.
25.1, 25.3) is the only one other
than Hevea (tree) which has had
commercial success, dating to the
first decade of the twentieth
century, when guayule rubber
producers operated along the U.S.-
Mexican border. Recently, renewed
interest has developed because of
the discovery that guayule rubber Fig. 25.1
has a protein content one-fifth that
of the Hevea natural rubber plant. Crop view

Guayule latex is unlikely to cause

widespread sensitization associated
with Hevea latex and is safe for
people with latex allergies. This
means that guayule users are far
less likely to develop latex allergies
and, if already allergic, are safe
from adverse reactions. In addition,
research performed by USDA and private industry is finding uses for the 85 to 90

211
 inflorescence

leaves

branch

view from top

(inflorescence)
inflorescence
floret

BRANCH OF GUAYULE Fig. 25.2

BEARING FLOWERS

percent of the guayule shrub that remains after latex extraction. For example, the
recent study showed the guayule fibers to contain a type of natural pesticide to
termites and, in addition, to be anti-fungal.

The Maricopa Agricultural Center, in cooperation with the USDA-ARS, has

maintained and evaluated plantings of guayule, the Chihuahuan desert-native
shrub, for the past 10 to 15 years. medical and surgical products with non-
allergenic properties. Yields average 1,000 pounds of guayule rubber per acre
worth 40 cents per pound. In AZ, a pilot plant is designed to handle 750 tons of

212
biomass in anticipation of producing natural latex; if successful, then plans to
expand production to NM and TX.

flowers
(inflorescence)

Flowering in guayule
Fig. 25.3
flowers
(inflorescence)

Flowering in guayule

Guayule is a member of the sunflower family, compositae, and belongs to the

genus Parthenium. There are 16 species of Parthenium: guayule is Parthenium
argentatum, so named because of a silvery shine on its gray-green leaves. It is the
only Parthenium species known to produce rubber in large quantity.

A bushy perennial shrub, (Fig. 25.3) guayule has narrow leaves, covered in a
drought-protecting white-wax, that alternate along the stem, and a canopy of small
flowers borne on exceptionally long stems. Usually only about 2 feet (60 cm)

213
high, it is long-lived and hardy; it may survive 30 or 40 years under desert
conditions where annual rainfall may be less than 10 in. (250 mm).

Native to a semiarid area in north-central Mexico and southern Texas, guayule

occurs in stands scattered throughout 130,000 sq miles (337,000 sq km) of the
Chihuahuan Desert and surrounding regions. In the United States, the shrub is
found wild in the Trans Pecos area (Stockton Plateau and Big Bend region of
southwestern Texas).

Mode of Pollination: Guayule flowers (Fig. 25.2) are pollinated by wind and by
insects. The tiny seeds are produced at a prolific rate; a plant can yield several
thousand seeds after a single rainfall. Vigorously growing plants bloom and set
seed continuously throughout summer and fall. If stored carefully the seeds can
remain viable for several decades; some 20 year-old seed were planted in Israel
with over 90 per cent germination. Flowers and seeds are produced as early as six
months after germination.

Guayule is usually propagated by nursery-grown seedlings, though grafts and

cuttings can be successful. Young seed requires a simple treatment to break
dormancy.

Guayule has much inherent genetic variability and is amenable to genetic

improvement. Individual plants with chromosome numbers of 2n=36 to 100 or
more are known. The guayule types of 2n=36 are completely sexual and
reproduce in the usual way, involving pollination (double fertilization). The
guayule plants of higher chromosome numbers reproduce without requiring
double fertilization (these are termed “apomicts”). Many guayule populations
reproduce apomictically, that is, the embryo of their seed arises from a non-
fertilized nucleus and thus reproduces a plant that is genetically identical to the
parent.

With sexual types the plant breeder can develop hybrids with useful
characteristics. These hybrid plants can then be induced into apomictic forms to
replicate the characteristics of hybrid, generation after generation. This facilitates
guayule breeding.

Crossability: Guayule can be hybridized with other Parthenium species, e.g., P.

incanum, P. tomentosum, and P. srtamonium. Hybrids can be sexual or apomitic.
The hybrids with P. stramonium and P. tomentosum in particular show
considerable promise for improving guayle, for the hybrids are much bigger plants
than guayule and some of them contain rubber. Crosses with P. incanum offer
opportunities for greater cold tolerance. Crosses with other Parthenium species
have also been tried.

