Unit: Tourism Theories and Practices SOY 0411

Unit No: SOY 00411

Student name: Darby Brown
Student No: 21275122
Assignment One: How students and professionals gain knowledge about whole tourism
systems
Due date: 8 May 2006
How students and professionals gain knowledge about whole tourism systems:

Erudition of a specific nature concerning whole tourism systems requires examination

of appropriate subject matter using a heuristic approach through the utilisation and
perspective of various sources. This process involves comparing, describing, discussing,
evaluating, and the summation of knowledge in a critical manner leading the layperson
or academic scholar to an informed position from which hypotheses can be prepared.

Students and professionals can gain knowledge of whole tourism systems by:

a) perusal of various sources of information including newspapers, texts books,

research journals, internet sites, government policy documents and through
personal observations and experience;
b) distinguishing between and applying in theory various definitions for key terms;
tourist, tourism, tourism systems, tourism industry and;
c) examination of interactions with social, cultural, economic, physical, political
and technical environments;
d) analysis of different approaches currently being utilised by educators of tourism.

Research Journals/Text Books

Research journals and text books can be of immense value throughout the learning
process of gaining knowledge, understanding, and applying concepts in relation to the
study of tourism provided that those who peruse them, read widely, are selective in their
choice, and realise the purpose of, and the context in which, such publications are
written. An extensive array of periodicals including Annals of Tourism Research,
International Journal of Tourism Research, Journal of Tourism Studies and Journal of
Travel & Tourism Marketing, amongst a wealth of others, provides a gamut of
information including original and empirical research, theoretical concepts, statistical
data, research techniques and methodological articles encompassing most aspects
related to the field of tourism.

There is an abundance of exceptional literature devoted to a range of academic

interests concerning tourism. Examples include Encyclopedia of Tourism, Jafari (2000:

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XVII), a reference guide to the vast range of definitions, themes, concepts, issues,
perspectives and institutions embraced by tourism with contributions from over 300
academics and tourism professionals. Tourism Management, Leiper (2004: V), designed
for students studying and individuals interested in expanding and developing their
knowledge of tourism, delivers a substantial contribution to management theories and
practices. Man On Earth – A Celebration of Mankind authored by British anthropologist
John Reader, which provides a captivating narrative of the fundamentals of human
ecology from a contemporary viewpoint.

Methodological Approaches to the Study of Tourism

Examination of the various methodology espoused by tourism educators as a

suitable and comprehensive curriculum is, a contentious issue among pedagogues with a
range of different techniques and theories as to how to develop and attain a complete
and thorough tourism education policy framework (Bodewes 1981; Jafari 2000; Jafari
and Ritchie 1981; Leiper 1981, 2004; Meeth 1978, cited by Jafari and Ritchie 1981:24,
Stear 1987). This is indicative of the complex nature of tourism and the difficulty faced
by educators in identifying and refining effective methods of education.

Reducing a systems complexity through the use of general systems theory,

(Bertalanffy 1972, cited by Jafari 2000: 570), (Leiper 2004: 48), is a process through
which any complicated or intricate matter can be clarified by identifying the system to
be considered then by determining its elements and discovering how they are arranged
and interrelated. In order to achieve a broad understanding of the elements of a system,
it is useful to recognise the different contexts in which those elements are viewed and
the various ways in which they can be applied.

(Leiper 2004: 29-36) explains the concept when defining three contexts of the
meaning for ‘tourist’. Popular meanings, used in everyday conversation and mass
media that are imprecise, have a wide variation of meanings with no definitions required
form one category. Technical definitions used for statistical purposes by corporations
such as the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) for measuring economic
growth/international tourist arrivals, traveller generating regions (TGRs) and tourist
destination regions (TDRs) where precision is desirable form a second category.

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Heuristic concepts and definitions used by students and professionals researching
tourists’ activities and other aspects of their behaviour form a third category.

