WHEY PROCESSING
Contents
Utilization and Products
Demineralization
Utilization and Products
P Jelen, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
ª 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Whey, the greenish translucent liquid obtained from milk
after precipitation of casein, has been viewed until recently
as one of the major disposal problems of the dairy industry.
The biological oxygen demand (BOD) of whey is very high
(40 000 mg kg 1 or more), constituting a major ecological
burden if disposed off as a waste material. Thus, the disposal
practices of the past, including drainage into waste treatment
facilities or spraying onto fields, are currently seldom prac-
ticed. Use of whey as cattle or pig feed is still one of the
significant alternatives to utilization in the human food
chain, now being predominantly favored due to the eco-
nomic opportunities provided by some of the milk nutrients
contained in the whey.
Whey Types and Composition
There are several types of whey, depending mainly on the
processing sequence resulting in casein removal from
fluid milk. The type of whey most often encountered
originates from the manufacture of cheese or certain
industrial casein products, where the processing is based
on coagulating the casein by rennet, an industrial
casein-clotting preparation containing chymosin or
other casein-coagulating enzymes. Since the rennet-
induced coagulation of casein and the subsequent whey
drainage occur at a pH value of approximately 6.5–6.0,
this type of whey is referred to as sweet whey. The second
basic whey type, acid whey, results from processes using
fermentation or addition of organic or mineral acids to
coagulate the casein as in the manufacture of fresh acid-
coagulated cheeses (e.g., Cottage cheese or quark) or most
industrial acid casein.
The main components of both sweet and acid wheys,
after water (which constitutes approximately 93% of
the whey on an ‘as is’ basis), are lactose (approximately
70–72% of the total solids), whey proteins (approximately
8–10%), and minerals (approximately 12–15%). Table 1
gives a more detailed breakdown of these components of
the two basic whey types. The main differences between
the two whey types are in the mineral content, the acidity,
and the composition of the whey protein fraction (WPF).
Although these differences are relatively minor on an ‘as is’
basis, they can have a profound effect on the technological
as well as nutritional properties of the wheys and must be
taken into consideration in applications of the various
whey processing technologies now available to whey pro-
cessors. The acid coagulation approach (using conversion
of some of the lactose in milk to lactic acid by lactic acid
bacteria and/or addition of acidulants such as glucono--
lactone or various acids such as sulfuric, phosphoric,
hydrochloric, citric, or lactic acid) results in substantially
increased acidity (final pH approximately 4.5) necessary
for casein precipitation. At this low pH, the colloidal
calcium contained in the casein micelles in normal milk
is solubilized and partitioned into the whey. On the other
hand, rennet clotting produces a fragment of the -casein
molecule, termed glycomacropeptide (GMP), which ends
up in the whey. Thus, the GMP constitutes approximately
20% of the WPF of sweet, rennet-based wheys but is not
found in acid wheys unless use of rennet was included in
the fresh cheese manufacturing process (as sometimes
happens in the Cottage cheese manufacture for increased
firmness) in addition to the acid coagulation.
Various technological steps used in the pretreatment of
milk before the main processes (such as various thermal
treatments before the casein-clotting operation) may also
influence the composition of the whey resulting from such
731
732 Whey Processing | Utilization and Products

Table 1 Typical composition of sweet and acid whey Table 2 Typical composition of major types of dried whey
(g l 1 whey) products (%, w/w)

Component Sweet whey Acid whey Total

Product type protein Lactose Minerals
Total solids 63.0–70.0 63.0–70.0
Lactose 46.0–52.0 44.0–46.0 Regular whey 12.5 73.5 8.5
Protein 6.0–10.0 6.0–8.0 powder
Calcium 0.4–0.6 1.2–1.6 Demineralized 13.7 75.7 3.5
Phosphate 1.0–3.0 2.0–4.5 (70%) whey
Lactate 2.0 6.4 powder
Chloride 1.1 1.1 Demineralized 15.0 83.0 1.0
(90%) whey
Illustrative data compiled from various sources. powder
Ultrafiltration 1.0 90.0 9.0
permeate powder
milk. Typically, the composition of the mineral fraction may Whey protein 35.0 50.0 7.2
be altered slightly and the content of heat-labile whey ‘concentrate’
proteins may be reduced; these changes may result in further (skim milk
replacer)
alterations in the technological properties of such wheys.
