Homework in Power System

HOMEWORK
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

AND CONTROL
ELLEN JANE G. GULBEN

DA72B204
DECEMBER 19, 2018

Southern Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Question 1. (20%) According to the report of “Some Energy Facts…” from Department of Energy
(USA) issued around 2006 (1) The global renewable energy will achieve 46% of the primary energy
used by 2050, analyze the growth trend of various renewable energy sources and analyze the causes.
Figure 1. Prediction Global Electricity production

(1) Discussion:
Access to energy is a key pillar for human wellbeing, economic development and poverty
alleviation. Ensuring everyone has sufficient access is an ongoing and pressing challenge for global
development.
However, our energy systems also have important environmental impacts. Historical and
current energy systems are dominated by fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) which produce carbon dioxide
(CO2) and other greenhouse gases- the fundamental driver of global climate change. Prediction of the
global CO2 emissions until 2050 is shown in figure 2. If we are to meet our global climate targets and
avoid dangerous climate change, the world needs a significant and concerted transition in its energy
sources.
Figure 2. Prediction of CO2 emissions
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Power System Operation and Control
Figure 3. Forecast of the German National Scientific Advisory Committee
The growth trend will probably follow the pattern from the forecast shown in
figure 3. We can analyze the growth trend of each renewable source and try to
tackle how they came up to be. Let’s start with Hydroelectricity according to
Energy Technology Perspective by the International Energy Agency:
HYDROENERGY
Hydroelectricity presents several advantages over most other sources of
electrical power, including a high level of reliability, proven technology, high
efficiency, very low operating and maintenance costs, flexibility and large
storage capacity.
Most of the growth in hydroelectricity generation will come from large
projects in emerging economies and developing countries, most considerably
Africa, Asia, and Latin America due to the abundance of hydro potential that
are yet to be developed. While for the developed countries there will be only
few of hydropower that will be added from these countries as they have mostly
developed most of their hydro resource. This roadmap foresees, by 2050, a
doubling of global capacity up to almost 2 000 GW and of global electricity
generation over 7 000 TWh. Pumped storage hydropower capacities would be
multiplied by a factor of 3 to 5. Key issues of hydroelectricity are the impacts
of dams to environment and on people but new turbines should be designed
to make modern hydropower plants more sustainable and environmentally
friendly; better management will also help avoid damage to downstream
ecosystems.
Financing remains a key issue, although hydropower is the least-cost
renewable electricity technology and is usually competitive with all
alternatives. Thus substantial up-front investment is needed to achieve this
increase.
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WIND ENERGY
The Energy Technology Perspectives (ETP) 2008 BLUE scenario sees 12% of global electricity
from wind energy by 2050. 2 000 GW of capacity would annually avoid the emission of 2.8 gigatonnes
of CO2 equivalent. In the recently developed High Renewables scenario, penetration reaches 23% by
2050.
Achieving the ETP 2008 BLUE scenario targets requires investment of some USD 3.2 trillion.
47 GW would need to be installed on average every year for the next 40 years – a 75% increase –
amounting to USD 81 billion/yr.
Figure 5. Regional Wind Power Shares of Global Electricity (TWh)
In 2030, non-OECD economies will produce some 17% of global wind energy, rising to 57% in
2050. Wind power can be competitive today where the resource is strong and when the cost of carbon
is reflected in markets. Costs per MWh range from USD 70 to USD 130.
Costs are expected to decrease further as a result of technology development, deployment
and economies of scale – by 23% by 2050. Transitional support is needed to encourage deployment
until full competition is achieved.
Offshore costs are at present twice those on land, although the quality of the resource can be
50% higher. This roadmap projects cost reductions of 38% by 2050.
To reliably achieve high penetrations of wind power, the flexibility of power systems and
markets must be enhanced and, eventually, increased. Flexibility is a function of access to flexible
generation, storage and demand response, and is enhanced by interconnection, larger and faster
power markets, smart grids and forecasting.
Intensified R&D is particularly needed in the offshore sector to develop a new generation of
turbines and sub-surface structures fundamentally designed for the marine environment with
minimum operating and maintenance requirement.
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SOLAR ENERGY
By 2050, PV global cumulative installed capacity could reach 3000