Using the same logic and depending on what purpose and in what context the
definition is used, tourism can be defined as: the theories and practices of tourists
(Leiper 2004: 44), the science, art and business off attracting and transporting visitors,
accommodating them and catering to their needs (Mcintosh and Goeldner 1977, cited by
Leiper 2004: 42), study of man away from his usual habitat, of the industry which
responds to his needs, and of the various impacts he and the industry have on the host
socio-cultural, economic, and physical environments (Jafari 1977, cited by Jafari and
Ritchie 1981: 15).

Tourism industry can be defined as a ‘collection of business firms, organisations and

other resources’- which support the activities of tourists, including central services of
transport, attractions, accommodation, catering; ‘peripheral private services’ - travel
insurance, tour wholesalers, banking, and ‘peripheral public services’ – regional tourist
organisations public ports/airport services, visa and passport offices (Jafari 2000: 306),
(Gilbert 1991: 6-7).

By comparing and understanding the different contexts in which definitions are used
and through the application of systems theory, whole systems can be identified and
models expounding those systems can be utilised for learning and teaching purposes. A
wide variety of whole tourism system models have, over time, evolved and been
advocated as being beneficial to the study and understanding of tourism.

Several examples are noteworthy contributions. (Jarari’s 1989: 437-442) model based
on his springboard metaphor, figure 1.0, emphasises six phases, corporation,
emancipation, animation, repatriation, incorporation and omission, which he
considers as elementary components of tourists behaviour and movement through the
contexts of the ordinary world (routine) and the non-ordinary world (during trips).
Jarari’s model is particularly useful when considering the motivating factors and
emotional stages one experiences throughout the process of expectation, revelation and
reflection as part of the touristic experience.

ANIMATION
4
 ORIENTATION VALEDICTION

DECLARATION

REVERSION
EMANCIPATION

REPATRIATION
ON
I

SUBMISSION
SEPARATION
EMISSION EMULSION
CORPORATION OMISSION INCORPORATION

FIGURE 1.0
Leiper’s systematic model illustrating a whole system, interdisciplinary approach for
Jafari’s tourism model based on the springboard metaphor.
Source: Jafari, J. The Structure Of Tourism, in Tourism
studying tourism consists of tourists ­ as an elementary component, three geographical  Marketing
&Management Handbook (1989) Prentice Hall, London, pp.437-442.
elements: traveller generating regions ­ where a tourist’s journey begins and normally 

ends; transit routes (TR) – places where a tourist’s main travelling activity occurs; 

Leiper’s (2004) systematic model illustrating a whole system, interdisciplinary approach

for studying tourism consists of  tourists – as an elementary component; traveller 

generating regions – where a tourist’s journey begins and normally ends; transit 

routes – places where a tourist’s main travelling activity occurs; tourist destination 

regions – places where a tourist’s main visiting activity occurs, and tourism industries 

– as organisational elements i.e. collections of organisations that support tourism. This 

model promotes a cohesive and holistic understanding of the multifaceted nature of 

tourism. However, an apparent weakness is that the procedures for integrating the 

interdisciplinary strands are not vigorous and as such those strands may become obscure

(Leiper 2004: 51, 54, 60).

(Jafari’s 1977 model, Jafari and Ritchie 1981: 23), portraying sixteen disciplines 

around the rim of wheel in which the hub is termed ‘centre of tourism studies’ 

advocates a multidisciplinary approach to the study of tourism. This method is 

beneficial to students as it delivers a wide expanse of knowledge of tourism’s many 

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facets by drawing on the multiple perspectives of a range of disciplines. However, this 

approach can lead to excessive discipline subjectivity, which leads students to believe 

they should be developing their knowledge of a particular discipline whilst their main 

objective is to augment their comprehension of tourism. In addition, there is a risk that 

contributions from certain disciplines will be overemphasised diluted or distorted (Jafari

2000: 179­182). 

