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Ó L. Lihui et al., Published by EDP Sciences, 2014
DOI: 10.1051/mfreview/2014007
Available online at:
http://mfr.edp-open.org
Lang Lihui, Liu Kangning*, Gaoshen Cai, Xiying Yang, Chan Guo, and Guoliang Bu
School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
Abstract – Lightweight materials, such as ultra-high strength steel, titanium alloys and aluminum alloys, are used
widely in aerospace and automobile industries leading to increasing demands for advanced forming technologies.
Recently many innovative sheet- and tube-forming methods have been proposed by researchers and R&D facilities
around the word. These methods can greatly improve the formability of materials with low plasticity and can produce
complex-shaped parts with good surface qualities. This review aims at providing an insight into the latest developments
of particular sheet- or tubular-metal forming process and shows basic applications in modern industry.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2 L. Lihui et al.: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9
and the BMW X6 has 32% of its body and closure structures
composed of AHSS [16]. Estimates from Ducker Worldwide
indicate that the automobile industry will see an annual increase
in AHSS of about 10% through to 2020 [17].
Figure 4. Sheet hydroforming process [19]. (a) hydraulic deep drawing, (b) conventional sheet hydroforming.
Figure 5. Application of sheet hydroforming (SHF) [18]. (a) Alfa Romeo hood, (b) Maybach roof.
Fq
Rc Rc
Fa
Pi
2. Special controlling parameters are needed in the process Tube hydroforming has many advantages [21, 22] such as
and these parameters have to be acquired by car manufac- part consolidation, weight reduction, improved part strength.
turers before application in commercialized production. The process was first used in the automobile field for non-
However, the optimized data is not easy to obtain, this structural components, such as exhaust and intake systems or
being the key point in making full use of the technique. cooling pipes (see Figure 7), since hydroforming is able to fab-
ricate very complex part in a single operation, therefore reduc-
Figure 6 presents a schematic diagram of a typical tube hy- ing assembly cost and weight. Applying this process to
droforming process. A seamless tube or a welded tube is used structural components is a big challenge, but due to the R&D
to form the shape of the die cavity by internal pressure with the investment of the automobile industry, many parts, such as
corresponding movements of the side punches. suspension frames, A-pillars and engine cradles, have been
4 L. Lihui et al.: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9
(a)
(b)
Conventional Hvdroformed Figure 13. Formed aluminum boxes [25]. (a) Using 5754-O at room
Figure 10. Comparison between a conventional A-pillar (left) and a temperature (left) and 250 °C (right). (b) Using 6016-T4 at room
hydroformed A-pillar (right) [18]. temperature (left) and 175 °C (right).
successfully developed (see Figures 8 and 9) which not only project and successfully produced the prototype of an A-pillar
have the characteristic of being of light weight but also maintain reinforcement realized by bending and hydroforming a conical
the same structural performance. tube (see Figure 10).
Among these, one of the first research programs on this In addition to the automotive industry, hydroforming has
application was carried out in the early 2000 s as an EU-funded also gained growing interest in the aerospace industry in the
L. Lihui et al.: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9 5
Figure 15. A schematic diagram of VPF [26]: (1) medium injection cylinder; (2) upper die; (3) blank sheet; (4) viscous medium; (5) die;
(6) medium outlet cylinder; (7) blank holder cylinder.
6 L. Lihui et al.: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9
Figure 16. SPF parts formed in VPF tooling [30]. (a) AKDQ steel, (b) Aluminum alloy 6111-T4, (c) Inco 718.
Figure 17. Parts obtained in the bulging experiment [32]. (a) Viscous medium bulging part, (b) polyurethane bulging part, (c) steel
bulging part.
rd Medium
Sheet thickness
Die
Heatable blankholder
Insulation plate
d
Dw
Cooling plate
Figure 20. Schematic diagram of deep drawing and experimental
equipment of AZ31B magnesium alloy [36]: (a) Diagram of deep Medium reservoir
drawing, (b) experimental equipment of deep drawing.