gigawatts, providing 4 500 TWh per year, i.e. around 11% of global electricity
production. In addition to avoiding 2.3 gigatonnes (Gt) of CO2 per year, this level
of PV would deliver substantial benefits in terms of the security of energy supply
and socio-economic development.
In the first decade, PV is expected to reduce system and generation costs
by more than 50%. PV residential and commercial systems will achieve the first
level of grid parity – i.e. parity with electricity retail prices – by 2020 in many
regions. As grid parity is achieved, the policy framework should evolve towards
fostering self-sustained markets, with the progressive phase-out of economic
incentives, but maintaining grid access guarantees and sustained R&D support.
Towards 2030, typical large-scale utility PV system generation costs are
expected to decrease to USD 7 to USD 13 cents/kWh. As PV matures into a
mainstream technology, grid integration and management and energy storage
become key issues.
The PV industry, grid operators and utilities will need to develop new
technologies and strategies to integrate large amounts of PV into flexible,
efficient and smart grids.
Governments and industry must increase R&D efforts to reduce costs
and ensure PV readiness for rapid deployment, while supporting longer-term
technology innovations.
By 2050, with appropriate support, CSP could provide 11.3% of global
electricity, with 9.6% from solar power and 1.7% from backup fuels (fossil fuels
or biomass). In the sunniest countries, CSP can be expected to become a
competitive source of bulk power in peak and intermediate loads by 2020, and
of base-load power by 2025 to 2030.
The possibility of integrated thermal storage is an important feature
of CSP plants, and virtually all of them have fuel-power backup capacity. Thus,
CSP offers firm, flexible electrical production capacity to utilities and grid
operators while also enabling effective management of a greater share of
variable energy from other renewable sources (e.g. photovoltaic and wind
power).
This roadmap envisions North America as the largest producing and
consuming region for CSP electricity, followed by Africa, India and the Middle
East. Northern Africa has the potential to be a large exporter (mainly to Europe)
as its high solar resource largely compensates for the additional cost of long
transmission lines.
CSP can also produce significant amounts of high-temperature heat
for industrial processes, and in particular can help meet growing demand for
water desalination in arid countries.
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Figure 7. Decreasing Cost and Increasing production of CSP plant from different countries
Given the arid/semi-arid nature of environments that are well-suited for CSP, a key
challenge is accessing the cooling water needed for CSP plants. Dry or hybrid dry/wet cooling
can be used in areas with limited water resources.
The main limitation to expansion of CSP plants is not the availability of areas suitable
for power production, but the distance between these areas and many large consumption
centers. This roadmap examines technologies that address this challenge through efficient,
long-distance electricity transportation.
CSP facilities could begin providing competitive solar-only or solar-enhanced gaseous
or liquid fuels by 2030. By 2050, CSP could produce enough solar hydrogen to displace 3% of
global natural gas consumption, and nearly 3% of the global consumption of liquid fuels.
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Figure 8. Roadmap vision of World final bioenergy consumption in different sectors
BIOENERGY
This roadmap envisages world total primary bioenergy supply

increasing from 50 EJ today to 160 EJ in 2050, with 100 EJ of this for
generation of heat and power. This roadmap aims at the deployment of
advanced biomass cook-stoves and biogas systems to 320 million
households in developing countries by 2030, as part of a sustained effort
to provide universal access to clean energy.
By 2050 bioenergy could provide 3,100 TWh of electricity, i.e.
7.5% of world electricity generation. Bioenergy electricity could bring 1.3
Gt CO2-eq emission savings per year in 2050, in addition to 0.7 Gt per year
from biomass heat in industry and buildings, if the feedstock can be
produced sustainably and used efficiently, with very low life-cycle GHG
emissions.
Large-scale (>50 MW) biomass power plants will be important to
achieve this roadmap’s vision, since they allow for electricity generation
at high efficiencies and relatively low costs. Smaller-scale (<10 MW)
plants have lower electric efficiencies and higher generation costs, and
are best deployed in combined heat and power mode, when a sustained
heat demand is available.
Biomass heat and electricity can already be competitive with
fossil fuels under favorable circumstances today. Through standardizing
optimized plant designs, and improving electricity generation efficiencies,
bioenergy electricity generation costs could become generally
competitive with fossil fuels under a CO2 price regime.
Around 100 EJ (5-7 billion dry tonnes) of biomass will be required
in 2050, in addition to 60 EJ (3-4 billion dry tonnes) for production of
biofuels. Studies suggest such supply could be sourced in a sustainable
way from wastes, residues and purpose grown energy crops. This will
certainly reduce the agricultural land required to produce energy crops
and thus avoid cutting of forest for additional agricultural land.
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GEOTHERMAL
Figure 10. Roadmap vision for (a) geothermal power production by region and (b) direct use of
geothermal heat by region, excluding ground source heat pumps
By 2050, geothermal electricity generation could reach 1 400 TWh per year, i.e. around 3.5%
of global electricity production, avoiding almost 800 megatonnes (Mt) of CO2 emissions per year.
Geothermal heat could contribute 5.8 EJ (1 600 TWh thermal energy) annually by 2050, i.e. 3.9% of
projected final energy for heat.
In the period to 2030, rapid expansion of geothermal electricity and heat production will be
dominated by accelerated deployment of conventional high-temperature hydrothermal resources,
driven by relatively attractive economics but limited to areas where such resources are available.
Deployment of low- and medium-temperature hydrothermal resources in deep aquifers will also grow
quickly, reflecting wider availability and increasing interest in their use for both heat and power.
By 2050, more than half of the projected increase comes from exploitation of ubiquitously
available hot rock resources, mainly via enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). Substantially higher
research, development and demonstration (RD&D) resources are needed in the next decades to
ensure EGS becomes commercially viable by 2030.
A holistic policy framework is needed that addresses technical barriers relating to resource
assessment, accessing and engineering the resource, geothermal heat use and advanced geothermal
technologies. Moreover, such a holistic framework needs to address barriers relating to economics,
regulations, market facilitation and RD&D support.
Policy makers, local authorities and utilities need to be more aware of the full range of
geothermal resources available and of their possible applications in order to develop consistent
policies accordingly. This is particularly true for geothermal heat, which can be used at varying
temperatures for a wide variety of tasks. Important R&D priorities for geothermal energy include
accelerating resource assessment, development of more competitive drilling technology and
improving EGS technology as well as managing health, safety and environmental (HSE) concerns.
Advanced technologies for offshore, geo-pressured and super-critical (or even magma)
resources could unlock a huge additional resource base. Where reasonable, co-produced hot water
from oil and gas wells can be turned into an economic asset.
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(1). Which sector has the lowest energy efficiency in the picture of U.S. Energy Flow? Why? Which type
of technologies can be achieved to improve the energy efficiency in this sector?
Answer for 1.2:
Figure 11. U.S. Energy Flow, 2002
Figure 12. Energy flow of different types of vehicles: (A) 85% efficiency of gas and diesel extracted
from petroleum; (B) a hybrid vehicle that includes an electric motor and parallel drive train, which
eliminates idling loss and captures some energy of braking; (C) overall efficiency of 42.5% for electric
power in China is (including power from coal, water, new energy, and their combination); (D) using
byproducts from manufacturing to produce hydrogen
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The transportation sector has the lowest energy efficiency in the picture of U.S. Energy flow.
Basically, this is because transportation is using expensive fuel while having a low energy
transformation efficiency.
Shown in figure 12, traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles are the least energy
efficient and have an efficiency of only 12.7%. Pure electric vehicles have an efficiency of 51.6%, which
is the highest. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) and hydrogen ICE (HICE) vehicles have efficiencies of 28.3 and
26.6%, respectively.
By evaluating tank-to-wheel (TTW) efficiency, we found that the efficiency of traditional
internal combustion engines is only 12.6%. On the contrary, because electric vehicles have simple
structures and use electricity to power either part or all of their wheels, they have higher efficiency.
The TTW efficiency of hybrid and pure electrical vehicles can reach 26.6 and 54%, respectively.
However, because hybrid cars also need fossil fuels, their well-to-wheel (WTW) efficiency is only 20%,
still higher than the efficiency of the traditional model.
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(2). Why the “Distribution/Storage” boxology included in the five elements of a