A possible method for overcoming or at least reducing the disadvantages associated 

with Leiper’s interdisciplinary and Jafari’s multidisciplinary approaches, is to join the 

two models resulting in the consciousness of a unified approach to the study of tourism, 

figure 1.1. Leiper’s model becomes the hub of the wheel, providing the foundation 

concepts in the delivery of tourism education – becoming a recognised discipline in its 

own right. Jafari’s model continues to provide a multidisciplinary perspective with the 

added benefit of a more holistic approach. An alternative technique in delivering this 

approach would see the various disciplines from Jafari’s model become condensed, with

educators delivering a general rather than specific knowledge and thus diminishing the 

possibility of discipline subjectivity. Postgraduates would then undertake an exhaustive 

analysis of disciplines previously reviewed.

Personal Observations

During 1997 – 2000 the author undertook a journey of the East Coast of Australia,
The Nullarbor Plain and the South West corner of Western Australia. The journey was
broken into three legs: 1997-1998: Sydney, N.S.W. (TGR) via train (TR1) to Brisbane,
Q.L.D. (TDR1) via train (TR2) to Townsville, Q.L.D. (TDR2) and via train (TR3) to
Cairns, Q.L.D. (TDR3). The second leg of the journey: 1998 – 2000 can be described
as: Cairns (TDR3) via motor vehicle (TR4) to Lamington National Park, Q.L.D.
(TDR4) via motor vehicle (TR5) to Broken Hill, N.S.W. (TDR5) via motor vehicle
(TR6) to Streaky Bay S.A. (TDR6) across the Nullarbor Plain via motor vehicle (TR7)
to Cocklebiddy Caves W.A (TDR7) via motor vehicle (TR8) to Esperance W.A. (TDR8)
via motor vehicle (TR9) to Perth (TDR9). The homeward journey, the third leg, across
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the Nullarbor Plain to Sydney whilst involving different (TDRs) involved the same
mode of transport.

Organisations – components of tourism industries utilised by the author before and

during the first leg of the journey included: Katmandu Camping and Apparel; Mountain

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8
Design Climbing Equipment; N.S.W. Country Rail; Brisbane Transit Centre;
Queensland Rail; Brisbane Youth Hostels Australia (YHA); Magnetic Island Ferries,
Coconuts Backpacker Resort, Magnetic Island; Townsville Tourist Information Centre;
Great Barrier Reef Marine Authority; Cairns Tourist Information Centre; Rainbow
Forest Retreat and Cairns City Nightclub.

The second leg of the journey involved the utilisation of services including: revive
and survive rest stops, service stations, tourist information centres, Woolworths Fresh
Food, Broken Hill Caravan Park, Great Australian Bight Cultural Information Centre,
Streaky Bay Caravan Park, Esperance Caravan Park and numerous National Parks.

Whilst the author’s decision to undertake the journey was tinged with sadness due to
the result of personal tragic circumstances, as time progressed and more miles were
covered, the desire for emancipation and total freedom from restraint grew and by the
second leg of the journey, the actual fact of being emancipated helped in the grieving
process. Primitivism in the form of sleeping in a tent, in particular at Cocklebiddy
Caves – a massive underground network of river systems 11 kilometres west of
Cocklebiddy and 5 kilometres east of the highway corridor linking South and Western
Australia proved to be a highlight of the journey. Indeed it was whilst camping on The
Hampton Tableland that the author experienced a similar experience to that described by
(Barth 1964, cited by Chatwin, B. 1989: 220), “a ‘religious’ catharsis, revolutionary in
the strictest sense in that each pitching and breaking of camp represents a new
beginning”.

Internet Sites

The Internet is a public communications system, created by an interconnecting 

network of computers that spans the terrestrial globe. The World Wide Web (WWW) is 

an information service that integrates information that is stored on different computers 

the world over with the ability to combine texts, graphics, sounds, movie clips and 

numerous other multimedia components (Jafari 2000: 327, 316). In terms of educational

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and research value the very nature of the (WWW) provides access to the most extensive

database of electronically stored information in the world. 