Punch
Figure 21. Deep drawing workpiece and contours band of Figure 23. The first superplastically formed bubble [41].
thickness [36].
metal blank material, on the technique (see Figure 16). Shulkin simulation and experiment. Contrast experiments of bulging
et al. [31] introduced an eight-point BHF control system to an tests with three kinds of pressure-carrying media, viscous med-
experimental VPF machine and studied the formability by both ium, polyurethane and steel, was studied by Wang et al. [32],
8 L. Lihui et al.: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9
Figure 27. The use of superplastic forming-diffusion bonding to reduce the fuselage part count in F-15E aft fuselage (blats SPF-DB) showing
(a-left) before and (b-right) after SPF-DF [46].
Figure 28. The titanium fan blade for Trent 900 engine.
monolithic component, without the need for welding or riveting
parts together. Moreover, the components made by the SPF pro-
cess can contain very little residual stress and have no spring-
back [44]. The technology for SPF with aluminum alloys has
progressed significantly in recent years. More often a non-
planar clamp line tooling arrangement comprising an upper
and a lower tool is used to replace planar tools to manufacture
complex parts with curving edges (see Figure 25).
Perhaps aircraft manufacturing companies may have the
most interest in this technique. The first SPF aluminum com-
ponent fabricated by Boeing for civil aircraft was in 1992
[45], shown in Figure 26. Up to now, the emphasis at Boeing
has focused on developing applications for the 5083 alloy
because of its non-heat-treatable property, and many parts
such as the 737 wing-tip light housing, the 767 moisture
Figure 29. The 2006 limited series reproduction of the 1954 classic shroud, etc. [44] are manufactured in the SPF process, to save
Jaguar C-Type [43]. both cost and weight. SPF technology is often used along
with diffusion bonding (SPF/DB) to further enhance the form-
ing ability. After applying the SPF/DB process in building the
are usually non-ferrous metals such as: aluminum alloy, F-15E fighter, it is estimated that about 726 parts and 10,000
titanium alloy and magnesium alloy [43]. fasteners are eliminated (Figure 27). The SPF process also
In general, the SPF process can produce parts with complex made the wide-chord hollow fan blade possible in aero-
geometry and thus replace multi-piece assemblies with one engines (see Figure 28).
10 L. Lihui et al.: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9
(a)
F F
F Impact forming Hydroforming F
energy energy
Binder force
Hydrofroming pressure
Boss Boss
(b) F F
F F
Hydroforming
energy
(c) F F
F F
Impact forming
energy
Boss Boss
Figure 33. Formed part by IHF process.
Figure 31. Steps of impact hydroforming technology [50].
(a) Preparation before forming. (b) The hydroforming step. (c) The
impact forming step.
Process principle
After forming
The promotion of the SPF process is limited in the automo- Before forming clamping Blank Tool
bile industry and only niche markets, including specialist vehi-
cles and limited-series sports cars, are suitable for SPF
applications [47]. Figure 29 shows the 2006 limited-series
reproduction of the 1954 classic Jaguar C-Type in which the Partial die
SPF process is applied [43]. The reasons why the SPF process α
is not suitable for Production cars are listed below:
Sheet
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 35. Four categories of AISF process [55]. (a) Single point incremental forming; (b) Incremental forming with counter tools; (c) Two
point incremental forming (partial die); (d) Two point incremental forming (full die).
Today the materials used for the SPF process are not limited as liquid medium fills the whole die cavity and establishes well-
to metal alloys. Non-metal materials, such as superplastic distributed pressure [50].
ceramics [47] (see Figure 30) and glassy metals [49], also dem-
onstrate their ability in the SPF process.
3.6. Asymmetric incremental sheet forming (AISF)
3.5. Impact hydroforming method (IHF) The Asymmetric Incremental Sheet Forming (AISF) pro-
cess was first described by Mason in 1978 [52] and was devel-
The innovative method of impact hydroforming (IHF) was oped mainly for the needs of the low volume production of
proposed by Lang et al. [50] to meet the requirements of form- sheet-metal parts. In the AISF process, a metal sheet is placed
ing complex parts with small features which are very common in the tooling and clamped at the edges, then a tool moves fol-
in the automotive and aircraft industries. In the process, most of lowing the required shape in space under CNC control by a suc-
the geometrical features are formed by hydroforming (see cession of ‘‘planar’’ contours or a single ‘‘spiral’’ contour so
Figure 31b) and some small fillet radius features are rapidly that the part is obtained as the result of accumulated localized
reshaped by high intensity impact energy (see Figure 31c) in plastic deformations [53]. The AISF process (see Figure 34)
a very short time. They also designed an IHF test setup (see is similar to the spinning process but, with the absence of work-
Figure 32) to conduct experiments into the process (see piece rotation, asymmetric components can be manufactured by
Figure 33). the independent controlling of the X, Y and Z axis movements.