Whey protein 65.0–80.0 4.0–21.0 3.0–5.0
New technological alternatives for processing of dairy concentrate
fluids, including membrane processing by ultrafiltration Whey protein isolate 88.0–92.0 <1 2.0–3.0
(UF) of milk in cheese manufacture or fractionation of
Illustrative data compiled from various sources including data from
the various wheys into various whey-based products, pro- manufacturers.
duce a whey-like residue termed UF permeate. The main
difference between UF permeates and the various whey
types is typically the virtual absence of whey proteins from technological properties, depending on various pretreat-
the permeate. Although technically UF permeate does not ment operations used to handle the original milk or the
fit the definition of whey, it is referred to in this article original whey. Some of the typical dried whey products
where appropriate, as its processing and utilization often are listed in Table 2. Partial (70%) or almost complete
present similar challenges and opportunities as for whey. (90%) demineralization of the whey is an important
pretreatment process differentiating many of the whey
powders (see Whey Processing: Demineralization).
Industrial Technologies Used Dried whey powder can be produced also by roller
in the Processing of Whey and UF (drum)-drying; although roller-drying of whey is not
Permeates easy, the process is much cheaper than spray-drying and
the lower quality of the resulting powder may not be
As a general rule, about 9 l of whey is obtained for every detrimental for all applications. Whey, or nowadays
kg of cheese produced; thus, the volume of whey to be more importantly UF permeate from milk or whey, is
processed, originating from just one typical large-scale the principal raw material for the crystallization of
cheesemaking operation, can exceed 1  106 l day 1. lactose (see Lactose and Oligosaccharides:
Most of the technological alternatives used in specialized Lactose: Chemistry, Properties; Lactose: Production,
whey-processing plants are thus large-scale operations, Applications); the residual, partially or more substan-
some with a capacity to handle up to 107 l of whey daily. tially delactosed whey (‘mother liquor’) constitutes yet
The simplest technology for the conversion of whey to another dried whey product differing in composition
industrially valuable products is drying. Typical traditional from the basic dried unmodified whey. Finally, UF
whey-drying operations consist of evaporation in multistage permeates are also being dried with increasing fre-
vacuum evaporators, followed by spray-drying. The equip- quency, giving yet another modified dried whey
ment used does not differ greatly from other such dairy product consisting primarily of lactose and whey miner-
plant installations but the evaporation and drying conditions als but almost devoid of protein. Until recently, spray-
must be adjusted to accommodate the specific properties of drying was the only technique used for the production of
the whey. In particular, the differences between evaporation dried permeates; however, due to the very low market
or spray-drying of skim milk and whey include the need to value of these powders, the spray-drying of permeates is
precrystallize the lactose in whey before the drying step to uneconomical. Several novel technological approaches
minimize the problems of hygroscopicity, as well as careful to drying of milk or whey permeates have been
manipulation of the heat conditions to minimize problems described in the literature and are available to the indus-
related to heat sensitivity of whey proteins. Dried whey try. In principle, these technologies are based on the
powders can differ rather substantially in composition and production of concentrates with very high total solids

content (about 76%) combined with additional moisture
removal by alternative means, for example, by specially
designed screw conveyors allowing additional evapora-
tion of water while inducing lactose crystallization. The
final drying step is accomplished in a fluidized bed, thus
avoiding the need for the costly spray-drying.