Secondary data are data collected and recorded by someone else prior to, and for 

purposes other than, the prevailing needs of the researcher. Secondary data are usually 

historical and do not require access to subjects or respondents. The primary advantage 

of secondary data is that it is almost always less expensive to obtain than primary data. 

An innate disadvantage of secondary data is that such data was not designed to meet the 

researcher’s needs. Researchers must consider and evaluate the pertinence of 

secondary data, figure 1.2, and verify data accuracy wherever possible by crosschecks 

of data from multiple to determine the similarity of independent projects. When data is 

found not to be consistent, researchers should attempt to identify reasons for the 

differences and/or determine which data are most likely to be correct Zikmund (1997, 

144­146).

The Australian Tourism Export Council (ATEC) www.atec.net.au is the national 

peak body of the $17 billion tourism export industry. With over 30 years experience 

(ATEC) has developed a favourable reputation for delivering professional business 

services, industry development initiatives and government lobbying in order to optimise

the business success of its members so that the resulting economic and social impact of 

tourism exports for Australians is maximised. As Australia’s tourism export industry

grows it is reasonable to expect that ATEC’s position within the industry and wider
business community will consolidate and that the organisation will continue to grow in
terms of membership and as a powerbase in terms of influence and ability in petitioning
government in relation to industry issues.

Tourism Australia, (www.tourism.Australia.com) established on 1 July 2004, 

comprising four separate organisations: the Australian Tourist Commission; See 

Australia; the Bureau of Tourism Research and the Tourism Forecasting Council, is the 

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Federal Government statutory authority responsible for International and domestic 

tourism marketing and the delivery of research and forecasts for the tourism sector. The 

key objectives of Tourism Australia are to:

 Influence people to travel to Australia;

 Influence people who travel to Australia throughout Australia;
 Influence Australians to travel throughout Australia, including for events;
 Help foster a sustainable tourism industry in Australia; and

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 Do the data help to answer No
questions set out in the Stop
problem definition?

Yes

Do the data apply to the No

time period of interest?

Yes

DoDo
thethe data
data apply
apply to to
the No
Applicability to population of
of interest?
interest? Can the data be
population
the Project reworked?
Objectives
Yes
Stop
Do other terms and If yes,
No
variable classifications continue
presented apply?

Yes

Are the units of No

measurement
comparable?

Yes

If possible, go to the
original source of the data.

Yes

Is the cost of data No

acquisition worth it? Stop

Yes

Accuracy of Is there a possibility Yes

of bias? Stop
the Data

No

Is using the No No
Can the accuracy of data
data worth Stop
collection be verified?
the risk? Yes (Inaccurate
or unsure)

No Yes (accurate)

Stop Use Data

FIGURE 1.2
Evaluating Secondary Data
Source: Zikmund, W.G. Business Research Methods
(5th ed.), 1997, The Dryden Press, Fort Worth. P.147

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  Help increase the economic benefits to Australia from tourism.

Tourism Australia actively markets to consumers and industry in over 21 countries

around the world with the overall objective of increasing international tourist visitation
and economic growth to Australia. Specific markets have been prioritised to achieve this
aim including Asia – China, Hong Kong, India, Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan
and Thailand; Europe – France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Scandinavia,
Switzerland and the United Kingdom, Japan, and the Americas – Canada and the
United States.

The World Tourism Organisation (www.world-tourism.org.htm) is the foremost

global authority on tourism related agenda and exists primarily to aid all countries in
maximising the positive impacts of tourism and minimising the negative environmental
and sociocultural impacts. The (WTO) operations revolve around and are facilitated by
six departments, The Human Resource Development department – education and
training, The Statistics, Economic Analysis and Market Research department – tourism
statistics and data, The Environment, Planning and Finance department – tourism
development and natural/cultural environments, The Cooperation for Development
department – tourism knowledge and assistance for developing countries, The Quality
of Tourism Development department – quality, competitiveness and sustainable
development of member destinations and Market Intelligence and Promotion
department – industry awareness, tourism trends/forecasting and publishing.