214
 Floral Biology of Ocimum
(Tulsi)

Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Ocimum
Species: basilicum
Chromosome No.:
Scientific Name: Ocimum basilicum L.

Habitat - Cultivated
but occasionally
escaped to waste
ground.
Inflorescenc
Origin - Native to Asia
and Africa.

There are many

different varieties of
basil (commonly called
Tulsi in India and is
worshiped for its
qualities, medicinal and
religious) in
cultivation. All are
delicious. This species
is often planted in
gardens along with
tomatoes, Lycopersicon
esculentum, and the
two are essential in
good Italian sauces. Fig. 26.1: Inflorescence of Ocimum

Stems – Up to 0.75m

215
Source: www.missouriplants.com/Whiteopp/Ocimum_basili...

Calyx
Petals

Anthers

Fig. 26.2

Calyx Petals

Anthers

Fig. 26.3: Completely opened flower

tall, 4-angled, glabrous or sparsely hairy, branching, herbaceous, strongly

aromatic.

Leaves - Opposite, petiolate, glabrous, entire or with a few coarse teeth,

lanceolate, lanceolate-ovate or ovate.

216
Inflorescence - Terminal clusters of whorled flowers (vertcilillasters).

Source: www.missouriplants.com/Whiteopp/Ocimum_basili...

Mature seeds

Fig. 26.4: Mature seeds in the inflorescence.

Flowers - Corolla white, bilabiate, up to 1cm long. Stamens exerted beyond

corolla.
Calyx - 5-lobed, upper lobe expanded into a lid or cap over others.
Flowering - July - October.
Seed – Mature seeds remain dormant for some time, however, it can be sown
throughout year in pots as an ornamental plant. But its successful commercial
cultivation is possible when sown with the onset of monsoon in July.
A few more pictures of Ocimum species have been given below:

217
 INFLORESCENCE OF OCIMUM
Inflorescence is raceme, flowers are present on each node, and are pedicellate.
Inflorescence is present in the axil of leaf (see above figure).

Flowers may be pink or purple (see figures below). They bear yellow anthers (4)
with white filaments. Stigma is bifurcated non-feathery.

Each floret has five petals, 4 in gamopetalous condition and one is free. (See
figures below). Calyx is spiny. Four sepals have spine at its tip and one (5th) is
spineless.

218
 P
A
R
T

O
F

I
N
F
L
O
R
E
S
C
E
N
C
E

O
F

O
C
I
M
U
M

219
FLOWER OF OCIMUM

220
ANDROECIUM OF OCIMUM

221
222
CALYX OF OCIMUM
223
 Floral Biology of Castor

Family : Euphorbiaceae
Scientific name : Ricinus communis Linn.
Genus :Ricinus
Species.: communis
Related species R. chinensis
R. zanzibarensis
R. cambogensis
R. africanus
R. mexicanus Fig. 27.1
Chromosome No.: 2n = 20

Castor (Fig. 27.1, 27.2, 27.5) is an annual or perennial oilseed originating in East
Africa, especially Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, it can be found on waste land there in all
but the driest places. The plant has a substantial tap root with many lateral branches
which can reach a great depth. Annual cultivated varieties reach a height of 0.9 - 1.5m
whilst natural perennial varieties can grow as tall as 6m. As a species, the plants are
very variable. Leaves are large, glossy and green with pointed lobes and prominent
veins, each develops on a long stalk Castor is a semi-tropical perennial crop but
grows in warm temperate and tropical regions. Castor requires a temperature of 20° to
26°C with low humidity. It requires rainfall range of 400 to 750 mm. Soils slightly
acidic in reaction that is pH 5.0 to 6.5 are preferred, but castor can tolerate upto pH
8.0. Saline soils are unsuitable for castor growth. The caster plant seed and oil have a
number of uses as:
• Large quantity of castor oil is used in paints and varnish industry.
• Used for the production of wetting agents, detergents, sebacic acid, secondary
octyl alcohol, heptaldehyde etc.