comprehensive Decades-to-Century energy plan? Describe the possible and future
potential technologies in this topic?
Figure 13. Elements of a Comprehensive Decades-to-Century Energy Plan
Technological advancement on Distribution and storage will help in cost reduction,

and large-scale deployment of zero-carbon energy solutions in the most effective and least
intrusive way. Energy efficiency solutions reduce the energy demand of everything from
household appliances to public transportation.
Starting from Smart meters and grids govern energy systems in a much more
sophisticated way, using real-time feedback and big data to efficiently target energy usage.
The already significant transformational potential of and the often dramatic cost reductions
in proven energy technologies pale in comparison to what is in the pipeline.
Advanced small- and grid-scale battery storage would resolve the lingering problem
of intermittency that plagues the large-scale deployment and usability of renewables and can
make electric vehicles ubiquitous.
Hydrogen power cells could revolutionize the entire transportation sector. It will not
only create a CO2 emission free transportation it will also reduce its cost compared to fuel-
driven transportation.
Alternative fuels like Methane hydrates may be the next frontier of gas development,
holding multiple times the size of global conventional and unconventional reserves combined.
This will significantly reduce the price of energy generation.
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Question 2. (20%) The Automatic Generation Control (AGC) of a synchronous generator installed
load frequency (LFC) and automatic voltage regulator (AVR). Please describe
(1). The purpose and the schematic diagram of AGC in a modern power system.
(2). How to implement the frequency control and voltage control (using some related block
diagrams or schemes?
(3). The governor speed regulation characteristics in a steam-turbine synchronous
generator (using some related block diagrams and formulations)
Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
Automatically adjusting/regulating the power output of multiple generators at different

power plants, in response to changes in the load, within a predefined area. Generation and load
closely balance moment by moment, frequent adjustments to the output of generators are necessary.
The balance can be judged by measuring the system frequency:
1. Increasing frequency: more power is being generated than used, which causes all the
machines in the system to accelerate
2. Decreasing frequency: more load is on the system than the instantaneous generation can
provide, which causes all generators to slow down.
It is a control system which basically have three major objectives:
1. To hold system frequency at or very close to a specified nominal value (e.g., 60 Hz).
2. To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control areas.
3. To maintain each unit's generation at the most economic value.
Figure 14. Schematic diagram of LFC and AVR of a synchronous generator
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Figure 15. Block diagram of Load frequency control for an isolated power system
P mech  P elec  0    valve  Pmech 
Figure 16. Governor with speed-droop feedback loop
Figure 17. Voltage regulator and turbine-governor controls for a steam-turbine generator
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Question 3. (20%) Two modes adopted to promote the growth of renewable energy, i.e., Feed-in
Tariff (FiT) and Net Energy Metering (NEM).
3-A Describe (1) the difference between these two modes? (2) Which scenario gains from
the implementation of FiT? (3) which scenario gains from the implementation of NEM?
(3A)
What is Feed in Tariff (FiT)
A policy tool encouraging deployment of renewable electricity technologies which are a policy
mechanism used to encourage deployment of renewable electricity technologies. FITs are used to a
limited extent around the United States, but they are more common internationally. A FIT program
typically guarantees that customers who own a FIT-eligible renewable electricity generation facility,
such as a roof-top solar photovoltaic system, will receive a set price from their utility for all of the
electricity they generate and provide to the grid.
Net Energy Metering