Newspapers

Newspapers are printed publications usually issued daily or weekly, which most
commonly contain: domestic and international news; business – financial, commercial
and trade items; editorial comment; travel and entertainment features and
advertisements. When evaluating content value of newspapers, readers should consider
whether articles are objective – existing independent of the thinking subject, or
subjective, biased thought resulting from a mental construct. Articles related to tourism
in the business section of newspapers often refer to infrastructure development,
financial position and proposed initiatives of national carriers, and government
diplomatic efforts working in alliance with private industry to secure trade with other

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countries. General news sections of newspapers at times refer to environmental impacts
of tourism and details of new industry venture whilst editorial comment often ask
questions as well as purporting a particular point of view. Travel sections of newspapers
contain feature articles espousing the merits of tourist destinations. Newspapers
regularly contain information about social, cultural, physical, economic, political and
technical environments that interact with whole tourism systems.

(McCullough, J. 2006 pp. 15,16.) reports the Queensland, Beattie Labour

Government has launched a concerted effort to muster support within the Q.L.D. cruise
port industry with plans for cruise terminals in Brisbane, the Gold Coast, Townsville
and Cairns. Support for the plans have been expressed by the executive director of the
Infrastructure Association of Queensland, Paul Clauson, who says the strategy would
enhance the economic base of the state and CEO of the Queensland Tourism Industry
Council, Daniel Gschwind, who says cruising has made a very strong comeback over
the past decade as a modern attractive way to see the world. Expressions of interest have
already been lodged from no less than ten consortium and construction groups.

(Easdown, G. 2006a p.31) reported QANTAS has announced the likelihood of

massive job cuts in a drive to slash costs as it seeks “to offset a 58 per cent rise in fuel
prices that left a $37.8 million hole in the airlines first half profit”. Managing director
Geoff Nixon said that all business initiatives were focused on enabling QANTAS to
meet future expenditure commitments and profit projections. The news saw QANTAS
shares slide 2 per cent to $3.96.

The Federal Government will send a senior bureaucrat to Washington to negotiate an

agreement for Virgin Blue to operate back-to-back daily services between Australia and
the US it was revealed today (Easdown, G. 2006b p.39). Last month the Australian
Government blocked Singapore Airlines bid to fly the route leaving the door open for
Virgin Blue to compete with QANTAS as long-haul operators on the trans-Pacific route.

An international survey completed by accounting firm Grant Thornton has found

Australian business owners are taking fewer holidays than their overseas counterparts.
Australians are beginning to emulate the “high stress, low holidays” culture of Asian
economies. French business owners took an average of 27 days leave a year, Australians

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took 13 days of leave a year while Thais averaged four days a year. The survey
indicated stress levels for Australians had increased by 48 per cent since the previous
year (Molina, L. 2006 p.37).

(Hodge, A. 2006 p.5) writes, Tourism, once viewed as an economic saviour of many
rural towns was taking its toll as councils struggled to maintain services on small
budgets. The National Seachange taskforce chief executive Alan Stokes said “It’s not
just an environmental or planning issue. A whole of government approach is required is
required because it impacts on every area you can imagine”. Protecting the
environment, building infrastructure and maintaining community cohesion need to be
considered as well as providing healthcare, education, public transport and employment.

(Daily Mail cited by Weekend Courier Mail 2006 p.19) reports the £300 million
($705 million) Queen Victoria is set to become the shiniest jewel in shipping company
Cunard’s crown. She will boast a three story grand lobby, a museum, conservatory and
6000 book library. The 90,000-tonne liner, being built at the Fincantieri yard in Venice,
will be able to carry more than 2000 passengers and about 900 crew. The 300m-long
vessel will be capable of speeds of more than 23 knots, using up to 10 tonnes of fuel an
hour. Fares will range from £999 to £8679 per person.