224
• Castor oil is traditionally associated with medicinal and veterinary uses for the
treatment of obstetrics, dermatology etc.
• It is the chief raw material for the production of synthetic resins and fibres; as a
lubricant, in soap industry; turkey red dying and finning textiles, carbon paper,
ointments. An unusual use of castor plant is in Plant Cytogenetics

Inflorescence (Fig. 27.3,

27.4)
The inflorescences are
borne on the main, lateral
and tertiary branches.
The inflorescence on the
main stem is known as
primary candle or spike.
The spike consists of
unisexual flowers, male
flowers known as
staminates which are
grouped at the base and
female flower known as Fig. 27.2
pistillars / pistillate and
are located on the upper
part of the inflorescence
i.e. the plant is
monoecious. Stigma is
divided into 3 branches
towards its upper portion.
Each one is further
divided into 2-pink
fleshy lobes with
papillate surface. Ovary
is covered usually with
fleshy, green spiky
outgrowth. The
percentage of staminate and pistillar / pistillate flowers varies and can be
altered by selection procedure.

This species is clearly monoecious (Fig. 27.4) , with separate male and female

225
flowers on the
same individual. Fig. 27.3
There are no
petals and each
female flower
consists of a
little spiny ovary
(which develops
into the fruit or
seed capsule),
and a bright red
structure with
feathery
branches (stigma
lobes) that
receives pollen
from male
flowers. Each
male flower
consists of a
cluster of many
stamens which
literally smoke
as they shed
pollen in a gust
of wind.

Anthesis and
Mode of
Pollination
Castor is a cross
pollinating plant
but unlike other
cross pollinating
plant, it is
inclined towards
some amount of
self-pollination.
The female flowers open before the male flowers and hence there is a

226
 Both male
and female
flowers are
present on
the same
inflorescence
Fig. 27.4

227
Fig. 27.5

228
 Fig. 27.6

large degree of cross-pollination. The flowering period may be long. The fruits are
spherical capsules which become hard and brittle. The seed capsule has thick walls, is
spiny and contains 3 coci (Fig. 27.6, 27.7). Each cocus contains one seed. The period
of opening of male flower is longer than that of female flower. The flowering period
of one flower lasts for one to two days. The flight of pollen is observed from 7-8 a.m.
to 6-7 p.m. in the evening, but the most intensive flight occurs from 9 a.m. to 1-2 p.m.
Anthers open quickly at this time forming a pollen cloud.

229
 Castor bean fruit (Ricinus communis): The spiny,
globose seed capsule (left) dries and splits into 3
sections called carpels (center). Each carpel (right)
splits open and forcibly ejects a large seed.
Source: wanesword.palmar.edu/plmar9.htm

Fig. 27.7

The pollen of castor retains its viability for a long time. The viability of fresh
collected pollen is around 80 %; within two days of storage under room condition it is
lowered to 75 %; within five days it is 50 % and after 20 days it becomes 25%.

Artificial pollination:
Emasculation is not required because the species is monoecious. Before application of
pollen, the raceme on which the female flower is located should be carefully checked
and any interspersed staminate on hermaphroditic flowers removed.

When stigma are well exposed, the pistillate flowers can easily be pollinated by
dusting pollen on the stigmatic branches. One staminate flower can be used to
pollinate several pistillate flowers.

The raceme is covered with a bag immediately after pollen is applied. Unless
exceptionally hot or wet weather follows pollination seed set should be nearly 100%.

230
 Floral Biology of
Sesamum (Til)

Family : Pedaliaceae
Genus : Sesamum
Species : indicum

In addition to the cultivated species S. indicum, two wild species, S. prostratum and
S. laciniatum of sesamum (til) (Fig. 28.1, 28.2) are found in India.

Fig. 28.1

231
Chromosome Number:
The somatic chromosome number of S. indicum is 2n = 26, n = 13. There are 3
broad groups.

Sr. No.. Scientific name Chromosome Number Group

1 S. indicum, S. alabum 2n = 26 Group I
2 S. prostratum, S. lacimatum 2n = 32 Group II
3 S. radiatum, S. accidentale 2n = 64 Group III

The generic name Sesamum was derived by Hippocrates from the Arabic ‘Sensin’.
Sesame also called ‘Til” or “Gingelli” is one of the oldest of the cultivated oil seed
crops.