Net metering tariffs enable customers to use the electricity they generate in excess of their
consumption at certain times to offset their use of electricity from the grid at other times. These tariffs
are designed to encourage distributed renewable generation—i.e., the generation of small amounts
of electricity at the point of ultimate use, rather than the generation of large amounts at a central
location, which must then be delivered to the end users. These arrangements describe how an electric
utility customer who installs a qualifying generator (typically a rooftop solar array, less often a small
wind turbine, or a small combined heat-and-power system) will be compensated by their utility for
the electricity they generate in excess of their consumption.
Difference Between Feed in Tariff and Net Metering

Net metering installations may require additional metering or connection equipment, but
typically the utility is responsible for all costs associated with that equipment. In some States,
customers have a single meter that spins backwards when they generate more electricity than they
consume. Other States require the installation of two meters (one to measure total consumption and
one to measure total generation).
A solar feed in tariff is when a specific rate of payment is applied to solar power that is
exported to the public grid by a grid connected solar system. A feed in tariff may be higher or lower
than the retail rate of power. Some states solar feed in tariffs well above the retail rate of power but
in many other states and in specific utility territories there are what is known as avoided cost solar
feed in tariffs where an amount is paid for solar energy exported to the grid that is less than the retail
rate of power.
Both FiT and Net metering mechanism helps to reduce the energy consumption and bill by
implementing renewable energy generation. However, the cost and energy outcomes of FiT and Net
metering are not identical due to the difference in its mechanism.
In the FiT mechanism, all the generated power from the renewable energy resources is
distributed to the grid and it is usually sold in a higher than the retail rate of power. While any
consumption drawn from the grid will be bought in the retail rate of power which is lower than the
selling price.
For the Net Metering Mechanism, any generated power from renewable source that is not
consumed as load will be sent to the grid. The consumption drawn from the grid will also be calculated.
The difference of the energy consumed from grid and the energy sent to the grid is calculated called
net energy. This net energy will be paid at the retail rate of power.
1. During non-summer season, electricity rate is low. Renewable energy sources contracted for
FIT benefits from this scenario because their selling price is constant throughout the contracted time
period while using electricity coming from the grid at a lower buying electricity rate.
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2. Net Energy Meter (NEM) contractors also benefits from its flexibility to choose when to sell
energy to the grid. During peak hours, it can sell energy at a higher price. While during off-peak where
the electricity rate is lower, it can opt to store its energy then later sell it during peak load hours.
3-B Exemplify and describe the dispatch strategy of Home Energy Management Systems (HEMS) for
renewable energy in future Smart Home. Assume the following scenarios: (1) PV array and a
stationary battery bank are installed in the smart home. (2) Both FiT and NEM works.
Home Energy Management System (HEMS) when applied to a home or an establish with PV
array and stationary battery bank can be able to manage energy by optimizing its dispatch strategy of
when to use energy from PV for own use or when to just store energy and acquire electricity from the
grid. Through the TOU, the HEMS can determine to use PV for own use during peak load hours because
the electricity rate from grid would be expensive and then acquire electricity from grid during off-peak
hours.
Applying HEMS in a system with FIT contract, would allow it to manage the renewable source
through controlling the power delivered to the grid during summer season. It may opt to utilized the
generated energy for own use if the grid price is more expensive than the contracted price.
For renewable system with NEM contract, HEMS can manage the system and optimize the
energy generated from renewable source by utilizing it when the grid price is higher and acquiring
energy from the grid if the rate is lower.
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Question 4. (20%)
(1). Why TPC is necessary to suppress the peak load of a daily load profile? Is there any
benefits may be achieved?
Figure 18. Taiwan Power Company (TPC) daily load profile