Editorial comment (Australian 2006 p.17) acknowledging Australia’s current $18

billion international tourist trade is set to grow to $32 billion by 2014 according to the
Tourism Forecasting Committee doubts the logic of the Federal Governments $360
million, taxpayer financed advertising campaign designed to entice overseas visitors to
Australia with the catchphrase “Where the bloody hell are you?”. According to a
Productivity Commission report released in 2005, total federal, state and local
assistance to tourism has averaged in recent years between $900 million and $1.1
billion. Tourism is a multi-billion dollar industry capable of promoting itself without the
help of a government-run “single desk”.

Travel feature (Chester, R. 2006 p.1) describes the 80km six day adventure of
Tasmanian wilderness between Cradle Mountain and Lake St Clair as one of Australia’s
greatest walks. With three options of how to traverse the Overland Track: do it yourself
staying in your own tent or the public huts found along the track; travel with a guided

15
group, where someone else carries the tents and you stay in the public huts if the
weather turns bad or trek along with Cradle Mountain Huts & Bay of Fire Walks which
has private huts along the track and was recently voted “the country’s best
Eco/Wilderness Adventure Experience”.

Conclusion

The complex nature of tourism is best understood through the concept of whole
tourism systems. There are several fundamental topics in the study of tourism including:
tourists - as an elementary component; places – traveller generating regions, where a
tourist’s journey begins and usually ends, tourist destination regions, where a tourist’s
main visiting activity occurs; transit routes – where a tourist’s main travelling activity
occurs; organisations – which support the activities and provide services to tourists,
together which form whole tourism systems. To understand the effects of tourism it is
necessary to examine social, cultural, economic, physical, political and technical
environments that interact with whole tourism systems. Sources of knowledge in
relation to the study of tourism include research journals, internet sites, newspapers and
personal observations.

REFERENCES

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Better Bloody Work: Why Does The Tourism Industry Need Taxpayer Help? [Opinion].
2006, February 24. The Australian, p.17.

Bodewes, T. 1981, Development off Advanced Tourism Studies in Holland, Annals of

Tourism Research, VIII(1):35-51.

Chatwin, B. 1989, What am I Doing Here, in Nomad Invasions, Jonathon Cape,

London, p. 220.

Easdown, G. 2006a, Feburary 17. QANTAS to Wield Jobs Axe. Courier Mail, p.31.

Easdown, G. 2006b, March 11-12. Virgin Bids for US Air Rights. Weekend Edition
Courier Mail, p.39.

Gilbert, D.C. 1991, Conceptual Isues in the Meaning of Tourism, in Progress in

Tourism, Recreation and Hospitality Management, C.P. Cooper (ed.), vol.2. pp.4-27.

Hodge, A. 2006, January 24. Seachangers See An Area, Then They Change It. The
Australian, p.5

Jafari, J. 1989, The Structure Of Tourism, in Tourism Marketing & Management

Handbook, S.F. Wit & LL. Moutinho, eds, Prentice Hall, London, pp.437-442.

Jafari, J. 2000, The Encyclopedia of Tourism, Routledge, London, pp.327, 629,631

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Leiper, N. 1981, Towards A Cohesive Curriculum in Tourism: The Case for a Distinct
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Leiper, N. 2004, Tourism nagement, pp. 58-60, 160.

Leiper, N. 2004, ‘Four Foundation Concepts and Other Introductory Themes’ in

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SOY OO411 Topic one readings, 2006. Southern Cross University, Lismore.

McCullough, J. 2006, Feburary 13, Beattie in Big Push for Cruise Ports. Courier Mail,
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Molina, L. 2006, Feburary 18, High Stress Culture Catching on Here. Weekend Edition
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Stear, L. 1987, Essential Elements of an Australian-based Tourism Curriculum, in

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[Online]. Available: http://www.atec.net.au/about.htm 

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