The original idea of impulsive pressure forming can be One significant advantage of this technology is the ability to
traced back into the 1960s [50], thus the IPF process can be form asymmetric shapes at low cost, without the need of expen-
viewed as a developed method in combination with hydroform- sive dies.
ing. Moreover, compared with traditional hydroforming meth- Basically, two main variations of conventional AISF are
ods, impact hydroforming technology can greatly improve the distinguished: ‘‘single point incremental forming’’ (SPIF) and
forming speed and the forming accuracy of sheet-metal compo- ‘‘two point incremental forming’’ (TPIF) [54]. Figure 35 shows
nent. The loading is quite short – less than 10 ms – and strict the different configurations that are included in the group of
sealing is not required for the equipment. Moreover, the unifor- ASIF techniques. In the SPIF process, the blank edge is
mity of wall thickness of the components can also be assured, clamped without any further support except for the forming tool
12 L. Lihui et al.: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9
Figure 36. Shapes used to demonstrate the ability of the process and for experiments [60].
(see Figure 35a) [55]; whilst Figure 35b presents a special AISF Shapes used to demonstrate the abilities of the process are
process with counter tools. Up to now, considerable achieve- shown in Figure 36 [60]. Now the AISF process has been used
ments of this process have been made by Kim and Yang for designs that were made as Rapid Prototypes for the automo-
[56], Leach et al. [57], and Felici et al. [58]. In the TPIF process tive industry [61] (see Figure 37) and the medical industry [62]
(also called the backward bulge method by Matsubara [59]), (see Figure 38).
there may be a simple support or a partial or full die (see
Figures 35c and 35d). Both symmetric and asymmetric shapes
can be fabricated using the TPIF or SPIF processes. The config- 4. Fundamental research for special sheet
uration shown in Figures 35c and 35d are usually associated and tube forming
with machines dedicated to the incremental forming process,
and those in Figures 35a and 35b are usually modified in a In addition to the specific methods of implementing these
CNC milling machine [60]. special sheet and tube forming processes, emphasis has also
As mentioned above, the major advantage of asymmetric been paid on the fundamental research concerning those tech-
incremental forming is the property of making asymmetric parts niques, such as the deformation mechanism, forming limit
quickly and economically, without using expensive dies. study, macro-deformation and micro-structure evolution of the
L. Lihui et al.: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9 13
forming process. All the work was done in order to further superimposed hydrostatic pressure without affecting work-
enhance the formability and help to obtain the optimum pro- hardening; the increase of sheet metal limit strains for any strain
cessing parameters. path under superimposed hydrostatic pressure has also been
observed.
Fuchs [64] found that the forming limit of tube can be
4.1. Mechanism of the HF process improved remarkably by applying liquid pressure to the inside
and outside of the tube simultaneously. Cui et al. [65] designed
It is widely believed that the main reason why the hydro- a special experimental setup (see Figure 40) for double-sided
forming process greatly improves the formability of the material tube hydroforming; the result shows that increase of external
is the introduction of through-thickness normal stress which pressure has an effect on the fraction of grain boundaries, and
causes superimposed hydrostatic pressure on the sheet metal. on the number and size of the microvoids in the transition zone,
Wu et al. [63] carried out a detailed analysis of uniaxial ten- and thus increases the critical effective strain in the transition
sion under superimposed hydrostatic pressure (see Figure 39) zone. Liu et al. [66] simulated the effect of through-thickness
and demonstrated that the superimposed hydrostatic pressure normal stress on the sheet formability using the finite element
lowers the true stress level at yielding by the amount of the software based on the ductile fracture criterion.