Peak load shaving
Peak load shaving, also referred to as load leveling or peak shifting, consists of the schemes
used to eliminate the peaks and valleys in the load profile. Peak load shaving has become a great
interest to utilities as the demand for power has grown with the increase in population, commerce,
and industry. The increase in demand and variations in consumption have created a notable difference
in the peaks and valleys of the load profile. Historically, this has caused challenges regarding the
operation of a reliable and stable grid. This practice offers direct and indirect benefits to utilities in
generation costs, line loss reduction, and volt support.
Peak shaving also helps the utility provide maximum base load power without starting an
expensive to operate peaking generator. In the long-term peak shaving lets the utility reduce its
investment in costly new power plants. Their customers who install on-site generating equipment
share in those savings, by receiving reduced power rates year round. Peak demand typically occurs
between 10:00 AM and 4:00 PM during the months of July and August, which is the same time non-
industrial consumers typically demand the maximum power for family activities and air conditioning.
Typically, power companies have a tiered rate structure which involves not only the amount of
electricity consumed, but also takes into account when the electricity is consumed. It is common for
a facility participating in peak shaving to experience a net energy savings of between 10% and 30% of
their electricity bill.
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(2). Discuss the daily strategy used to dispatch generation units to meet load consumption in the
peak load period of summer day in Taiwan?
2. Taiwan Power Company (TPC) load profile have the highest peak during summer season. To level
the base load from the peak load, TPC uses the strategy of pump storage unit which is comparable
to a storage battery but in the form of hydro potential. During off-peak period which is usually
during dawn, pump storage units are usually charged by pumping water from a lower level dam to
a higher elevation dam. It is then discharged during peaking hours, which usually starts at 10:00
AM and last more or less than 4 hours, through hydro generators. This strategy reduces the rate of
peak load, as the time of charging the pump storage unit cost cheaper. According to the TOU or
Time of Use, the rate at off-peak hours is according to base load generator which also is cheaper.
This strategy also reduces the need of operating other expensive peak load generator.
3. Discuss the economic benefits of “Pump Storage Units” operation in different time horizon, i.e.,
winter and summer.
(Hint: daily load curve of Taiwan Power Company, the priority list of generator units under unit
commitment program)
The economic benefit of Pump storage units’ operation differs according to season. During summer
season, the Taiwan Power Company (TPC) attains the highest value of peak load. This is due to hot
weather which makes air conditioner more utilized and thus create a higher electricity
consumption.
While during winter, where the weather is cold but not freezing, electric consumption during
peaking hours is lower during summer. In this condition, the Taiwan power company only needs
the base load generators starting from nuclear, next is coal to operate during this period. Both of
these generators are cheap. Next are the LNG generators which are used for mid-load and are less
cheap. Next are the oil-based generators for peak-load then the renewable energy sources like
pump storage units, wind, and solar. During winter, oil-based generator is not often used as there
is low peak value during this season and also wind turbine also generates more electricity does
filling up the electricity need. This makes winter electricity rate cheaper compared to other season.
While during summer, all types of generator are operated in order to balance the demand for
electricity during the peak hours of this season. Since expensive peak load generator are operated
during peak hours of summer, this makes it more expensive. Thus, this makes a perfect condition
to operate the pump storage unit which charges during off-peak hours with a cheaper rate and
discharges during peak load hours. While during winter where peak load value is lower, operating
the pump storage unit is less economical since the price gap of electricity for off-peak and peak
hours is not much.
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Question 5. (10%) Exemplify the relationships between “installed capacity” and “yearly power
generation” for the following units:
(1). Nuclear unit
(2). Thermal unit
(3). Hydraulic pumping unit
(4). Wind turbine generator
(5). Solar photovoltaic array
(Hint: “Capacity Factor” and “Generation Efficiency” of a generator unit)
What is Installed Capacity?
The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) refers to capacity as the maximum output of
electricity that a generator can produce under ideal conditions. Capacity levels are normally
determined as a result of performance tests and allow utilities to project the maximum electricity load
that a generator can support. Capacity is generally measured in megawatts or kilowatts [1]. Nameplate
generator capacity is determined by the generator's manufacturer and indicates the maximum output
of electricity a generator can produce without exceeding design thermal limits [2].
What is yearly power generation?
Electricity generation, on the other hand, refers to the amount of electricity that IS produced over a
specific period of time. This is usually measured in kilowatt-hours, megawatt-hours, or terawatt-hours
(1 terawatt equals 1 million megawatts). To understand the unit of megawatt-hours (MWh), consider
a wind turbine with a capacity of 1.5 megawatts that is running at its maximum capacity for 2 hours.
In this scenario, at the end of the second hour, the turbine would have generated 3 megawatt-hours
of energy (i.e. 1.5 megawatts X 2 hours). Or for the end of one year, that is you have to multiply the
generated amount power times the number of hours it was operating for the whole year.
NUCLEAR
Figure 19. TPC nuclear generation units installed capacity and power generation
Considering the Nuclear generation unit of TPC here in Taiwan aside from the non-operating units, the
installed capacity is almost 1 GW for each generation unit. These values as defined previously are the
maximum generating capacity of each unit which are determined from the generator’s manufacturer
and indicated in its nameplate. On the other hand, its annual generating capacity are almost the same
with the installed capacity indicated 3rd column and upheld in the fourth column of the table or the
ratio of Net power generation/unit capacity. This means that the Nuclear generating unit has been
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operating at its maximum potential. And since nuclear power is considered the baseload supply, it
means that it is also operating at its maximum potential for 1 year and only becomes non-operational
if it is on maintenance or failing. Thus, calculating the capacity factor of nuclear would be around,
total electrical generation per year

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟) = 𝑥100 ≈ 90%
the installed capacity x 8760 hours/year
Thermal Energy
In thermal power plants, the heat energy obtained from combustion of solid fuel (mostly coal) is used
to convert water into steam, this steam is at high pressure and temperature. This steam is used to
rotate the turbine blade turbine shaft is connected to the generator. The generator converts the
kinetic energy of the turbine impeller into electric energy. It can be produced by burning fuels such as
coal, oil, gas or wood. It can also be taken from steam from a geothermal field, or created by nuclear
reactions.
Table 2. Different types of power supply for Thermal Energy Generation
Type of Operational
Features
power supply pattern
Much like nuclear power, coal-fired thermal power is