The levels and forms of whey proteins are important
factors differentiating the various dried whey protein pro-
ducts. In contrast to the processes described above, the WPF
can be removed (selectively or totally) from raw whey and
concentrated by using various membrane processes (see
Membrane-based fractionation) giving rise to whey protein
concentrate (WPC), whey protein isolate (WPI), or WPF
products (see Milk Protein Products: Whey Protein
Products). Although products with as little as 35% protein
(produced by partial removal of lactose through crystalliza-
tion or by using simple UF and intended for replacement of
skim milk powder in certain applications) are included under
the term WPC, the more valuable WPC products have at
least 65% protein and the production technology does not
involve any step involving lactose precrystallization. The
highest quality WPI and WPF products are manufactured
using various technologies including diafiltration, electro-
dialysis, ion exchange, nanofiltration, or their combinations.
For the production of almost all whey protein products, the
final step is spray-drying, which should be controlled care-
fully to minimize heat damage of the thermally sensitive
whey proteins. Both spray-drying and especially evaporation
can cause heat damage resulting in loss of solubility and
other functionality defects. Thus, as a preconcentration
step, especially for the production of WPC, WPI, and
WPF products, reverse osmosis or freeze concentration can
be viewed as viable alternatives to traditional thermal
evaporation. The use of reverse osmosis to increase the
capacity of conventional whey evaporators, or even for pre-
concentrating large amounts of whey before transportation
to a central whey processing facility, is quite common in the
whey processing industry.
Utilization of Whey in Industrially
Processed Foods
The preceding discussion focused on industrial large-scale
processes resulting in an array of technological and func-
tional whey ingredients or whey protein products, used
commonly in many processed foods such as spreads, sauces,
dry soups, beverage and similar mixes, cookies and other
bakery products, ice cream, and a myriad of other industrial
food items. Dried whey is a very suitable ‘bulking’ food
ingredient due to its bland taste compatible with many food
processing applications. The heat sensitivity of whey pro-
teins could pose problems in heated liquid food
applications, but in most solid foods this is of no concern.
Similarly, the limited solubility of lactose must be kept in
Whey Processing | Utilization and Products 733
mind when using dried whey in applications leading to
development of supersaturated lactose solutions, for
example, the unfrozen fraction of ice cream. The well
known – but nowadays rarely seen – sensory defect called
sandiness can occur more readily when dried whey is used
as a portion of nonfat milk solids in ice cream formulation.
The various higher value dry whey-based products, listed
in Table 2, are increasingly being used as nutritionally
important components in special dietary products for
infant, geriatric, or sport nutrition. Large amounts of
whey are being processed for use in the various infant
nutrition products, with demineralized whey, lactose, and
modified whey protein products being especially important
in this application. Some of the unique technological prop-
erties of whey protein (in particular the acid solubility,
heat-gelling, and foaming) make the various whey-based
high-protein products ideal for use in acid beverages,
foamed dairy desserts, yogurts, and similar dairy and non-
dairy products. A heat-denatured whey protein powder
termed ‘traditional lactalbumin’ has a very high water-
holding capacity and thus has been shown to be preferable
to the undenatured whey protein in applications such as
protein enrichment of pasta dough. In general, it has been
estimated that of about 10 million tonnes of dried whey
solids produced annually worldwide, over 50% is being
utilized in human foods, with the rest finding less attractive
valorization in animal feeds.
However, liquid unprocessed whey can also be a raw
material for the production of some traditional foods
destined for direct consumer markets. Two such product
classes, whey cheeses and whey beverages, represent the
traditional uses of whey on a small scale, practiced long
before the industrial approach became feasible, and are
still important in some parts of the world.
Whey Beverages
The drinking of whey for therapeutic applications was
already advocated in ancient Greece by Hippocrates.
This and other similar anecdotal comments concerning
the use of whey as a beverage (including even in the
rhyme Little Miss Muffet. . .) illustrate one of the most
obvious, but least industrially advantageous, uses of whey
as a drink, logically paralleling the use of milk, buttermilk,
and other fluid milk products as beverages.