India occupies the first place both in regard to acreage and production. It figures out
to be 40% of world production with China at 2nd place. Nearly 60% of world’s
acreage is in India, Burma and Pakistan. In India, crop is grown chiefly in the central
states both as rabi and kharif crops. China, Sudan, and Mexico are the other
important sesamum growing countries. India contributes about 25% of total output. In
India, cultivation is mainly confined to Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

Sesame seeds provide an important source of cooking oil as well as being eaten
directly as food. The oil is nearly colourless, odourless and remains liquid at low
temperature and for this reason may be used as salad oil in cool climate. It may be
used to absorb the fragrant essence of sweet scented flowers as a base for perfume. It
finds a number of medicinal uses. The oil cake is an edible cake. It is also used as
cattle feed especially for milch animals. It can be used as manure.

Inflorescence (Fig. 28.2, 28.3)

The inflorescence is raceme and the flowers arise in the axils of the leaves and on the
upper portion of the stem and branches.

Flowers (Fig. 28.2, 28.3)

Flowers develop singly in the leaf axils on the upper portion of the stem and branches
as a cluster up to 8 in number but normally 2-3 in number or singly. When borne
single, two lateral flowers are observed as rudimentary buds (nectarial glands) at the
base of fully developed one. They are invariably pilose and show a fair range of
variability in size, colour and marking on the inside of the corolla tube. Flowers are
borne on very short pedicel. Two short linear bracts arise at the base of the pedicel

232
 Fig. 28.2

233
 Fig. 28.3

SESAMUM FLOWRS
just below the nectaries which are shed when flowers mature.

234
Corolla
Fig. 28.4

235
 Fig. 28.5

236
Fig. 28.6

237
 Fig. 28.7

238
Calyx (Fig. 28.4)
Calyx lobes are short, velvety, narrow, acuminate and united at the base. The 5 lobes
are of variable sizes, lower are longer than upper ones.

Corolla (Fig. 28.4)

The flower is zygomorphic with slightly bilabiate tubular corolla of 5 lobes. The
upper lip of the corolla is entire, the lower divided into 3 of which the central is
longest. Corolla colour is usually white or pale pink but purple colour is also
observed. The inner surface of Corolla tube may have red spots or the linear portion
only, may be black spotted or occasionally with purple or yellow blotches.

Androecium (Fig. 28.4)

Stamens are attached with the tube of Corolla. Of the 5 stamens, 4 are functional and
5th either sterile or completely lacking. The 4 greenish white functional stamens are
arranged in pairs, one pair being shorter than the other. Anther cells are two, opening
longitudinally, connective usually gland tipped.

Gynoecium (Fig. 28.4, 28.6, 28.7)

Ovary is superior, usually two celled. Cells often completely or partially divided by
false septa. The style is terminal, filiform and simple. Stigma is usually two lobed
and hairy.

Anthesis and Mode of pollination

The flowers open early in the morning, wilt in the mid day and usually shed in the
evening. Self-pollination is the rule but considerable natural cross pollination takes
place by the insects.