14 L. Lihui et al.: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9
CAD model
Real model Laser scanner Virtual model
Production
Request for an
ankle support
Shape embedding
CAD/CAM
interface
4.2. Mechanism of the SPF process The asymmetric single- and two-point incremental sheet
forming processes are still in their infancy. Much research work
The deformation mechanism of fine-grain aluminum alloys remains to be done and to do this appropriate design of shapes
is generally accepted as grain-boundary-sliding (GBS) creep, (see Figure 36) need to be developed for the tests of FLDs,
which supplies a high strain-rate sensitivity for successful com- springback and roughness.
mercial superplastic forming operations [69, 70]. Aluminum Jackson and Allwood [73] conducted special tests similar to
alloy 5083 is the most common material in SPF operations those designed by Kalpakcioglu [74] using brazed plates in
and many researches have been focused on it. which a grid pattern was machined onto the cross-section of
L. Lihui et al.: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9 15
Figure 41. Effect of normal stress on shifting the FLDs for DP600
[67] (S is normalized normal stress). Figure 42. Hydraulic bulging machine [68].
a half-plate (see Figure 45), which was then formed before Young and Jeswiet [76] used more than one shape to
being separated by heating. The deformation pattern of SPIF, develop a non-traditional FLD for 1.21 mm thick AA 3003-0
TPIF and pressing was observed and it was revealed that the formed by the AISF process. The non-traditional FLD could
deformation mechanisms of both SPIF and TPIF are increasing provide the designer with an additional method of judging if
stretching and shear in the radial-axial plane (perpendicular to a design can be made in one pass with AISF. (The boundary
the tool direction) and shear in the tool direction. Among these, for safe forming is shown by the dashed line in Figure 46.) Both
shear in the tool direction, which is likely to be a result of fric- Filice et al. [77] and Young [76] have found the same tendency
tion between the tool and workpiece, is the most significant of the boundary slope in the composite FLD.
strain component. Silva et al. [75] studied the influence of pro- Surface roughness is a major concern in a final product.
cess variables such as the tool radius to propose a new unified In AISF the incremental step size, Dz, is the major factor in
view on formability limits in the principal strain space and iden- determining surface roughness [78, 79] which is shown in
tified a critical threshold for the ratio between the thickness of Figure 47. Junk et al. [79] also studied the effect of pitch Dz
the sheet and the radius of the tool that distinguishes between and tool radius upon surface roughness and found the interrela-
fracture with and without previous necking. tionship between these parameters in the AISF process.
16 L. Lihui et al.: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9
(a) (b)
Brazing
Forming
(d)
(c)
Separation
Figure 45. Schematic diagram of method for measuring through-thickness deformation by Jackson et al [73]. (a) Copper plate with gridded
cross-section; (b) Plate with brazed joint; (c) Formed plate; (d) Separated plate with distorted grid pattern.
The springback effect is the main cause of the dimensional found the FE model was in good agreement with experimental
accuracy problems in the AISF process and has been widely data (see Figure 48). Several strategies have been proposed to
investigated by several authors [80–83] Lasunon and Knight overcome accuracy problems such as systems with flexible pro-
[80] developed a model to compare the accuracy of single-point grammable back support structures [82] and systems with a
incremental forming and double-point incremental forming and localized heating device [83].
L. Lihui et al.: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9 17
5. Conclusions
Dh2
Lightweight materials such as ultra-high-strength steel,
Dx1
Material titanium alloys and aluminum alloys are used widely to help
ridge Dz1 to achieve the goal of emissions- and energy-reduction. In this
review, recent developments on some particular sheet forming
methods and their forming mechanisms (HF, VPF, SGMF,
f Dh1 SPF/DB, IHF and AISF) are critically summarized with the
objective of evaluating the different research results and indicat-
ing the current applications in the aerospace and automotive
Figure 47. illustration of how the pitch size, Dz, influences
roughness [60].
industries.
In general, some of these techniques have been used exten-
sively to fabricate hard-to-form and complex-shaped compo-
nents, i.e. hydroforming and superplastic forming processes,
on the occasions where conventional forming methods cannot
fulfill the requirements of the manufacturers. Some other tech-
niques remain at the stage of laboratory research and need to be
refined before spreading into modern industries.
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Cite this article as: Lihui L, Kangning L, Cai G, Yang X, Guo C & Bu G: A critical review on special forming processes and
associated research for lightweight components based on sheet and tube materials. Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 9.