In general, whey beverages have not been overly suc-
cessful with the sophisticated modern consumer, save for a
few rather exceptional instances. Minimally processed
unflavored or modified raw whey is sold in health-food
stores in various countries, especially in Europe, where the
current organic food movement may result in increased
opportunities in this regard. Occasional reports on whey-
based beverages marketed for special occasions (e.g., an
‘official Olympic Games drink’ in 1984 in Sarajevo) can
734 Whey Processing | Utilization and Products

be found in the literature. Local markets often feature whey concentrates or as dry powders for home reconstitution
beverages produced by dairy companies looking for new can be occasionally found on regular market shelves,
outlets for their surplus whey; unfortunately, these attempts including even suitably flavored plain dry whey powder.
are typically short-lived, often due to the lack of any serious Various ‘‘miracle protein’’ milk shake formulae based on
product development effort that is necessary preceding the isolated – even hydrolyzed – whey proteins are com-
launch of any such new product. The rather unpleasant monly marketed as products for body builders, active
flavor of raw whey, the origins of which have never been sport enthusiasts, and other health-food applications.
satisfactorily explained, is a major deterrent limiting the
acceptance of these products by contemporary consumers,
especially in view of the fierce competition of other
flavorful and inexpensive thirst-quenching beverages. Whey Cheeses
The only whey beverage with a record of lasting success
is the Swiss product Rivella, which in fact uses highly Whey cheeses have suffered a somewhat similar lack of
modified whey as only a minor ingredient at 33% total international marketing success; however, in a few
volume (the remaining 67% being added water). Other localities, whey cheeses belong among the most tradi-
locally successful products have existed on some European tional and most important foods. Two types of whey
national markets (Austria, Finland, The Netherlands, and cheeses are recognized in the textbooks and by the
Switzerland) for some time; however, several known inter- International Dairy Federation. The main differences
national marketing attempts with these products have failed. between the production technologies for these two pro-
The most typical approach to whey beverage development ducts are illustrated schematically in Figure 1. The
is combination with fruit juices, especially citrus fruits, more widespread of the two is the Italian-type whey
which are most compatible with the flavor characteristic of cheese Ricotta; similar products are also popular in
whey. This is especially true in the case of acid whey, which Portugal, Turkey, and other localities. These products
is more suitable for this application due to its high content of are essentially a heat–acid-coagulated whey protein
lactic acid and calcium in comparison to sweet whey. Some paste, sometimes referred to as ‘whey quark’
of the fruit flavors used in commercial whey beverages (see Cheese: Acid- and Acid/Heat Coagulated
include mango, passion fruit, grapefruit, lemon, orange, Cheese). The processing technology is quite simple,
pear, or their combinations. Other approaches documented consisting of heating whey (often mixed with up to
in the literature include the production of yogurt drinks 25% added skim milk) to at least 90  C for a few
containing a substantial whey component, or fermentation minutes, resulting in heat-induced coagulation of whey
of liquid WPCs from sweet whey to produce a ‘thin sour proteins (and any caseins if present due to the added
milk’, as the stability of the whey protein at low pH does not milk); the coagulum is then separated by suitable
lead to the clotted appearance of traditional sour milk mechanical means. The traditional batch manufacturing
products. Milk or whey UF permeates are suitable for the procedures are cumbersome and involve much
production of isotonic sport drinks or beverages destined for
replenishment of the mineral balance after vigorous physical
activity; several such products have been described in
commercial product surveys.
Attempts to produce whey beverages with high whey
protein content have been recorded in the literature and
are often seen in various food trade exhibitions, with little
or no indication of commercial viability. It may be that
with the presently increasing reputation of whey proteins
as nutraceutically important food components, the devel-
opment of such products will be intensified. The heat
sensitivity of whey proteins is one important problem
encountered in manufacturing these products with a
demand for extended shelf life. However, since the resis-
tance of whey proteins to heat-induced coagulation in the
absence of casein increases dramatically at pH below 3.9,
it may be possible to formulate high whey protein drinks,
even for ultra-high temperature (UHT) processing.
Alternatively, various nonthermal processes now being
studied actively for various food processing uses can be
considered. Whey beverages offered as liquid Figure 1 Alternative processes for manufacturing whey cheeses.