239

ACROPETAL SUCCESSION
Flowering starts from the base and
proceeds towards the apex in a
longitudinal plane. e.g. racemose
type of inflorescence (Brassica,
Sarson).
ACTINOMORPHIC/REGULAR
Flowers with radial symmetry,
which can be divided in many
median planes into similar halves,
e.g. Brassica / Sarson.
ALLOGAMY
Cross-pollination e.g. maize, bajra
etc.
ANDROECIUM
The whorl of stamens, collective
name of male reproductive part of
the flower.
ANTHER
Enlarged upper portion of the
stamen, which contains pollen
grains.
240
GLOSSARY
ANTHESIS
The act of flowering and the period
of opening of a flower.
APETALOUS FLOWER
It is the condition of flower without
petals e.g. wheat, rice, bajra etc.
AXILLARY
It means in the axil.
AUTOGAMY
It is the condition of self-fertilization
e.g. gram, wheat, rice etc.
AWN
A stiff bristle like appendage.
Collectively known as bread.
AXIAL
Belonging to the axis.
BASIPETAL SUCCESSION
Flowering starts from the apex and
proceeds towards the base e.g.
cymose type of inflorescence (rice).
BISEXUAL/HERMAPHRODITE/P
ERFECT
Presence of both sexes i.e.
androecium and gynoecium in a
flower.
BASIC NUMBER (x)
Haploid number of chromosomes
in the ancestral diploid.
BRACT
Leaf in the axil of which a flower
arises.
BRACTEOLE
A bract on the floral axis.
CALYX
The outer whorl of sepals.
CHASMOGAMY
Dehiscence of anthers before the
opening of flower, e.g. in wheat
and some time in rice.
CLEISTOGAMY
Condition of flowers in which they
never open ensuring self
fertilization e.g. rice, sometimes in
gram, wheat, groundnut etc.
COMPLETE FLOWER
Flower containing all the four
whorls of sepals, petals stamens
and carpals e.g. cotton, sarson,
gram.
CONNECTIVE
The mid- rib connecting two anther
lobes with the filament.
241
COROLLA
Whorl of petals (inner to sepals)
CROSS-POLLINATION
Transfer of pollen from the anthers
of flower of one plant to the stigma
of flower of another plant of same
species.
CLAW
Long narrow base of sepals or
petals. e.g. in Brassica spp.
CRUCIFORM
Corolla polypetalous, 4 petals,
each differentiated into a claw and
a limb, and these are arranged in
the form of a cross e.g. Brassica.
CULTIVAR
Cultivated variety.
CYME/CYMOSE
Type of inflorescence in which the
growth of the main axis or lateral
axis is soon checked by the
development of a flower at the
apex, e.g. wheat, barley.
DEHISCENCE
The bursting open of an anther for
the discharge of pollen.
DETASSEL
Removal of tassel (e.g. Maize).
DIADELPHOUS
Stamens are in tow groups of 9+1
i.e. filaments of nine stamens are
fused to form one group and one
stamen remains free, e.g. Gram,
pea. EPIPETALOUS
Borne on or arising from the petals
DIOECIOUS or corolla.
When the male and the female
flowers are born by two separate EXSERTED
plants, e.g. date palm, banana, Projection outwards as anther
papaya, spinach etc. project beyond the petals, glumes.

DIPLOID
(2n) Organism or cell comprised of
two sets of homologous
chromosome complements in the
somatic cells i.e. having 2x number
of chromosomes.
FERTILITY
Ability to produce viable sex cells.
FERTILIZATION
Union of morphologically dissimilar
male and female sex cells.

DICHOGAMY FILAMENT
The ripening of male and female Stalk of the stamen.
parts of a flower at different times.
FLORET
EBRACTEATE A small flower from an
Without bracts. inflorescence.

EAR FLOWER
A large, dense and heavy spike, as Cluster of organs directly or
that of maize. indirectly involved in the
reproduction through the formation
EGG of seed.
The female gamete or germ cell.
FRUIT
EMASCULATION A matured ovary or a group of
Removal of stamens before the matured ovaries.
bursting of anthers.
GAMETE
Sex cell/a mature male or female
EPIGYNY reproductive cell. Gametes are
The condition in which sepals, haploid.
petals and stamens are present
above the ovary i.e. ovary is GAMOSEPALOUS
inferior. Sepals are united at least at the
base e.g. gram.

242
 maize, cucumber, date palm, and
GLUME papaya.
Green small bract enveloping
flowers of gramineae family. Two INCOMPLETE FLOWER
empty bracts at the base of each Which lacks one or more of the
spikelet, e.g. wheat. floral whorls e.g. wheat, rice,
maize.
GLABROUS
Non-hairy or smooth. INFLORESCENCE
A flowering shoot or flowers born in
GYNOECIUM cluster, e.g. sunflower, onion.
Collective name for the carpals.
KEEL
HAPLOID Anterior petals in papilionaceae
Gametic number. family.