Coal-fired
Base-load generated around-the-clock and the output is constant.
thermal
operation It cannot be adjusted to respond to power demand
power
fluctuations.
These sources of power can be made to respond flexibly

LNG-fired
Base-to-middle- to daily fluctuations in electric power demand. They
thermal
load operation operate during the daytime, stop at night, and repeat
power
this pattern daily.
These sources of power can be adjusted to

accommodate peaks in electricity demand. They are
Oil-fired Middle-to-
operated mainly in summer and winter during periods
thermal peak-load
of high demand. Otherwise they remain on standby and
power operation
are ready to run at any time to provide reserve power
when the demand spikes unexpectedly.
As indicated in the table, coal-fired thermal power plant is use to supply base load and thus as shown
in the figure below that power generation is almost at its maximum capacity, however, some units are
not being fully operated due to some constraints like environmental restrictions, operational limit and
independent load reduction. Calculating the capacity factor of coal-fired thermal power plant (PP)
would be around,
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 − 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑃) = the installed capacity x 8760 hours/year 𝑥100 ≈ 90%
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Figure 20. TPC coal-fired generation units installed capacity and power generation
LNG-fired thermal power plant is use during base to mid-load hours and thus as shown in the figure
below, which was taken during off-peak hours, that most of the units are not in operating in maximum
capacity, this are mostly due to reasons like partial repair, partial overhaul, power chord limit. Thus it
means that the LNG-fired generators operate in its partial capacity in mid-load hours and are only
operated in full during peak hour. The cost of LNG is also higher than coal. Calculating the capacity
factor of LNG-fired thermal power plant(PP) would be around,

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(𝐿𝑁𝐺 − 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑃) = 𝑥100 ≈ 50%
Figure 21. TPC Liquefied natural gas (LNG) generation units installed capacity and power generation.
As indicated in the table, oil-fired thermal power plant is use during middle to peaking hours and thus
as shown in the figure below, which was taken during off-peak hours, that most of the units are not in
operation mode. Thus it means that the oil-fired generators are only allowed to operate as demanded,
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this is also due to its high operation cost. Calculating the capacity factor of oil-fired thermal power
plant(PP) would be around,
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 − 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑃) = the installed capacity x 8760 hours/year 𝑥100 ≈ 40%
Figure 22. TPC Oil and diesel-based generation units installed capacity and power generation
Hydraulic Pumping Unit

Pumped storage hydro is a simple energy generation and storage concept that can be utilized
for many applications. The process involves pumping water from a lower body of water to an upper
body of water to create stored energy for future use. When that energy is needed, the water is
released and the pumps are reversed to allow the water to run through hydroelectric turbines
generating energy. This reversible turbine concept is the simplest form of pumped storage.
The economics of such process is to use inexpensive power generated during night time hours,
when energy demand is at its lowest, to pump water to the upper water body and when electrical
demand is high, during the day time hours, generate electricity. The ability to store energy and utilize
it smartly allows more efficient use of the transmission grid, as it can be operated at a constant load
rather than cycling up and down to meet demand.
Besides these basic applications of pumped storage hydro, this technology is a potential game-
changer when it comes to supporting smart-grid transmission, changing electrical load, and energy
storage. There is a constant effort by utility operators to keep electrical load in balance with electrical
generation, as transmission lines are design to handle certain electrical loads. Therefore, balancing
the load capacity of the lines with the needs of the system is important to minimize energy losses and
operate a steady state system. The pumped storage hydro is a tool that will provide frequency and
voltage support to keep the transmission system in balance.
As such, the capacity factor of hydro pumped storage is more likely similar to oil-fired power
plant as they are both used only during peak-load hours. But for hydropower generation which are
used for based load like are run-of-river or storage type, it usually obtains

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜) = the installed capacity x 8760 hours/year 𝑥100 ≈ 40% on average
Page | 21
Figure 23. TPC Pump hydro generation units installed capacity and power generation
Wind Turbine Generator
Since the wind energy is intermittent, its daily power generation can only be predicted and can never
really be determined exactly. And since the wind turbine only generates power when there is a strong
then it is safe to say that it doesn’t operate 24 hours as the wind is not always blowing 24 hours. Thus,
capacity factor would always be limited. But for the average of its yearly total generation the capacity
factor for wind energy is around:
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑) = 𝑥100 ≈ 30%
Wind power is still a relatively new electricity option. The technology is still improving, becoming more
and more efficient. And as part of that, there has been what is essentially a breakthrough in net
capacity factor of various turbines in just the last 2 years. This is due to new turbine designs which
often hit 50% capacity factor onshore.
Figure 24. TPC Wind generation units installed capacity and power generation
Page | 22
Solar Energy
Although the sun is always present, the weather factor is intermittent. We can only predict if
today will be cloudy, rainy or fair weather. And since the sun is only beneficial in less than half of the
day thus, we can say that the capacity factor is low. This is due to the fact that in calculating the
capacity factor, the total number of hours is considered including the time when the solar panel are
completely inoperable because it is at night. So while considering an estimated 10 hours of operations
if the weather is excellent and minus the number of hours when it is rainy or cloudy, we can calculate
a capacity factor,
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜) = 𝑥100 ≈ 20%
Figure 25. TPC Solar generation units installed capacity and power generation
Capacity factor for the 4 types of generation is shown in the graph below where the blue graph
indicates the capacity factor of Nuclear generation unit around 90%. While the pink line indicated
thermal generation units which are the coal, oil, and LNG. Averaging the capacity factor of the three
unit from the previous discussion would result to around 60% capacity factor shown in the figure
below. While the solar generation is approximately around 20-30% and the hydro has a lot of factor
depending on the water supply thus its fluctuating capacity factor is on the average of around 30-40%.
Figure 26. Statistics on the capacity of each power generation in the past five years
Page | 23
An updated capacity factor provided by National Renewable Energy Laboratory is shown in the table
below. It shows the different generation units with its capacity factor from minimum to average and
then the maximum.
Table 1. NREL Capacity factor of Different Generating units