hand labor, in particular in the separation of the heat-
coagulated, fragile whey protein curd. Mechanized and
automated continuous systems are now in existence and
these result in increased economy, improved shelf life,
and better sensory qualities of the final product.
In contrast to the Ricotta-type whey cheese involving
primarily the protein fraction of whey (and thus not offer-
ing a solution to the whey disposal problem, which is
especially pressing for the small-scale cheese manufac-
turers), the Norwegian-style whey cheese Mysost utilizes
all the whey components and leaves no residue other than
water vapor. The principle of the Mysost cheese process is
even simpler than that for the manufacture of Ricotta, as
Mysost is essentially highly concentrated whey to which
some other components (such as milk fat, cream, or goats’
milk in the most traditional version) have been added
(Table 3). The main technological problem encountered
in the manufacture of Mysost cheese is the crystallization
of lactose in the highly concentrated whey-based paste
related to the low solubility of lactose. Thus, a ‘controlled
crystallization’ step, consisting of rapid cooling of the hot
paste with intensive stirring, from about 95  C (the tem-
perature of the last phase of the evaporation process) to
below 65  C, is the most essential aspect of the otherwise
routine evaporation process carried out in two steps. After
preconcentration in traditional dairy evaporators, the final
operation involves a special kettle, ‘gryta’, in which batch
evaporation is carried out at an elevated temperature
needed to reduce the viscosity of the thick paste. This
high temperature tends to minimize the uncontrolled
crystallization of lactose and is the main reason for the
typical brown color of the product due to the pronounced
Maillard reaction. The subsequent rapid cooling step in
scraped-surface agitators/coolers promotes formation of
very small lactose crystals, thus minimizing the develop-
ment of pronounced grittiness/sandiness of the final
product. There are two basic types of Mysost – sliceable
or spreadable – available in Norway, its country of origin
and still the only significant market for these products; the
two main types are differentiated principally by the moist-
ure content and encompass further variations differing in
the fat content, inclusion of some goats’ milk for a stronger
Table 3 Compositional characteristics of whey cheeses
(%, w/w)
Cheese Moisture Fat Protein Lactose
Ricotta
Whole milk 72.2 12.7 11.2 3.0
Whey 82.5 0.5 11.3 1.5
Mysost
Sliceable 17.4 28.3 11.5 36.2
Spread 26.6 3.6 7.7 46.2
Illustrative data compiled from various sources.
Whey Processing | Utilization and Products 735
taste, intensity of the brown color development, and
sometimes inclusion of sweetening agents or other
nondairy ingredients such as hazelnuts or chocolate.
Because the relatively simple Mysost process technol-
ogy leaves no residue other than the evaporated water, its
principle is much more useful than that of the Ricotta
process as a means of whey disposal, particularly for small
cheese manufacturers. However, significant product
development efforts would be necessary to modify the
sensory profiles of the basic Norwegian products to suit
the tastes of markets outside Norway, as demonstrated in
several consumer studies conducted in Canada and
elsewhere.