HERKOGAMY
Mechanical obstruction to
pollination.
HYPOGYNY
When the ovary occupies highest
position on the thalamus, the
stamens, petals, and sepals are
successively inserted downward
(ovary superior) e.g. wheat, gram.
HETEROSTYLY
The presence of styles of varying
length in different plants of the
same species.
HOMOGAMY
When both male and female
reproductive organs mature at the
same time.
IMPERFECT FLOWER
(UNISEXUAL)
Which bears either of the stamens
and carpals but not both e.g.
LANCEOLATE
Wide above the base and tapering
to the apex, e.g. in gram sepals are
lanceolate.
LEMMA
The lowermost bract enclosing a
floret in grass family. It may bear
awn or awn less.
LODICULE
Scale-like structure at the base of
the ovary, two in each floret of a
grass spikelet. These swell at the
time of anthesis and help in flower
opening.
MALE-STERILITY
Pollen is non-functional or absent.
MONADELPHOUS
A single bundle of united filaments.

243
MONOECIOUS
A plant bearing both male and
female flowers e.g. maize, caster,
cucumber.
NODE
A point on the main stem from
where the leaf arises.
OUTCROSSING
Cross-pollination or vicinism.
OPEN POLLINATION
Pollination without control.
OVARY
The expanded basal portion of
pistil having the ovules. Ovules are
attached to the ovary with a
structure known as placentae.
OVULE
Egg or female gamete present in
ovary, which becomes seed after
fertilization.
PALEA
Presents opposite to lemma in a
floret present in the spikelet of
spike, membranous, scale like awn
less structure, covering from one
side the reproductive organs of
flower (floret).
PANICLE
A compound inflorescence with
pedicilate flowers.
PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWER
5 petals (one standard is exterior
and largest, two wings are lateral
244
ones, the two keels are the
smallest and innermost).
PARIANTH
A collective term for calyx and
corolla.
PEDUNCLE
Stalk of a flower duster or
inflorescence.
PETIOLE
Stalk of a leaf.
PEDICAL
Stalk of a flower in an
inflorescence.
PEDICILATE
Flower possessing a stalk.
PERFECT
Hermaphrodite or bisexual
flower/both androecium’s and
gynoecium present in a flower.
PISTIL/CARPEL
The seed-bearing organ in the
flower composed of the ovary, the
style, and the stigma.
PISTILLATE
When stamens are absent in a
flower.
POLLEN GRAIN
Male gametophyte which originates
from a microspore. Minute powder
like grains contained in the anther.
POLLINATION
Transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma.
POLYADELPHOUS
Stamens united by filaments into
numerous bundles.
POLYANDRY
Infinite number of stamens in a
flower.
POLYGEMOUS
Bearing unisexual and bisexual
flowers on the same plant.
PROTANDRY
Anthers maturing earlier than
stigmas become receptive e.g.
cotton, marigold.
PROTOGYNY
Gynoecium matures prior to anther
dehiscence, e.g. bajra.
PUBESCENT
Hairy.
PERIGYNY
(Ovary half inferior) when the
thalamus forms a cup like it and
carrying sepals, petals and
stamens/Receptacle in concave
shaped at the bottom of which
ovary is present. To the edge
structure enclosing the ovary but
remaining free from s of the
receptacle, sepals, petals and
stamens are attached.
245
POLYPETALOUS
It means that petals are free e.g.
gram, cotton, sarson.
POLYSEPALOUS
When sepals are, free from each
other e.g. sarson.
RACEMOSE/RACEME
Inflorescence of indefinite type in
which the oldest flowers are lower
most e.g. sarson.
RACHIS
The main axis of an inflorescence
or the axis of a pinnately
compound leaf to which leaflets are
attached.
SELF-POLLINATION
Transfer of pollen from an anther to
the stigma of same flower.
SESSILE
Devoid of stalk i.e. stalk is absent
e.g. wheat spieled.
SPIKE
Inflorescence in which sessile
flowers are arranged along a
longitudinal axis, with oldest
flowers at the base and youngest
near the apex. E.g. wheat, barley.
SPIKELET
A unit of inflorescence in grasses
composed of culms, rachilla and
the florets.
STAMEN which in turn covers the two interior
A male organ of flower, consisting ones (keels), e.g. gram, pea, arhar.
of filament, connective and an
anther. VALVATE TYPE AESTIVATION
when the sepals or petals do not
STAMINATE overlap but lie close to each other
When carpals are absent in a by their margins.
flower.
X
STYLE Basic number of chromosomes.
Stalk connecting ovary and stigma.
ZYGOMOROHIC/IRREGULAR
SYNCARPOUS Flower, which is divisible into two
When carpals are fused together in equal halves in one particular plane
an ovary e.g. sarson. only, e.g. wheat barley, gram.