Capacity Factor
Type of Generation unit Minimum Median Maximum
natural gas combustion 10% 80% 93%
turbinesgas combined cycle
natural 40% 84.6% 93%
coal, pulverized & scrubbed 80% 84.6 93%
nuclear 85% 90% 90.24
Biopower 75% 84% 85%
Hydropower 35% 50% 93.2
enhanced geothermal 80% 90% 95%
Solar PV 16% 21% 28%
offshore wind 27% 43% 54%
Onshore wind 24% 40.35% 50%
Page | 24
Question 6. (20%)
(1). Depict the “feasible” structure of supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
implements in an Energy management system (EMS) at the Area Control Center of
Power Company.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

SCADA system provides control and data acquisition through metering and control devices,
feeder terminal unit, and phasor measurement unit. Data acquisition of SCADA retrieves data and
alarms from remote sites, it starts from the feeders then it sends signal to the substations, to the
distribution, to transmission, up to each area control center of the power company. Supervisory
control basically enables control of devices or machines at remote sites, starting from the area control
center down to feeders, circuit breakers, etc.
Energy Management System (EMS)

An EMS is a system of computer software packages utilized by operators of electric power
networks to monitor, control, and optimize the operation of geographically dispersed generation and
transmission asset in real time. Included in its structure are the following:
1. Real-time SCADA applications
2. Generation Dispatch and Control
3. Energy Scheduling and Accounting
4. Transmission Security and Management
Figure 27. Typical Functions in a EMS of a Power System
Page | 25
Figure 28. Typical functional blocks of an EMS system
SCADA monitor system and equipment health like voltage, equipment loading, equipment status (oil
level, temperature, fault type), site security and video feedback, monitor asset maintenance
requirements. It also maintains system security and stability like in the instantaneous/sequential
switching of multiple devices, remedial action scheme status, protection scheme status, switching of
voltage control devices. It sends data to advanced applications like Database Analysis Tools which is
part of Energy Management systems.
Figure 29. Schematic diagram of SCADA in Power System
Page | 26
(2) Discuss the differences of this SCADA structure applying/extending to

* The Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) of a smart grid
* The remote monitoring and controlling structure of a security company or a healthcare
company
SCADA system acquires data through different remote terminal units (RTU) and Intelligent
Electronics Devices (IEDs) then sends it through different communication medium depending on the
distance of the RTU to the Area control center or depending on which is more practical communication
medium. SCADAs data acquisition and control is only usually down to the substation at the very least
which still leaves a large portion of the feeder lines unmonitored. Thus, what the SCADA system can’t
reach, the Advanced Metering Infrastructure covers. However, this does not mean that AMI can
replace SCADA, as AMI system is only for metering devices. Therefore, both system is complementary
to each other.
Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)
AMI is an integrated system of smart meters, communications networks, and data