Utilization of Whey as a Fermentation
Substrate for Food or Nonfood
Applications
Although whey and whey-like UF permeates originate
from milk and contain about 50% of valuable milk
nutrients, the profitable utilization of these materials
for human nutrition continues to be a problem because
of the sheer volume of these by-products of conven-
tional or modern cheesemaking. In numerous research
reports and several major industrial projects, whey – due
to its suitable content of a fermentable carbohydrate,
lactose – was used as a medium for the production of
various food-grade or nonfood products using microbial
fermentations. Among the most successful current uses
of whey in this regard are the plants producing food-
grade or industrial alcohol in New Zealand, the United
States, Ireland, and possibly other countries; one of the
best examples of such use is the Original Bailey’s Cream
Liqueur from Ireland or most of the liqueurs produced
in New Zealand. In the past, whey was an important
substrate for conversion into Torula spp. yeast biomass
used in animal feeds, or for other fermentation-based,
lactose-derived products such as antibiotics, lactic acid,
or other microbial metabolites. The current preoccupa-
tion with organically produced foods and natural food
ingredients may signal a possible opportunity for revi-
talization of some of these processes, abandoned in the
past due to unfavorable economic feasibility in compar-
ison to direct chemical synthesis or using other
fermentable substrates. Use of whey for the propagation
of lactic cultures for cheese manufacturing is well estab-
lished in many countries. Whey can be used also for the
generation of biogas; several such installations where
biogas is used as an energy source in the same cheese
plant at which whey is produced are in operation in
Switzerland and possibly other countries. More recently,
whey or whey permeates have been shown to be suitable
fermentation substrates for the production of
736 Whey Processing | Utilization and Products

bacteriocins such as nisin, or for other valuable food glucose and galactose. Most of the industrial lactose
ingredients using specific strains of various lactic acid hydrolysis processes developed for the production of
bacteria. sweetening syrups for food uses (such as in ice cream)
Lactose is not fermented by many microorganisms,
necessitating careful selection of the cultures for many
of the possible fermentation applications. Uses of whey as
a raw material for the production of alcoholic beverages,
such as whey wine or whey beer, have been described in
using immobilized -galactosidase enzyme reactors
have failed mainly because of the high cost of such
technology. Alternative low-cost processes, based, for
example, on the use of mechanically disrupted
common dairy bacteria producing high amounts of
the literature, but because lactose is not fermented by
common yeasts without special pretreatments, as well as
other reasons, these attempts at profitable whey utiliza-
tion have not resulted in lasting success. However, since
the key to new approaches to utilization of whey is to find
new avenues for conversion or other utilization applica-
tions of lactose, the fermentation route will undoubtedly
continue to be explored. One of the currently active
-galactosidase, or on other principles, continue to be
investigated. In general, the lactose hydrolysis process,
which seems to be grossly underutilized by the indus-
try today, could have a major impact on expanding the
dairy markets for lactose- intolerant consumers not
only for the processing and utilization of whey, but
also for uses in other dairy and especially nondairy
foods (see Enzymes Exogenous to Milk in Dairy
industrial research topics is the conversion of lactose to
oligosaccharides, either by fermentation with whole
microorganisms or by applications of crude enzymatic
extracts of suitable bacterial cultures. Similarly, produc-
tion of exopolysaccharides from lactose is increasingly
being used in the production of yogurt; it is likely that
this route could be explored in large-scale whey fermen-
tations as well.
Nutritional and Nutraceutical Aspects
of Whey Utilization
Technology: -D-Galactosidase, Lactose and
Oligosaccharides: Lactose: Chemistry, Properties;
Lactose: Production, Applications).
The main focus of interest regarding the nutritional/
nutraceutical properties of whey is currently centered
on the WPF. Today, whey protein products are the main
ingredients in most protein formula supplements used
by bodybuilders and active athletes worldwide. Whey
protein products have been one of the principal ingre-
dients in infant feeding formulae for some time, often
requiring additional treatments such as enzymatic
hydrolysis to minimize the allergenicity potential of
The new approach to developing technically and eco-
nomically feasible uses of whey and whey-like products
lies in finding some unique properties of at least some
of the main whey components. The current trend in the
food field, focusing on the health-promoting aspects of
traditional or novel foods, has opened up new possibi-
lities for whey-based products. Whey contains many
minor milk components that are known (or thought)
to have physiologically important functions. Some of
these compounds are found especially among whey
proteins; these include minor whey protein components
such as lactoferrin or lactoperoxidase, the immunoglo-
bulins, and even major constituents of the WPF such as
the GMP or bovine serum albumin. Some of the
mineral compounds, especially the calcium phosphate
complex, are now also being marketed as ‘natural’ milk-
based food ingredients. Even lactose is being
reexamined for its unique nutritional properties,
including the purported enhancement of calcium
absorption or its unique disaccharide composition,
thus serving as a raw material for the production of
prebiotic compounds such as galacto-oligosaccharides
(see Lactose and Oligosaccharides: Lactose: Galacto-
Oligosaccharides) or heterooligosaccharides. The lim-
ited sweetness of lactose can be enhanced by
hydrolysis into the two lactose monosaccharides,
some of the components such as -lactoglobulin. Most
recently, whey protein and/or its main fractions have
been investigated for many unique health-enhancing or
disease-combating properties, including immunopoten-
tiation through increased intracellular glutathione
synthesis; role in reducing cancer cell proliferation;
counteracting the wasting syndrome in HIV-positive
individuals; antimicrobial properties of some of the
minor whey proteins; and other effects. WPIs advertised
to supply some of these benefits are now being marketed
even as dietary supplements at highly inflated prices.