TETRADYNAMOUS
It means four stamens are long Flower structures
while two are short e.g. sarson
Source:
www.pollinater.com/hnd_pollination.doc
TILLER
A sprout or stalk from the roots or
base of the main stem or the lower
Male:
nodes.
filament: The stalk or organ that
holds the anthers, absent in some
TWISTED TYPE AESTIVATION
flowers.
When the sepal or petal overlaps
anther: The pollen producing
the neighboring sepal or petal on
organ of flowers. Some produce
one side and is overlapped by
pollen on the exterior, some
another sepal or petal on the other
produce it internally and release it
side resulting in one-sided twist,
thru pores.
e.g. cotton.
stamen: The entire male
structure, including filament and
VIABLE
anther.
able to live and grow.
pollen: The male reproductive
spores of a flower.
VEXILLARY TYPE AESTIVATION
pollen grain: A single male
reproductive spore.
when the posterior petal (standard
pollen tube: A growth of
covers the two lateral ones (wings),
germinating pollen down the style
of the pistil, to the ovary where it

246
joins with an ovule in fertilization.
Female:
stigma: The sticky end of the
pistil, where pollen adheres in
pollination. Often it is divided into
lobes.
style: The stalk that supports the
stigma.
pistil: The style and stigma
together, the external female
structures of the flower
ovary: The organ which contains
the ovules or incipient seeds. If
only one ovule is present it is also
called the carpel. If there are many
ovules, the ovary may be divided
into segments; each segment is
then called a carpel. Generally the
ovary becomes the fruit, while the
ovules become the seeds.
ovule: The female reproductive
cell is enclosed in the ovule, which,
when fertilized, becomes the seed.
carpel: see ovary
petal: A flower appendage, usually
showy to attract attention from
pollinators.
sepal: A protective flower
appendage, the remnants of the
bud enclosure, usually green and
inconspicuous.
FlowerTypes
perfect flowers: Having both male
and female organs within the same
flower. Some people erroneiously
think that this means the flower will
self pollinate.
monecious: Having separate male
and female flowers, but on the
247
same plant, as with cucumbers and
melons.
dioecious: Having separate male
and female flowers on separate
male and female plants, as with
kiwi fruit or holly.
Pollination Terms
pollination: The transfer of pollen
from anther to stigma, in plant
reproduction.
pollinator: The agent that
transfers pollen in pollination.
Pollinators are most often bees, but
can be birds, butterflies, beetles,
bats or even humans.
pollenizer (sometimes
pollinizer): A plant that provides
viable pollen for pollination. Some
plants mutually pollenize each
other, as two varieties of apple or
cherry. Some pollenizers are male
plants that provide no fruit, as in
kiwi fruit, or plants that have little
commercial value but are used
simply to provide pollen, as crab
apples in an apple orchard.
A common error is to call plants
pollinators, or to say one plant
pollinate another. Plants cannot
pollinate; they pollenize.
sterile pollen: Pollen which is
incapable of germination. These
plants cannot be used as
pollenizers.
fertilization: The joining of male
and female gametes in the ovary,
in plant reproduction.
self incompatible or self sterile
or self unfruitful: A plant whose
stigma will place chemical or
physical barriers against its own
pollen.
self fertile: Pollen from the same
plant or a clonal fruit variety can
germnate and fertilize the ovules.
Self fertile and self sterile and
not absolutes in most cases but
rather relative. Many plants that
are regarded as self fertile will
yield better in quantity or quality
when cross pollinated.
self pollination: The plant with no
aid from any pollinator can form
seeds. Peanuts, green peas, and
green beans are examples where
the flower actually grows the
anthers and stigma into direct
contact. It is misleading to use the
term for plants that require a
pollinator to move pollen, such as
peaches, or for plants that only
sometimes self pollinate, but
require aid to make a commercial
crop.
248
self pollenisation: A plant that
does not truly self pollinate; it
requires a pollinator, but can
achieve a commercial crop with
only its own pollen. Remember
that an orchard block of a single
variety is genetically a single plant
(clone)
cross pollination: Transfer of
pollen between two genetically
different plants. Self sterile plants
require cross pollination.
parthenocarpic: The ability to
produce (seedless) fruit without
pollination. Some citrus is
parthenocarpic, also there are
some cucumber parthenocarpic
varieties. Not all seedless fruit is
parthenocarpic. Seedless
watermelons require pollination but
the seed usually does not mature.
cultivar: A cultivated variety.
 General features of flowers
of in- and out-breeders and
old and new family names