management systems that enables two-way communication between utilities and customers. The
system provides a number of important functions that were not previously possible or had to be
performed manually, such as the ability to automatically and remotely measure electricity use,
connect and disconnect service, detect tampering, identify and isolate outages, and monitor voltage.
Combined with customer technologies, such as in-home displays and programmable communicating
thermostats, AMI also enables utilities to offer new time-based rate programs and incentives that
encourage customers to reduce peak demand and manage energy consumption and costs.
Figure 30. Advanced metering Infrastructure (AMI) in Power System
Page | 27
SCADA on healthcare
SCADA system when extended to healthcare applies real-time data exchange technology to relay vital
sign signals, provides a sophisticated level of support for hospitals, home patients’ and seniors’ self-
healthcare activities, and expediently monitors patients or home patients with medical professionals,
healthcare givers, and family members, while doing so at substantially less expense than any
equivalent existing products.
SCADA also automatically processes vital signs and simultaneously informs the family members and
caregivers via control center or send e-mail, SMS, and voice mail if immediate medical attentions are
needed. The measurement of vital signs is available for displaying in text and graphic format in real-
time via Internet using web browsers anywhere anytime.
SCADA is simple to use for both health care providers and patients. It is an effective approach to
improve the quality of care while reducing costs and save tremendous time for caring home patients
and seniors.
Figure 31. SCADA Structure on Healthcare
Page | 28
Reference:
(1). https://www.iea.org/media/etp/etp2008.pdf
(2). https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Hydropower_Roadmap_FoldOut_WEB
.pdf
(3). https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/wind_roadmap_foldout.pdf
(4). https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Biofuels_foldout.pdf
(5). https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Geothermal_Foldout.pdf
(6). https://www.digitaltrends.com/cars/diesel-vs-gasoline-engines/
(7). https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1021/acsenergylett.7b00291
(8). https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/images/publications/AC_SP_Energy.pdf
(9). https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=11471
(10). https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=6190
(11). R. H. G. Tan and T. L. Chow, “A Comparative Study of Feed in Tariff and Net Metering for UCSI University
North Wing Campus with 100 kW Solar Photovoltaic System,” Energy Procedia, vol. 100, pp. 86–91, 2016.
(12). Rahimi, M. Zarghami, M. Vaziri, and S. Vadhva, “A simple and effective approach for peak load shaving
using Battery Storage Systems,” 45th North Am. Power Symp. NAPS 2013, pp. 1–5, 2013.
(13). https://gresb.com/peak-load-management-primer/
(14). https://aquicore.com/blog/what-is-peak-load/
(15). https://www.enertiv.com/resources/faq/what-is-peak-demand
(16). http://www.cliffordpower.com/peak-shaving-with-generators-1
(17). https://new.abb.com/distributed-energy-microgrids/applications/energy-storage-applications/peak-
shaving
(18). https://coastalsolar.com/what-is-peak-shaving/
(19). http://www.sustainableplant.com/assets/WP00010.pdf
(20). https://www.eex.gov.au/opportunity/peak-shaving
(21). https://www.edf-re.de/en/peak-shaving-service/what-is-peak-shaving/
(22). https://www.energy.gov/eere/articles/whats-difference-between-installed-capacity-and-electricity-
generation
(23). https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=101&t=3
(24). https://www.taipower.com.tw/d006/loadGraph/loadGraph/genshx_.html?fbclid=IwAR3vMXdenqO-
RbXXTkHonfc_tMPJXk_bJyAhxGm7RuQeVgkEVv2nntiaB_A
(25). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity_factor
(26). https://www.kepco.co.jp/english/corporate/energy/thermal_power/shikumi/index.html
(27). http://www.electrocity.co.nz/images/factsheets/Thermal%20Energy.pdf
(28). http://www.thermodyneboilers.com/components-working-thermal-power-plant/
(29). https://gordonbuttepumpedstorage.com/project-overview/what-is-pumped-storage-hydro/
(30). https://cleantechnica.com/2012/07/27/wind-turbine-net-capacity-factor-50-the-new-normal/
(31). https://openei.org/apps/TCDB/#blank
(32). https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/12/f34/AMI%20Summary%20Report_09-26-16.pdf
(33). https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/ami-scada-room-both-kristina-foster
(34). http://www.webscada.com/scada/SolPatientMon.aspx
Page | 29

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HOMEWORK

POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

ELLEN JANE G. GULBEN

DECEMBER 19, 2018

Figure 1. Prediction Global Electricity production

Figure 2. Prediction of CO2 emissions

Figure 3. Forecast of the German National Scientific Advisory Committee

Figure 5. Regional Wind Power Shares of Global Electricity (TWh)

By 2050, PV global cumulative installed capacity could reach 3000

Figure 8. Roadmap vision of World final bioenergy consumption in different sectors

This roadmap envisages world total primary bioenergy supply

Figure 11. U.S. Energy Flow, 2002

(2). Why the “Distribution/Storage” boxology included in the five elements of a

Figure 13. Elements of a Comprehensive Decades-to-Century Energy Plan

Technological advancement on Distribution and storage will help in cost reduction,

Automatic Generation Control (AGC)

Automatically adjusting/regulating the power output of multiple generators at different

Figure 14. Schematic diagram of LFC and AVR of a synchronous generator

P mech  P elec  0    valve  Pmech 

Figure 16. Governor with speed-droop feedback loop

Net Energy Metering

Difference Between Feed in Tariff and Net Metering

Figure 18. Taiwan Power Company (TPC) daily load profile

What is Installed Capacity?

What is yearly power generation?

total electrical generation per year

Table 2. Different types of power supply for Thermal Energy Generation

Much like nuclear power, coal-fired thermal power is

These sources of power can be made to respond flexibly

These sources of power can be adjusted to

total electrical generation per year

Hydraulic Pumping Unit

total electrical generation per year

Wind Turbine Generator

Table 1. NREL Capacity factor of Different Generating units

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

Energy Management System (EMS)

Figure 27. Typical Functions in a EMS of a Power System

Figure 28. Typical functional blocks of an EMS system

Figure 29. Schematic diagram of SCADA in Power System

(2) Discuss the differences of this SCADA structure applying/extending to

Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)

AMI is an integrated system of smart meters, communications networks, and data

Figure 30. Advanced metering Infrastructure (AMI) in Power System

Figure 31. SCADA Structure on Healthcare

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