Hydrolysates of whey proteins have been shown to con-
tain bioactive peptides effective in blood pressure
reduction, and several industrial products are now on
the market.
Extraction of some functional components from whey
has become a major industrial activity for specialized
whey processors, although in most cases, the physiologi-
cal functionality in human subjects still awaits
confirmation from well-controlled clinical trials. Of
course, manufacture of any such isolated functional pro-
duct from the liquid whey will not alleviate requirements
for further processing of the residual by-product. As many
of the components with documented or proposed unique
functionalities are present in the whey in very minute
amounts, the need to process the bulk of the residual
 Whey Processing | Utilization and Products 737

whey stream will remain a major challenge accompanying See also: Cheese: Acid- and Acid/Heat Coagulated
any such novel development. Cheese. Enzymes Exogenous to Milk in Dairy
Surprisingly, by far the most abundant whey compo-
nent, water, seems to have been neglected in the
innumerable research attempts to find new profitable
uses of whey and/or its components. The only well-
known use of whey water is as a condensate from the
evaporators, mainly for rinsing and equipment washing
purposes, but not for productive economically advanta-
geous applications. As one potential such use suggested in
the past, the adjustment of the mineral content of the
whey water by suitable membrane processing could lead
to various pharmaceutical uses for cleansing solutions
mimicking the human body fluids.
The approach to whey processing and utilization
has changed in the recent past, from considering whey
a bothersome waste to capitalizing on the opportu-
nities that the whey and whey-like products present
for the innovative technically advanced processor.
However, for traditional cheese manufacturers, the
problems of dealing with large volumes of whey or
whey permeate continue to pose difficulties, determin-
ing the overall success of their main industrial activity.
Nowadays, industrial processing of whey is a highly
specialized, technologically advanced segment of the
dairy industry requiring up-to-date knowledge and
focused attention.
Technology: -D-Galactosidase. Lactose and
Oligosaccharides: Lactose: Chemistry, Properties;
Lactose: Galacto-Oligosaccharides; Lactose:
Production, Applications. Milk Protein Products:
Membrane-Based Fractionation; Whey Protein Products.
Whey Processing: Demineralization.
Further Reading
Anonymous (2001) The importance of whey and whey components in
food and nutrition. Proceedings of the International Whey Conference,
411pp. Munich, Germany. Hamburg, Germany: B. Behr’s Verlag.
IDF (1998) Whey: Proceedings of the 2nd International Whey
Conference, 367pp. Chicago, IL, USA, 27–29 October 1997.
Brussels, Belgium: International Dairy Federation.
Jelen P (1999) Whey: Composition, properties, processing, and uses.
In: Francis FJ (ed.) Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology,
2nd edn., Vol. 4, pp. 2652–2661. New York: John Wiley.
Jelen P (2009) Whey-based functional beverages. In: Paquin P (ed.)
Functional and Speciality Beverage Technology, pp. 259–280.
Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd.
Modler HW (2000) Milk processing. In: Nakai S and Modler HW (eds.) Food
Proteins: Processing Applications, pp. 1–88. New York: Wiley-VCH.
Onwulata C and Huth P (2008) Whey Processing, Functionality and
Health Benefits, 416pp. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
Sienkiewicz T and Riedel C-L (1990) Whey and Whey Utilization, 379pp.
Gelsenkirchen, Germany: Verlag Th. Mann.
Zadow JG (ed.) (1992) Whey and Lactose Processing, 489pp. London:
Elsevier Applied Science.