Flowers have certain visible The old names of some

characters that can easily categorize families have been
them as outbreeders or inbreeders changed. The new names
are given below:
OUTBREEDER INBREEDER Old Name New Name
self-incompatible self-compatible Cruciferae Brassicaceae
many flowers few flowers Papilionoldeae Fabaceae
large flowers small flowers Umbellifcrae Apiaceae
bright colors mono-colored Compositae Asteraceae
nectaries present nectaries absent Labiatae Lamiaceae
scented flowers unscented flowers Graminae Poaceae
nectar guides nectar guides Palmae Arecaceae
present absent
Caesalpiniaceae Cassiaceae
anthers far from anthers close to
Mimosoidae Mimosaceae
stigma stigma
The old family Leguminosae now
many pollen grains fewer pollen grains includes three sub-families – (i)
style exserted from style included in Mimosoideae, (ii) Caesalpinioideae
flower flower and (iii) Papilionoideae. These sub-
families have now been raised to the
stigmatic area stigmatic area
level of families and are called – (i)
well-defined poorly-defined Mimosaceae, (ii) Caesalpiniaceae

249
 Crops and Their Time of
Anthesis

Note: Tme may vary according to season, location and other environmental
conditions, however, following are the general observations:

Name of Crop Botanical name Time of Anthesis

Rice Oryza sativa 10 a.m. – 12 noon
Wheat Triticum 9 a.m. – 2 p.m.
Maize Zea mays L.
Sorghum Sorghum Spp. 12 midnight – 2 a.m.
Pearl millet Pennisetum typhoides 8 a.m. – 2 a.m.
Bengal gram of chick pea Cicer arietinum 2.30 a.m. – 3 a.m.
Green Gram Phaseolus aureus Roxb 9 a.m. – 10 a.m.
Black gram Phaselus mungo Linn 9 p.m. – 3.00 a.m.
Cowpea Vigna sinesis L. savi 6 a.m. – 8 a.m.
Peas Pisum sativum Linn 4 p.m. onward
Soyabean or Glycine Glycine max L. 7 a.m. – 9 a.m.
Sugarcane Saccharum spp. -- --
Groundnut Arachis hypogaea Linn 3 a.m. – 8 a.m.
Sunflower Helianthus annus Linn 5 a.m. – 6 a.m.
Arhar (Pigeon pea) Cajanus cajan 3 p.m. – 4 p.m.
Linseed Linum ustitatissimum 9.30 a.m.
Cotton Gossypium sp. 10 a.m. – 12 noon

250
 References and Suggested
reading

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tube growth. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 2: 280-292.
Alba, E., Basauti, P. and Carrozzo, G. 1985. Analysis of combining ability in new
cytoplasmically male sterile lines.
Allard, R. W. 1960. Principles of Plant Breeding. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York.
Allard, R.W. (1960) Principles of Plant Breeding. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New
York.
Anand, I.J. and Chandla, S. 1980. Genetic diversity and interrelationships of oil
yielding traits in sunflower. Sunflower Newsletter., 3: 13-15.
Arzu Manova, A. M. (1950) Biological characteristics of flowering and fruit
setting in sesame. Bull. App. Bot. Genet. Plant Breed., 28: 81-27.
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Bahl (P.N.) Genetics, cytogenetics and P.M. Solimath Breeding of Crop Plants.
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Ltd.
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pollination techniques in alfalfa. Crop Sci. 11: 131-132.
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251
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